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Strychnos
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"Lasiostoma" redirects here. For the myrmecophyte genus Lasiostoma Benth., see Hydnophytum.

Strychnos
Strychnos toxifera
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Gentianales
Family: Loganiaceae
Genus: Strychnos
L.[1]
Species

See text

Diversity
c. 200 species
Synonyms[1]
  • Atherstonea Pappe
  • Brehmia Harv.
  • Chemnicia Scop.
  • Curare Kunth ex Humb.
  • Ignatia L.f.
  • Ignatiana Lour.
  • Lasiostoma Schreb.
  • Narda Vell.
  • Rouhamon Aubl.
  • Scyphostrychnos S.Moore
  • Toxicaria Schreb.
  • Unguacha Hochst.
Strychnos nux-vomica, the strychnine tree
Strychnos ignatii, the "bean of St. Ignatius" - another source of the very toxic, convulsant indole alkaloid strychnine

Strychnos is a genus of flowering plants, belonging to the family Loganiaceae (sometimes Strychnaceae). The genus includes about 200 accepted species of trees and lianas.[1] The genus is widely distributed around the world's tropics and is noted for the presence of poisonous indole alkaloids in the roots, stems and leaves of various species. Among these alkaloids are the well-known and virulent poisons strychnine and curare.

Etymology

[edit]

The name strychnos was applied by Pliny the Elder in his Natural History to Solanum nigrum. The word is derived from the Ancient Greek στρύχνον (strúkhnon) – "acrid", "bitter". The meaning of the word strychnos was not fixed in Ancient Greece, where it could designate a variety of different plants having in common the property of toxicity.[2]

Distribution

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The genus has a pantropical distribution.

Taxonomy

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The genus is divided into 12 sections, though it is conceded that the sections do not reflect evolution of the genus, and all sections except Spinosae are polyphyletic:[3]

  • Strychnos (53 species)
  • Rouhamon (21 species)
  • Breviflorae (32 species)
  • Penicillatae (17 species)
  • Aculeatae (1 species)
  • Spinosae (4 species)
  • Brevitubae (18 species)
  • Lanigerae (32 species)
  • Phaeotrichae (1 species)
  • Densiflorae (8 species)
  • Dolichantae (9 species)
  • Schyphostrychnos (1 species)

Selected species

[edit]
Main article: List of Strychnos species


  • The strychnine tree, Strychnos nux-vomica, native to tropical Asia, is the source of the poison strychnine.
  • Strychnos tonga, native to Tonga, is a synonym of Strychnos spinosa.[4]
  • Strychnos ignatii ("St. Ignatius bean"), is a closely related Asian shrub/tree.
  • The species Strychnos toxifera is a principal plant source of the arrow poison curare.
  • Three trees from Southern Africa, commonly known as "monkey oranges", are drought-tolerant and produce popular edible fruits: the corky-barked monkey orange or suurklapper, Strychnos cocculoides; the Natal orange or green or spiny monkey orange, Strychnos spinosa; and the black or spiny-leaved monkey orange Strychnos pungens.
  • The ripe seeds of Strychnos potatorum,[5][6] known as Therran or Nirmal, can be ground and used as a coagulant to purify water; or they may be rubbed against the inside walls of the earthenware water containers. Mrs Grieve's Herbal of 1931 also mentions traditional water purification uses of an Indian species called Strychnos pseudo (not a valid botanical name).[7]
  • Two very well preserved fossilised corollas with stamens and styles from flowers of a plant that has been named Strychnos electri (the Latin name of amber is electrum), believed to be a vine, were discovered in amber from the Dominican Republic. The amber is from tropical tree Hymenaea protera, formerly abundant but now extinct, which formed part of the forest canopy. The age of the amber is believed to be between 15 and 45 million years, from the mid-Tertiary period. This demonstrates an early date for these plants.[8][9]
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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Strychnos

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Strychnos is a of approximately 200 of flowering in the family , consisting of trees, shrubs, lianas, and vines that are primarily in distribution. These are notable for producing potent alkaloids, including , a highly toxic found in seeds of certain , and curare-like compounds used historically as arrow poisons. The exhibits diverse habits and ecological roles, inhabiting a range of environments from wet and dry forests to savannas and grasslands, often from sea level to elevations of 2000 meters. The greatest species diversity occurs in tropical and (about 75 species), followed by the (85 species from to ), South and (46 species), and northern and northeastern (4 species). In regions like the , 14 taxa are recorded, contributing to the genus's wide representation in African flora. Strychnos species often employ climbing strategies, with some featuring tendrils or hooks for support, enabling them to thrive in complex forest understories or as scramblers on host plants. Among the most prominent species is , a tree native to South and whose seeds yield , historically used as a and vermin control agent despite its lethality. Other notable taxa include Strychnos toxifera and Strychnos guianensis from the , sources of for muscle relaxation in indigenous hunting practices, and Strychnos lucida in , employed by for fish poisoning and medicinal applications.

Etymology and Description

Etymology

The genus name Strychnos originates from the term στρύχνον (strúkhnon), which denotes something "acrid" or "bitter." In classical Greek texts, strychnos referred broadly to various characterized by their bitter or poisonous qualities, reflecting early observations of their pharmacological effects. Pliny the Elder employed the name strychnos in his Natural History (Book 27, Chapter 68) to describe Solanum nigrum, a nightshade known for its toxic berries, underscoring its application to harmful flora in Roman natural philosophy. This usage built on earlier Greek traditions, where the term encompassed multiple solanaceous plants valued or feared for their acrid properties. In the development of modern botanical nomenclature, Carl Linnaeus formalized Strychnos as a genus in his Species Plantarum (1753), naming it after the Asian species Strychnos nux-vomica, thereby adapting the ancient epithet to a tropical taxon renowned for its potent alkaloids. This Linnaean adoption preserved the classical association with bitterness while recontextualizing it within systematic taxonomy.

Morphological characteristics

Strychnos species are woody exhibiting diverse growth forms, including trees reaching heights of 10–40 m with trunks up to 100 cm in diameter, shrubs or subshrubs from 0.3–2 m tall, and lianas or climber shrubs that can extend 4–120 m in length and up to 50 cm in diameter. Climbers often feature coiled or hook-shaped tendrils, which are herbaceous or lignified and may replace leaves, arranged solitarily or in pairs to facilitate support on host structures. These variations in habit reflect adaptations across habitats, contributing to the genus's morphological diversity. The bark of Strychnos is typically thin and smooth to rough, with large lenticels prominent on lianas, though it can become thick and corky in certain species. Stems contain interxylary and are armed or unarmed, with branches often lenticellate; wood is hard overall. Leaves are (occasionally ), simple, and entire, with leathery blades that are orbicular to narrowly elliptic, featuring 3–7 basal nerves and 1–3 pairs of secondary veins curving along the margin; they are petiolate or subsessile, shiny and darker above. Stipules, when present, form a ciliate interpetiolar rim. Flowers are small, measuring 0.3–3 cm, and are actinomorphic with 4–5 merous parts; they occur in terminal or axillary thyrsoid to cymose inflorescences that are few- to many-flowered. The sympetalous corolla is rotate to salverform, typically white to yellowish or greenish, with valvate lobes and an elongated tube in some clades; stamens are exserted or included, and the is 1–2-celled with numerous ovules. Fruits are globose to berries, ranging 0.8–20 cm in diameter with thin to hard walls, containing 1–45 seeds embedded in fleshy, often pulp that ripens to orange, , or blue-black. Seeds are flattened to subglobose, 0.5–5 cm long, with a thick osseous to thin membranaceous testa.

Distribution and Ecology

Geographic distribution

The genus Strychnos exhibits a distribution, spanning the continents of , , the , and extending into parts of and , with representatives occurring in tropical and subtropical zones but absent from . Species richness is highest in the , with approximately 85 species ranging from to , particularly concentrated in the across countries such as , , , and . In , around 75 species are documented primarily in tropical regions including West and (e.g., , , , and the ) as well as , with subtropical extensions into southern areas like , , and . hosts about 46 species, with notable concentrations in , such as , (including , , and the ), , and the , alongside distributions in (e.g., , ) and parts of . A smaller number, around four species, occurs in northern and northeastern , with additional presence in , including , the , and . Endemism is pronounced in several tropical hotspots, where many are restricted to specific regions; for instance, numerous are endemic to the in , while others are confined to the and surrounding islands in . At least six taxonomic sections within the genus are entirely endemic to , underscoring the continent's role as a center of diversification. The 's spread across these regions is attributed to processes, including limited dispersal between neighboring landmasses and possible cross-oceanic events or vicariance, rather than human-mediated introductions. This pattern aligns with the influence of tropical climates on overall in the genus.

Habitat preferences

Strychnos species predominantly inhabit humid tropical rainforests, secondary forests, and riverine areas across their distribution, with some taxa occurring in or disturbed sites. These environments provide the moist, warm conditions essential for the growth of both tree and forms within the . For instance, S. nux-vomica thrives in moist and semi-evergreen forests, reflecting a preference for areas with seasonal and moderate rainfall. In contrast, species like S. cocculoides extend into drier habitats, demonstrating the genus's adaptability to varying moisture levels while maintaining a core association with forested ecosystems. Light conditions vary by growth form: lianas, which constitute a significant portion of the genus, are shade-tolerant and often occupy the dim of rainforests, where they can persist as self-supporting juveniles before climbing. species, conversely, may prefer full sun exposure in canopy positions or forest edges. Ecologically, Strychnos lianas function as climbers on host trees, enhancing vertical structure and providing microhabitats for epiphytes and associated fauna in rainforest canopies. Trees contribute to the forest canopy layer, while certain species act as pioneers in light gaps created by disturbances, facilitating succession. Adaptations include desiccation-tolerant seeds and fruits that withstand drought periods, aiding animal-mediated dispersal by mammals in fragmented landscapes. Symbiotic relationships with insect pollinators support reproduction, as small, nectar-rich flowers attract diverse hymenopterans and other visitors in the understory. Habitat loss through deforestation poses a major threat, reducing populations in primary rainforests and secondary growth areas critical to the genus's persistence.

Taxonomy and Phylogeny

Classification history

The genus Strychnos was established by in his in 1753, with S. nux-vomica serving as the type species based on specimens of the Asian tree known for its toxic seeds. formally placed Strychnos within the newly defined family in his Genera Plantarum of 1789, positioning it in the order alongside genera sharing sympetalous corollas and capsular fruits. In the late 19th century, and reaffirmed the genus's placement in in their comprehensive Genera Plantarum (1876), providing detailed morphological descriptions that emphasized the variable habit—from trees to lianas—and structures as diagnostic traits. Nineteenth- and early 20th-century revisions began to address the genus's complexity, with early attempts at infrageneric divisions, such as those by August Friedrich Adolphe von Progel in 1868 for American species based on corolla proportions, and further sectional classifications proposed by between 1883 and 1885 in works on Indochinese flora. These efforts highlighted the polyphyletic nature of broader groupings, as morphological overlaps led to historical lumping of morphologically similar species across regions. Key 20th-century milestones included regional monographs, such as those by Pierre Dop for Asian Strychnos in the Flore générale de l'Indo-Chine (1932) and by Arie J. M. Leeuwenberg in his multi-part treatment of African species in Mededelingen van het Botanisch Museum en Herbarium van de Rijks Universiteit te (1962–1979), which refined species delimitations and noted challenges in distinguishing taxa due to convergent vegetative traits like leaf arrangement and indumentum. Recent phylogenetic studies have further refined these sectional boundaries, confirming the of Strychnos while underscoring the historical difficulties in .

Species diversity and sections

The genus Strychnos comprises approximately 200 of pantropical woody in the family , though ongoing taxonomic revisions continue to refine this estimate based on phylogenetic analyses. A 2021 phylogenetic study incorporating molecular data from over 150 confirmed the of Strychnos and identified 12 strongly supported clades, many of which are continent-specific, highlighting a history of cross-oceanic dispersal and recent radiations that inform current species delimitation. Traditionally, Strychnos has been divided into 12 infrageneric sections, a framework established by Leeuwenberg in and still widely referenced despite its limitations. These sections—such as Strychnos, Rouhamon, Breviflorae, Spinosae, Densiflorae, Aculeatae, Penicillatae, Brevitubae, Lanigerae, Phaeotrichae, Dolichanthae, and Scyphostrychnos—are primarily distinguished by morphological traits including size (e.g., globose berries varying from 1–20 cm in diameter containing 1–145 ), structure (terminal or axillary cymes that are lax or congested), and characteristics (e.g., flattened with thick testa in Strychnos or ellipsoid with thin testa in Rouhamon). However, phylogenetic evidence indicates that most sections are polyphyletic, with from the same section often scattered across distinct clades, necessitating future revisions to align with evolutionary relationships. Species diversity is unevenly distributed across tropical regions, with hotspots in (including ) and the , where approximately 75 and 85 species occur, respectively, compared to about 46 in and 4 in . This pattern reflects the genus's adaptation to diverse understories and savannas, though limited sampling in remote areas complicates accurate counts. Taxonomic challenges in Strychnos include hybridization and the presence of cryptic species, particularly in southern African lineages where morphological similarity masks . For instance, molecular analyses using ITS2 secondary structures have revealed that up to four taxa within section Densiflorae form a single compensated base change (CBC) , suggesting ongoing hybridization or recent events that blur species boundaries. Similarly, simple sequence repeat (SSR) marker studies on morphotypes of have identified hidden genetic variation, underscoring the need for integrative approaches combining morphology and to resolve cryptic diversity. Conservation assessments for many Strychnos species remain data-deficient due to poor sampling and limited field data, hindering evaluations of threats like habitat loss in tropical forests. For example, species such as Strychnos chromatoxylon are classified as (DD) by the IUCN, reflecting inadequate information on population sizes and distributions despite their occurrence in biodiverse but threatened regions of . This status applies to numerous taxa across the genus, emphasizing the urgency of enhanced surveys to support informed conservation strategies.

Chemical Constituents

Major alkaloids

The genus Strychnos is characterized by a predominance of alkaloids as its major chemical constituents, with (C21_{21}H22_{22}N2_{2}O2_{2}), , and vomicine representing key examples found across various species. These compounds contribute to the genus's notable pharmacological profile, though their isolation and structural elucidation have been central to botanical chemistry. Strychnine, the archetypal of the , is a heptacyclic distinguished by an linkage and an bridge within its rigid polycyclic framework; it is primarily isolated from the seeds of species such as . Brucine serves as a methoxy derivative of , sharing a similar core structure but with an additional at the 16-position, also concentrated in seeds. Vomicine, another minor but structurally related , occurs alongside these in seed extracts, featuring modifications in the of the strychnine scaffold. Beyond these, the produces diverse classes, including curare-type alkaloids such as toxiferine, which are compounds isolated from the bark of South American like Strychnos toxifera. of the akuammicine type, characterized by a pentacyclic framework, are reported in multiple Strychnos , exemplifying the biosynthetic versatility within the . Alkaloid concentrations vary by plant part and species, reaching their peak in seeds—with comprising approximately 1.5% in S. nux-vomica—while bark and leaves contain substantially lower levels, often below 1%. The isolation of , marking a milestone in chemistry, was first achieved in 1818 by French chemists Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaimé Caventou from Strychnos ignatii beans.

Biosynthesis and variation

The biosynthesis of strychnine and related monoterpenoid alkaloids in Strychnos species, particularly S. nux-vomica, initiates with the Pictet-Spengler condensation of —derived from via —and secologanin, an derived from the starting with . This reaction is catalyzed by the strictosidine (STR), yielding strictosidine as a central intermediate. Subsequent steps involve enzymatic rearrangements, including to geissoschizine, cyclization to preakuammicine, and oxidation by enzymes such as geissoschizine oxidase (SnvGO, CYP71AY6) and norfluorocurarine oxidase (SnvNO, CYP71A144), leading to the Wieland-Gumlich aldehyde. The pathway proceeds through malonylation of the aldehyde to form prestrychnine, followed by spontaneous cyclization and final oxidations to produce , primarily in root tissues. The genetic underpinnings of this pathway in S. nux-vomica involve a cluster of genes encoding key enzymes, including STR for strictosidine formation and cytochrome P450 oxidases like SnvGO and SnvNO, which facilitate the oxidative rearrangements essential for alkaloid scaffold formation and accumulation. These genes, identified through transcriptomic analysis and heterologous expression in model plants like Nicotiana benthamiana, highlight the coordinated regulation required for efficient biosynthesis. Alkaloid composition varies significantly across Strychnos and tissues; and its derivatives predominate in Asian and African taxa, such as S. nux-vomica, while Neotropical lianas produce curare-type alkaloids featuring ammonium groups for neuromuscular blockade. Evolutionarily, these alkaloids function primarily as anti-herbivore deterrents, with compositional diversity correlating to the polyphyletic structure of traditional sectional classifications within the monophyletic .

Human Interactions

Traditional and medicinal uses

In systems of Asia, particularly and , seeds of Strychnos nux-vomica have been employed in low doses as a tonic to support , stimulate , and enhance . In Ayurvedic practice, these seeds address conditions such as , , and , promoting overall restorative effects. Similarly, in , known as Ma Qian Zi, the seeds function as an oral tonic and , historically used for atonic dyspepsia and to bolster energy. Across African communities, various Strychnos species hold practical and medicinal value. The seeds of are traditionally crushed and used to clarify turbid through , a method employed in and parts of to purify by causing impurities to settle. Meanwhile, the fruits of , known as spiny monkey orange, serve as a nutrient-rich food source in , consumed fresh for their sweet-sour pulp high in and carbohydrates, or sun-dried for longer storage. Indigenous groups in have long utilized the bark of Strychnos toxifera in the preparation of , a traditional substance applied to tips for to immobilize prey such as monkeys and tapirs. This practice, documented among tribes like the Huaroni in , involves boiling the bark with other plant materials to create a paste that enhances efficiency without rendering the meat inedible. Roots and bark from several Strychnos species in and are incorporated into tonics for ailments like and . For instance, Strychnos henningsii roots and bark are used in East African traditional medicine to alleviate and gastrointestinal issues, often prepared as decoctions. Stem decoctions of the same species treat in regions like and . Due to associated risks, modern herbal applications of these plants remain limited and are approached cautiously. Recent studies (as of 2025) have explored the and nephroprotective potential of certain Strychnos species, alongside methods to mitigate toxicity risks in traditional preparations. Strychnos species also carry cultural significance in traditional societies, particularly in , where plants like Strychnos spinosa and Strychnos decussata are integrated into rituals for protection against evil spirits or as charms. In some communities, such as the Zulu in , these feature in ceremonial practices to promote community well-being. Alkaloids present in Strychnos species underpin many of these traditional applications.

Toxicity and pharmacological effects

Strychnine, the principal toxic derived from certain Strychnos species, functions as a competitive of receptors, primarily in the . By blocking these inhibitory postsynaptic receptors, prevents the binding of , an inhibitory , thereby disinhibiting motor neurons and triggering hyperexcitability in the . This leads to uncontrolled neuronal firing and tetanic contractions of skeletal muscles. Acute poisoning manifests with initial symptoms of restlessness, anxiety, and muscle twitching, rapidly escalating to severe, painful convulsions characterized by opisthotonos and . These spasms can interfere with respiration, causing hypoxia and potentially fatal if untreated. The minimum lethal oral dose for adults is estimated at 30–120 mg (1.5–2 mg/kg body weight), though severe symptoms can occur at lower doses and survival is possible with prompt treatment even at higher ingestions. In pharmacological contexts, low doses of were historically administered as a to augment respiratory and cardiac function, as well as to treat conditions like , though such uses have been discontinued due to risks. Conversely, alkaloids from Strychnos toxifera, notably d-tubocurarine, served as non-depolarizing neuromuscular blockers in , facilitating muscle relaxation during by competitively inhibiting nicotinic acetylcholine receptors at the . Strychnine has been employed as a rodenticide, inducing rapid death in target species through similar convulsive mechanisms, but it poses significant risks to non-target wildlife via secondary poisoning when predators or scavengers consume contaminated carcasses. Regulatory measures reflect these dangers; strychnine is banned for pesticide use in numerous countries, including a full prohibition in Canada effective September 2024, with strict restrictions or outright bans in the European Union since 2006. Treatment for poisoning emphasizes supportive care, including intravenous benzodiazepines (such as diazepam) or barbiturates to mitigate seizures and muscle rigidity, alongside airway management and ventilation.

Notable Species

Strychnos nux-vomica

is a medium-sized that typically reaches a height of 10-15 meters, featuring a short, thick trunk, dense rounded crown, and glossy ovate leaves measuring 4-12 cm in length. The tree produces small, greenish-white flowers in terminal cymes, followed by indehiscent berries that ripen to an orange-red color, approximately 5-6 cm in diameter, with a thick shell enclosing a fleshy pulp and multiple disc-shaped, compressed seeds embedded within. Native to tropical regions of , , , and —including , , , , , and the —the species thrives in open habitats and has been introduced and cultivated in other tropical areas such as parts of . It prefers well-drained loamy or sandy soils and is commonly found along riverbanks and forest edges. Ecologically, S. nux-vomica occupies the or edges of dry and mixed forests in moist tropical environments receiving 1,200-3,500 mm of annual rainfall, often emerging as a slow-growing that begins fruiting after 10-15 years. is primarily facilitated by birds and mammals attracted to the ripe, fleshy berries, aiding its propagation in coastal woodlands and scrub areas. As the principal commercial source of , an comprising about 1-2% of its seed content by weight, S. nux-vomica has historically been utilized in for and predators, though such applications are now heavily restricted due to the compound's high toxicity. The species is not globally threatened and has not been evaluated by the , but it faces local rarity in some Indian regions and is subject to regulatory controls on harvest and trade to prevent misuse of its poisonous seeds.

Strychnos toxifera

Strychnos toxifera is a vigorous climbing in the family, capable of reaching lengths of up to 30 meters by using tendrils and hooked branches to ascend trees. It features opposite leaves, small white to yellowish flowers arranged in cymes, and produces orange to red berries containing multiple seeds embedded in edible pulp. This is distinguished by its rough bark, which is rich in bioactive alkaloids. The plant is native to the , with a distribution centered in northern , including , , and , extending to adjacent regions in , , , and , as well as northward into as far as and . It thrives in primary and secondary wet tropical rainforests, often in lowland to premontane elevations up to 500 meters, where it forms part of the dense canopy and vegetation. Ecologically, S. toxifera functions as a key climber in neotropical rainforests, contributing to forest structure by linking canopy layers and providing habitat for epiphytes and arboreal fauna. Its flowers are entomophilous, attracting small insects for in the humid , while the fruits serve as a source for birds and mammals that aid in . The species' growth habit allows it to exploit light gaps created by treefalls, promoting regeneration in disturbed areas. The bark of S. toxifera is renowned as a primary source of "calabash ," a potent containing toxiferine alkaloids, traditionally prepared by indigenous Amazonian groups such as the Waiwai and Makushi for coating blowpipe darts used in hunting. This ethnobotanical use has historical significance, as extracts from the plant contributed to the isolation of d-tubocurarine, a key neuromuscular blocking agent in modern and pharmacology. Conservation efforts for S. toxifera are challenged by habitat loss from Amazonian and historical overharvesting of bark for production, which has depleted populations in accessible areas. Although not formally assessed by the IUCN, the species is considered vulnerable in regions of intensive , underscoring the need for sustainable harvesting practices and protected reserves to preserve its ecological role.

Strychnos spinosa

Strychnos spinosa is a thorny, or small typically reaching heights of 3-8 meters, with grey, rough bark that flakes in rectangular segments and branches armed with straight or curved spines up to 7 cm long. The leaves are simple, opposite, elliptic to ovate, and measure 2-7 cm in length, while the flowers are small, white to cream-colored, and appear in terminal cymes during the . The fruits are large, spherical, and woody-shelled, measuring 5-12 cm in diameter, initially green and ripening to a bright yellow-orange; they contain numerous flat seeds embedded in a gelatinous, fleshy pulp. This species is native to southern and eastern Africa, with a distribution extending from Senegal in the west to Somalia in the east, and southward to South Africa, including countries such as Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Tanzania, and Zambia. It thrives in savanna woodlands, bush savannas, and riverine fringes at elevations of 0-2,200 meters, preferring well-drained sandy soils and tolerating annual rainfall as low as 600 mm, making it well-suited to drought-prone environments. Ecologically, it plays a role in food webs as fruits are dispersed by mammals such as monkeys, baboons, and bushbabies, which consume the pulp and excrete the seeds, aiding regeneration in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Known locally as "spiny monkey orange" or "Kaffir orange," S. spinosa holds significant value for its fruits, which provide a sweet-sour pulp rich in (up to 88 mg/100 g fresh weight, exceeding that of oranges) and essential minerals like iron and , contributing to nutritional security in rural communities. The fruits are harvested from to and consumed fresh, juiced, or fermented, supporting in regions affected by seasonal scarcity, though the seeds and unripe fruits are toxic due to low levels of alkaloids—far less hazardous than in other Strychnos species. Strychnos spinosa is classified as Least Concern regionally (e.g., in ), reflecting its widespread occurrence and resilience, though it has not been globally evaluated by the IUCN; local populations face pressures from and in areas like and . It is wild-harvested for sustenance and increasingly considered for to enhance economic opportunities, with via or suckers enabling cultivation in 3-5 years.

Strychnos potatorum

Strychnos potatorum is a growing to a height of 4–12 meters, with a straight bole and much-branched crown; it bears opposite, simple leaves that are elliptic to ovate, and produces small white flowers in terminal panicles. The fruit is a globose containing numerous lens-shaped , which are grayish-brown and exhibit a hard seed coat. This is native to the dry deciduous forests and mixed woodlands of peninsular and , where it thrives in elevations from to about 800 meters. Ecologically, S. potatorum is adapted to seasonal dry zones, tolerating and partial shade while often occurring on riverbanks, mounds, or in semi-evergreen ; it reproduces via suckers and seeds that demonstrate tolerance and can maintain viability for up to several months under ambient storage conditions, supporting its persistence in fluctuating environments. The tree's shade-bearing habit contributes to forest dynamics in these habitats. The hold particular significance for their traditional role in water clarification, where powdered or rubbed are added to turbid water to induce of suspended impurities, rendering it potable; this effect stems from coagulant proteins, such as lectin-like polyelectrolytes, rather than alkaloids. Unlike some congeners, S. potatorum exhibits minimal , making its safe for such applications. Conservation-wise, the is not formally assessed by the IUCN but remains in its native range, though commercial trade in for and other uses warrants monitoring to prevent .

References

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  2. https://www.mq.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/1276387/Plant-of-the-week-Strychnine-Strychnos-1.pdf
  3. https://www.drcongoflora.com/speciesdata/genus.php?genus_id=1088
  4. https://www.harvestjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/Indrani-Chakraborty.pdf
  5. http://www.mobot.org/mobot/latindict/keyDetail.aspx?keyWord=strychnos
  6. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/27*.html#68
  7. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30010060-2/general-information
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  10. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30010060-2
  11. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348834279_Pollination_Ecology_and_Fruiting_Behaviour_in_Strychnos_nux-vomical_Loganiaceae
  12. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/27768.pdf
  13. https://stri-apps.si.edu/docs/publications/pdfs/Liana_Abundance_and_diversity_in_Cameroons_Korup_National_Park.pdf
  14. https://faculty.lsu.edu/kharms/files/dalling_etal_2012_with_supporting_info.pdf
  15. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11896882/
  16. https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/13/9/1358
  17. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/seed-science-research/article/epicotyl-morphophysiological-dormancy-and-storage-behaviour-of-seeds-of-strychnos-nuxvomica-strychnos-potatorum-and-strychnos-benthamii-loganiaceae/E32E5BAC24468CC34E3C48D8EAC4525E
  18. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10531-023-02657-0
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