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Serous membrane
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Serous membrane
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Serous membrane
Stomach. (Serosa is labeled at far right, and is colored yellow.)
Details
PrecursorMesoderm
Identifiers
Latintunica serosa
MeSHD012704
FMA9581
Anatomical terminology
This article is one of a series on the
Gastrointestinal wall
General structure
Specific
Organs
Serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity and reflects back to cover the heart—much the same way that an underinflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist.[1]

The serous membrane (or serosa) is a smooth epithelial membrane of mesothelium lining the contents and inner walls of body cavities, which secrete serous fluid to allow lubricated sliding movements between opposing surfaces. The serous membrane that covers internal organs (viscera) is called visceral, while the one that covers the cavity wall is called parietal. For instance the parietal peritoneum is attached to the abdominal wall and the pelvic walls.[2] The visceral peritoneum is wrapped around the visceral organs. For the heart, the layers of the serous membrane are called parietal and visceral pericardium. For the lungs they are called parietal and visceral pleura. The visceral serosa of the uterus is called the perimetrium. The potential space between two opposing serosal surfaces is mostly empty except for the small amount of serous fluid.[3]

The Latin anatomical name is tunica serosa. Serous membranes line and enclose several body cavities, also known as serous cavities, where they secrete a lubricating fluid which reduces friction from movements. Serosa is entirely different from the adventitia, a connective tissue layer which binds together structures rather than reducing friction between them. The serous membrane covering the heart and lining the mediastinum is referred to as the pericardium, the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and surrounding the lungs is referred to as the pleura, and that lining the abdominopelvic cavity and the viscera is referred to as the peritoneum.

Structure

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Serous membranes have two layers. The parietal layers of the membranes line the walls of the body cavity (pariet- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of the membrane covers the organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space, or cavity.[4]

Visceral and parietal layers

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Each serous membrane is composed of a secretory epithelial layer and a connective tissue layer underneath.

  • The epithelial layer, known as mesothelium, consists of a single layer of avascular flat nucleated cells (simple squamous epithelium) which produce the lubricating serous fluid. This fluid has a consistency similar to thin mucus. These cells are bound tightly to the underlying connective tissue.
  • The connective tissue layer provides the blood vessels and nerves for the overlying secretory cells, and also serves as the binding layer which allows the whole serous membrane to adhere to organs and other structures.

For the heart, the layers of the serous membrane are called the parietal pericardium, and the visceral pericardium (sometimes called the epicardium). Other parts of the body may also have specific names for these structures. For example, the serosa of the uterus is called the perimetrium.

Schematic diagram of an organ invaginating into a serous cavity

The pericardial cavity (surrounding the heart), pleural cavity (surrounding the lungs) and peritoneal cavity (surrounding most organs of the abdomen) are the three serous cavities within the human body. While serous membranes have a lubricative role to play in all three cavities, in the pleural cavity it has a greater role to play in the function of breathing.

The serous cavities are formed from the intraembryonic coelom and are basically an empty space within the body surrounded by serous membrane. Early in embryonic life visceral organs develop adjacent to a cavity and invaginate into the bag-like coelom. Therefore, each organ becomes surrounded by serous membrane - they do not lie within the serous cavity. The layer in contact with the organ is known as the visceral layer, while the parietal layer is in contact with the body wall.

Examples

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In the human body, there are three serous cavities with associated serous membranes:

  • A serous membrane lines the pericardial cavity of the heart, and reflects back to cover the heart, much like an under-inflated balloon would form two layers surrounding a fist. Called the pericardium, this serous membrane is a two-layered sac that surrounds the entire heart except where blood vessels emerge on the heart's superior side;[4]
  • The pleura is the serous membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity;
  • The peritoneum is the serous membrane that surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity.
  • The tunica vaginalis is the serous membrane, which surrounds the male gonad, the testis.

The two layers of serous membranes are named parietal and visceral. Between the two layers is a thin fluid filled space.[4] The fluid is produced by the serous membranes and stays between the two layers to reduce friction between the walls of the cavities and the internal organs when they move with respect to one another, such as when the lungs inflate or the heart beats. Such movement could otherwise lead to inflammation of the organs.[4]

Development

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All serous membranes found in the human body are formed ultimately from the mesoderm of the trilaminar embryo. The trilaminar embryo consists of three relatively flat layers of ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm.

As the embryo develops, the mesoderm starts to segment into three main regions: the paraxial mesoderm, the intermediate mesoderm and the lateral plate mesoderm.

The lateral plate mesoderm later splits in half to form two layers bounding a cavity known as the intraembryonic coelom. Individually, each layer is known as splanchnopleure and somatopleure.

  • The splanchnopleure is associated with the underlying endoderm with which it is in contact, and later becomes the serous membrane in contact with visceral organs within the body.
  • The somatopleure is associated with the overlying ectoderm and later becomes the serous membrane in contact with the body wall.

The intraembryonic coelom can now be seen as a cavity within the body which is covered with serous membrane derived from the splanchnopleure. This cavity is divided and demarcated by the folding and development of the embryo, ultimately forming the serous cavities which house many different organs within the thorax and abdomen.

Diseases

[edit]

Mesotheliomas are neoplasms that are relatively specific for serous membranes. The modified Müllerian-derived serous membranes that surrounds the ovaries in females can give rise to serous tumors, a solid to papillary tumor type that may also arise within the uterus.

Anatomical images

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  • Layers of stomach wall
    Layers of stomach wall
  • Section of duodenum of cat
    Section of duodenum of cat

See also

[edit]
This article uses anatomical terminology.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Serous membrane

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A serous membrane, also known as a serosa, is a thin, double-layered structure composed of a called overlying a layer of , which lines specific closed body cavities and envelops the organs contained within them. This membrane secretes a watery that fills the between its layers, providing lubrication to minimize friction during organ movement. The serous membrane consists of two distinct layers: the parietal layer, which adheres to the walls of the , and the visceral layer, which directly covers the surface of the enclosed organs. These layers are continuous, forming a closed sac around the organs, and the between them—typically 20–60 mL in volumes such as the pericardial cavity—facilitates smooth gliding motions while also acting as a barrier against and . Key functions include reducing mechanical stress on organs during physiological activities like and heartbeat, maintaining organ positioning, and providing a protective cushion within the ventral body cavities. Prominent examples of serous membranes include the pleura, which lines the thoracic cavities and covers the lungs; the pericardium, which encloses the heart within the mediastinum; and the peritoneum, which lines the abdominopelvic cavity and wraps abdominal organs such as the stomach and intestines. These structures are derived from mesoderm during embryonic development and are essential for the integrity of the body's internal environment, with disruptions such as excessive fluid accumulation (effusions) potentially leading to clinical issues like organ compression.

Overview

Definition

A serous membrane, also known as a serosa, is a thin, double-layered structure that lines the closed body cavities of the thoracic and abdominopelvic regions, providing a protective covering for internal organs without communicating directly with the external environment. These membranes consist of a called overlying a thin layer of , forming both parietal and visceral layers that enclose a filled with . The parietal layer adheres to the cavity walls, while the visceral layer drapes over the organs, allowing smooth movement during physiological activities. Serous membranes are distinct from other types of body membranes, such as mucous membranes, which line cavities open to the exterior like the respiratory and digestive tracts and secrete for protection and lubrication, and synovial membranes, which line joint cavities and produce to reduce in movable joints. Unlike these, serous membranes secrete a watery that minimizes between opposing surfaces in closed cavities, maintaining a sterile environment isolated from external exposure. The term "serous" originates from the Latin word serum, meaning whey or a watery fluid, reflecting the thin, clear secretion produced by these membranes to lubricate and protect enclosed structures. This nomenclature highlights their primary role in facilitating low-friction interactions within the body's ventral cavities.

Functions

Serous membranes primarily function to secrete a thin layer of that lubricates the surfaces between organs and the walls of surrounding body cavities, thereby reducing friction during physiological movements such as cardiac contractions and respiratory expansions. This is essential for enabling smooth visceral sliding without abrasion or , which could otherwise impair organ function. The , composed mainly of water, electrolytes, and proteins, is produced by the mesothelial cells of the membrane and maintains a delicate balance through continuous and reabsorption. In addition to lubrication, serous membranes act as a protective barrier by sealing off body cavities, which helps prevent the spread of or from one organ to adjacent structures. They also facilitate the suspension and positioning of organs through attachments to underlying connective tissues, providing structural support that anchors viscera in their proper anatomical locations while allowing necessary mobility. These membranes contribute to by absorbing excess to avoid accumulation that could lead to conditions like effusions, ensuring a stable low-friction environment within the cavities. This regulatory mechanism supports overall organ protection and efficient physiological processes.

Anatomy

Layers

Serous membranes are composed of two distinct layers: the parietal layer, which lines the internal surfaces of the body cavity walls, and the visceral layer, which directly covers the surfaces of the organs housed within those cavities. The parietal layer adheres firmly to the cavity walls, such as the in the , and is supported by a thicker underlying layer of that provides structural reinforcement. In contrast, the visceral layer is thinner, more delicate, and highly mobile, enabling it to closely conform to the irregular contours of the organs it envelops while facilitating their movement. These layers form a serous cavity as a between them, containing only a minimal volume of —typically ranging from 5 to 50 mL depending on the specific cavity—which acts as a to reduce and allow independent motion of the organs relative to the cavity walls without or . The vascular supply differs between the layers: the parietal layer receives blood from the vessels of the adjacent body wall, such as intercostal or arteries, while the visceral layer is nourished by the arterial supply of the organs it covers, like bronchial arteries for pulmonary structures. Both layers are innervated to transmit sensory information, including sensations; the parietal layer via somatic (e.g., intercostal and phrenic) for localized , and the visceral layer through autonomic and visceral afferents for more diffuse referral.

Specific Membranes

The pericardium is a serous membrane that surrounds the heart and the roots of the great vessels within the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity. It is composed of an outer fibrous layer for structural support and an inner serous layer that facilitates smooth cardiac motion. The pleura forms a pair of serous membranes in the thoracic cavity, one enveloping each lung while the other lines the internal thoracic walls. The parietal pleura comprises the costal portion adjacent to the ribs, the diaphragmatic portion overlying the diaphragm, and the mediastinal portion facing the central mediastinum. The represents the most extensive serous membrane, lining the walls of the and covering the majority of abdominal viscera to create peritoneal folds and ligaments. Key extensions include the , a prominent double-layered apron-like fold descending from the greater curvature of the over the intestines, and the , which connects the lesser curvature of the and proximal to the liver. The is a serous membrane located in the , partially enclosing the testes and as a derivative of the peritoneal extension during testicular descent. It consists of parietal and visceral layers that form a around these structures. Congenital variations in serous membranes, such as anomalous peritoneal bands, can arise from incomplete or aberrant intestinal during embryonic development, potentially forming abnormal adhesions between peritoneal folds and viscera. These bands are typically incidental but may alter the normal anatomical relationships in the . In , serous membranes exhibit variations across ; for instance, while present in mammals, their organization differs in non-mammalian vertebrates, and they are absent in acoelomate lacking a true .

Histology and Physiology

Microscopic Structure

The mesothelium forms the outermost layer of serous membranes and consists of a composed of flattened, nucleated cells arranged in a . These mesothelial cells are typically 2.5 to 3 microns thick and exhibit polygonal shapes when viewed from the surface, contributing to the membrane's smooth, pavement-like appearance under light microscopy. Mesothelial cells demonstrate regenerative capacity, proliferating in response to injury to restore the epithelial lining, as evidenced by increased incorporation during repair processes following asbestos exposure. Additionally, these cells possess phagocytic properties, enabling them to engulf particles such as fibers or apoptotic cells, which supports local immune surveillance and tissue maintenance. Underlying the mesothelium is the submesothelial layer, a thin stratum of that provides structural support and anchorage. This layer contains fibers for tensile strength, fibers for flexibility, fibroblasts responsible for matrix synthesis and remodeling, and macrophages that contribute to and debris clearance. The thickness of the submesothelial layer varies regionally, generally ranging from a few micrometers to several hundred micrometers, depending on the specific serous membrane and its mechanical demands. At the ultrastructural level, examined via electron microscopy, mesothelial cells display specialized features that enhance their barrier and secretory roles. The apical surface bears numerous long microvilli, which increase surface area for interaction with the overlying and aid in . Intercellular tight junctions seal adjacent cells, preventing paracellular leakage and maintaining the membrane's impermeability, while desmosomes provide mechanical adhesion. A prominent , consisting of reticular and glycoproteins, underlies the cells and interfaces with the submesothelial , ensuring stable attachment. Structural differences exist between the parietal and visceral components of serous membranes, particularly in the submesothelial layer. The parietal layer, lining body cavities, features a denser submesothelial with more compact arrangement of and fibers, promoting firm adherence to underlying walls. In contrast, the visceral layer, enveloping organs, has a looser submesothelial matrix that allows greater flexibility and smoother conformance to organ contours during movement. These adaptations reflect the distinct mechanical environments of each layer.

Serous Fluid Composition

Serous fluid is primarily an ultrafiltrate of plasma, consisting of approximately 99% along with electrolytes such as sodium (Na⁺) and (Cl⁻) ions that closely match plasma concentrations, typically around 140-150 mEq/L for Na⁺ and 100-110 mEq/L for Cl⁻. The protein content is low, ranging from 1 to 2 g/dL, predominantly composed of , which contributes to the fluid's oncotic properties without significantly increasing . Additionally, trace amounts of are present, aiding in lubrication by enhancing the fluid's ability to reduce friction between serous membrane layers. The production of serous fluid involves active secretion by mesothelial cells lining the serous membranes, facilitated through aquaporins for water transport and ion channels such as epithelial sodium channels (ENaC) for electrolyte movement, resulting in a net turnover rate of approximately 0.01 mL/kg/h (about 0.5-1 mL/h for smaller cavities like pleural and pericardial in adults), varying by cavity with higher rates in the peritoneal space (up to ~40 mL/h). This secretion occurs alongside passive from adjacent capillaries, ensuring a steady supply to maintain membrane . Physically, serous fluid appears clear and slightly viscous, with a pH of 7.6-7.8, specific gravity of 1.010-1.015, and around 0.001 Pa·s, properties that enable low and effective during organ movement. Its volume is regulated by hydrostatic pressure gradients across the walls, balanced by oncotic forces and efficient lymphatic drainage, primarily through parietal stomata, to prevent accumulation or depletion. This dynamic equilibrium supports the fluid's role in minimizing , as detailed in the functions of serous membranes.

Embryological Development

Origin

Serous membranes derive from the , a subdivision of the mesodermal that forms during in the third week of human embryogenesis. This mesoderm arises from epiblast cells migrating through the and is positioned laterally to the paraxial and . As development proceeds, the undergoes vacuolization, leading to its horizontal splitting into two distinct layers: the dorsal somatic (or parietal) layer, which adheres to the and contributes to the parietal serous membranes, and the ventral (or visceral) layer, which associates with the and forms the visceral serous membranes. This bifurcation occurs toward the end of the third week, around days 21-25, establishing the precursors for the body cavities that will house the serous linings. The , the primitive body cavity, emerges concurrently as isolated vacuoles within the by approximately day 20 of embryogenesis, subsequently coalescing into a continuous cavity by day 23. This is lined by the mesodermal layers, which differentiate into a simple squamous —the epithelial component of serous membranes—while the underlying forms the submesothelial layer. The somatic layer lines the coelom's outer walls, giving rise to parietal mesothelium, whereas the layer invests visceral organs, forming visceral mesothelium. Genetic regulation plays a crucial role in mesothelial specification and regional patterning. The Wilms tumor 1 gene (WT1) is expressed in the coelomic epithelium from early stages, marking and directing the differentiation of mesothelial progenitors in structures such as the , pleura, and . WT1 promotes the epithelial identity of and contributes to lineage tracing in visceral and parietal layers across models. , particularly those in paralogous groups like Hox9 and Hox10/11, provide anteroposterior positional cues to the , influencing regional identity and ensuring proper segmentation of serous cavity precursors, such as in and limb-associated patterning. In comparative , the formation of serous membranes from a closed lined by is conserved among vertebrates, reflecting shared developmental mechanisms from chordate ancestors. However, non-mammalian like exhibit variations, featuring an open hemocoel rather than discrete serous cavities; this space lacks a continuous mesothelial lining and instead consists of a hemolymph-filled compartment bordered directly by tissue basal laminae.

Formation Process

The formation of serous membranes begins during the fourth week of embryonic development with the expansion of the , a fluid-filled cavity arising from within the . This is initially a continuous, horseshoe-shaped space bounded laterally by the somatopleure (somatic mesoderm lined by , which will form the parietal layer of serous membranes) and medially by the splanchnopleure (splanchnic mesoderm associated with , destined to become the visceral layer). As the embryo undergoes cephalocaudal and lateral folding, the separates into distinct intraembryonic and extraembryonic portions, establishing the foundational spaces for the future pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities. Between weeks 5 and 7, partitioning of the occurs through the growth of mesenchymal , creating separate serous cavities. The pleuropericardial folds migrate ventrally to divide the cranial portion of the into the pericardial cavity (ventral to the ) and paired pleural cavities, while the pleuroperitoneal folds and extend dorsally to separate the pleural cavities from the caudal , forming the diaphragm. These folds, derived from somatic mesoderm, fuse with contributions from the esophageal and chest wall to establish impermeable boundaries between the cavities. A key event in peritoneal formation is the incorporation of the endoderm-lined gut tube into the visceral layer via dorsal and ventral mesenteries, which anchor the gut within the splanchnopleure-derived . Additionally, by week 9, an evagination of the known as the processus vaginalis extends through the during the initial phase of testicular descent, forming the as a serous sac with parietal and visceral layers enveloping the anterior testis. Disruptions in this partitioning process can lead to anomalies, such as congenital , which arises from incomplete fusion or expansion of the pleuroperitoneal folds during weeks 4 to 8, resulting in persistent communication between the pleural and peritoneal cavities and allowing abdominal organs to herniate into the . The full establishment of serous cavities is typically achieved by the end of the first trimester, although mesothelial cell maturation and fine-tuning of membrane layers continue into the second trimester.

Clinical Aspects

Associated Diseases

Serous membranes are susceptible to various pathological conditions that directly affect their mesothelial lining and function. These include malignant neoplasms, inflammatory processes leading to fluid accumulation or adhesions, and rarer benign proliferations. is a malignant tumor arising from the of serous membranes, most commonly the pleura, and is strongly associated with prior exposure in over 80% of cases. The disease exhibits a long latency period of 20-60 years following exposure. Histologically, it presents in subtypes including epithelioid (most common and better prognosis), sarcomatoid (more aggressive), and biphasic (mixed). Pleural predominates, accounting for approximately 75% of cases, often manifesting with dyspnea and due to tumor encasement of the . Serous effusions involve the abnormal accumulation of fluid within serous cavities, such as pleural, peritoneal, or pericardial spaces, disrupting normal membrane lubrication and leading to organ compression. For instance, pleural effusions commonly arise from , resulting in transudative fluid due to increased . Effusions are classified as transudative (low protein content, <3 g/dL, from systemic imbalances like hypoalbuminemia or portal hypertension) or exudative (high protein, >3 g/dL, from local or increasing ). Exudative examples include those secondary to or , where inflammatory mediators promote fluid leakage across the . Peritonitis refers to inflammation of the , a serous membrane lining the , often triggered by bacterial contamination from gastrointestinal perforation in acute cases, such as or . Chronic peritonitis frequently complicates , where repeated use introduces pathogens, leading to recurrent episodes and progressive membrane sclerosis. The inflammatory response in peritonitis promotes deposition, resulting in fibrinous adhesions that can cause or by tethering organs.

Diagnostic and Therapeutic Considerations

Diagnosis of serous membrane disorders often begins with imaging modalities to detect effusions and assess underlying . Computed tomography (CT) and (MRI) are primary tools for identifying pleural and peritoneal effusions, providing detailed visualization of fluid accumulation and membrane involvement. (PET), particularly when combined with CT (PET/CT), aids in staging malignant pleural by detecting metabolic activity in tumors, with high sensitivity for identifying malignant involvement in serous cavities. Fluid analysis from serous effusions is crucial for differentiating transudative from exudative processes. Light's criteria classify an effusion as exudative if the pleural fluid protein-to-serum protein ratio exceeds 0.5, the pleural fluid -to-serum LDH ratio exceeds 0.6, or the pleural fluid LDH is greater than two-thirds the upper limit of normal for serum LDH; these thresholds exhibit high sensitivity (98%) for detecting exudates. Biopsy procedures, such as for pleural effusions or for peritoneal involvement, allow for cytological examination and histopathological confirmation of disorders like . Therapeutic management of serous membrane disorders emphasizes symptom relief and disease control. For recurrent pleural effusions, drainage via insertion followed by chemical using slurry is effective, achieving success rates of 80-95% in obliterating the pleural space and preventing reaccumulation, particularly in malignant cases. In malignant pleural , first-line systemic therapy as of 2025 includes combinations such as nivolumab plus , which have demonstrated improved overall survival compared to alone in clinical trials. regimens, such as pemetrexed plus (with or without ), remain options, particularly for patients ineligible for , with historical trials showing median survival of 12.1 months versus 9.3 months for alone and response rates of 41.3% versus 16.7%. may be adjunctive for local control, while surgical interventions like peritonectomy in for involve systematic stripping of tumor-affected to maximize resection, often combined with . Emerging approaches include targeted therapies and biomarkers for improved outcomes. Anti-vascular endothelial growth factor () agents, such as , target in serous membrane tumors like peritoneal malignancies, enhancing vascular normalization and response when combined with in recurrent cases. Serum mesothelin serves as a for early detection of malignant pleural , with elevated levels offering diagnostic utility in asbestos-exposed individuals prior to overt disease. Prognostic factors for serous membrane disorders, particularly , are stage-dependent, with overall 5-year relative survival at 15%; localized disease yields 23%, while distant spread reduces it to 11%. Median overall survival for advanced pleural mesothelioma treated with or ranges from 14.1 to 18.1 months, influenced by resectability and treatment response.

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