Dance in Thailand

The term nattasin (Thai: นาฏศิลป์) means "art of the classical Thai dance, art of drama", and the term nattakam (Thai: นาฏกรรม) means "poetry, music drama and dance", according to The Thai Official Dictionary of Royal Institute 2545 BE. Both terms are derived from Sanskrit:

• naṭa (Sanskrit: नाट) → nata, which means "dancing, acting, a dance,"
• śilpa (Sanskrit: शिल्प) → sin, meaning "artistic work,"
• karma (Sanskrit: कर्म) → kama^[1]

The term for dance in Thai, also known as the Dance of the Four Regions, is as follows:

• Northern Thailand: The term fon (Thai: ฟ้อน) describes a category of traditional dance forms, such as Fon Khan Dok. Historical evidence, including stone inscriptions, engravings, and the Buddhist cosmological treatise Trai Phum Phra Ruang (Tribhumikatha Buddhist Cosmology) written in 1345 AD by King Li Thai (Maha Thammaracha I) of Sukhothai, shows the long-standing importance of this term within the broader Tai cultural area.^[2][3] The development of fon dances in the Lanna region shows a unique cultural path that evolved alongside, rather than just borrowing from, other Tai states like Sukhothai.^[4]
• Upper Northeastern Thailand: Traditional dances are classified using terms from Tai languages. The term fon (Thai: ฟ้อน) usually describes a graceful and classical style of dance. This type of dance features refined movements and elaborate costumes for ceremonies or artistic events. On the other hand, soeng (Thai: เซิ้ง) refers to a more energetic and vibrant dance form. It is often linked to communal celebrations, festivals, and folk traditions, marked by lively rhythms and frequently improvised movements.^[5] Examples include Fon Oen Khwan, which is a welcoming or blessing dance, and Soeng Bang Fai, performed during the rocket festival.^[6]
• Lower Northeastern Thailand: A region with deep historical and cultural ties to Khmer civilization, the word rueam (Thai: เรือม) describes traditional dances. It likely comes from the Old Khmer word rapaṃ (Khmer: របាំ), which means 'to dance'.^[7] A notable example of these native dance forms is Rueam Kan Truem, commonly performed during local festivals and ceremonies.^[8]
• Central Thailand and Upper Southern Thailand: Several terms describe different types of dance. The terms ram (Thai: รำ) and rabam (Thai: ระบำ) are commonly used as generic terms for many traditional Thai dances. In contrast, ten (Thai: เต้น) refers specifically to informal, lively, or energetic movements.^[9]
  • The etymology of these terms reveals a rich linguistic history. Ram and ten are thought to derive from Proto-Tai roots, respectively ram and ten meaning 'to dance', and showing cognates in related Tai languages such as Lao and Shan.^[10] This demonstrates their deep historical presence within Tai-speaking cultures.
  • The term rabam is derived from Old Khmer words, including rapaṃ, rapam, rpam, and raṃ (Khmer: រាំ, របាំ), signifying a historical borrowing from the ancient Khmer language.^[11]

While the individual terms ten and ram have ancient Tai origins, their combination to form tenram (Thai: เต้นรำ) refers to social or ballroom dancing in contemporary Thai.^[9] It is important to note that the concept of Western-style ballroom dance was introduced to Thailand much later, primarily during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, not in the early 14th century.^[12]

However, the terms fon, ram, and rabam themselves were indeed present in various forms during the Sukhothai period. These terms evolved over time to encompass a wide array of Thai traditional dances, including classical forms like Ram Baht Sakunee and folk dances such as Ten Kam Ram Kiew.^[13]

• Lower Southern Thailand: The term taree (Thai: ตารี) comes from the Malay word: tari.^[14] Dances such as the Taree Kipas (Fan Dance) are an integral part of the cultural heritage of the Thai Malay community.^[15]

The Thai term khon (Thai: โขน), which refers to a highly stylized masked dance-drama, is predominantly associated with performances of the Ramakien, the Thai national epic derived from the Indian Ramayana.^[16] The precise etymology of the word "khon" remains a subject of academic discussion.

It is widely acknowledged that Thai performing arts, including Khon, have been significantly influenced by Indian cultural traditions and the epic narratives of the Ramayana. However, direct linguistic derivation from specific terms like the Tamil kōṉ (Tamil: கோன்), meaning "king or god," is not universally accepted among linguists and historians as the definitive origin of the Thai word "khon".^[13][6] The evolution of Khon is understood as a complex interplay of indigenous artistic traditions and adaptations of foreign influences, particularly from India and other parts of Asia, culminating in a unique Thai art form.^[16][17]

There are various hypothesis in which the Thai term lakon (also spelt: lakorn, lakhon) derives from. Scholarly consensus points to the Old Khmer term lakhon (Khmer: ល្ខោន) meaning “theatre, drama, play” which ultimately originated from the Pali/Sanskrit root lakkhaṇa/lakṣaṇa (Sanskrit: लक्षण) meaning “characteristic”.^[18] This theory is more popularized amongst scholars due to the historical influence of ancient Khmer culture and linguistics on early Thai civilizations. Another theory is that the Thai term lakon derives from the Javanese word lakon ^[19] (Javanese: ꦭꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀), a derivation of lakuan, lagon and laku,^[20] meaning "to walk, to act, to run". Following this theory, Thai historian Prince Damrong Rajanubhab hypothesized that the term lakon originated from the name of Nakhon Si Thammarat when Javanese culture during the Ayutthaya period was first introduced.^[19]: 20

Thai classical dance forms, like many performing arts in Southeast Asia, are heavily influenced by ancient Indian art.^[21] They include ideas from the Natya Shastra, an important Sanskrit text on the performing arts that describes basic dance poses and movements known as karanas.^[22] The depiction of 108 karanas in temples like the Nataraja Temple in Chidambaram, India, shows these principles that resonated throughout the region.^[23] However, Thai dance developed into a unique blend. It combined these outside influences with local traditions and innovations that grew from interactions with nearby cultures, especially the Khmer Empire.^[4][24]

Archaeological evidence offers a glimpse into the early performing arts traditions that later shaped Thai classical dance. Stuccos and sculptures showing dance-like poses, dating back to the Dvaravati era (6th–11th century CE), have been found at sites like Khok Mai Den and Chansen in Nakhon Sawan, as well as Ban Khu Bua in Ratchaburi.^[25] These Dvaravati artifacts show a clear influence from Indian culture in their iconography and artistic expression.^[21] In addition, later archaeological discoveries from the Khmer period, highlighted by the detailed dance figures at Prasat Phimai in Nakhon Ratchasima (primarily 11th–12th century CE), were also important in the developing performing arts scene of the region.^[23][26]

Over time, Thai dance grew through a steady blend of cultural influences. It transformed various elements into a unique artistic form. This evolution involved creatively using different cultural aspects, musical instruments, and storytelling traditions from India, China, the Malay world, Mon, Khmer, Myanmar, and local groups in the Chao Phraya River Basin.^[4][24] Through this broad mixing and local adaptation, these varied influences were reshaped. This process helped create a distinct Thai dance identity that, while connected to its historical roots in neighboring cultures, developed its own aesthetic and performance styles.^[4][27]

Traditional accounts and historical narratives suggest that early forms of martial dance emerged in kingdoms associated with Tai-speaking peoples in mainland Southeast Asia. One tradition, often linked to the historical kingdom of Nanzhao, which dates from the 8th century CE onwards, is known as Fon Joeng.^[2][28] This art form, practiced by northern Thai peoples, combines ceremonial dance for rituals with martial movements for self-defense. It showcases both offensive and defensive fighting styles.^[4] Fon Joeng features various drum rhythms and is traditionally believed to have been passed down through a lineage that includes the Ngoenyang and Lanna kingdoms. Its cultural influences extend to other Tai states like Sukhothai.^[2][29] Today, Fon Joeng is still practiced in Thailand as a recreational dance and is recognized as a historical precursor to elements found in the martial art of Muay Thai.^[24]

Evidence from the Sukhothai period, particularly the famous inscription attributed to King Ramkhamhaeng, shows that public festivities and performing arts were present. The inscription describes the sounds of pipes and drums during a celebration, likely the Kathina festival. This suggests that music and festive activities played a role in community life.^[30] While these records confirm the existence of performances, scholars point out that the evidence highlights communal, ritualistic, or festive events rather than structured, narrative drama, which arose in later periods.^[31] The performing arts in the Sukhothai kingdom were part of a larger regional mix, combining various cultural influences from mainland Southeast Asia during that time.^[32][31]

Early inscriptions indicate that public performances were festive. However, more structured dance-drama based on stories developed in the region due to a blend of cultures. The emerging states in the Chao Phraya basin, such as Sukhothai, interacted closely with the well-established Mon and Khmer civilizations.^[31] The Khmer, especially, had a rich court culture at Angkor, filled with complex, Indian-influenced religious and theatrical traditions.^[33] As Sukhothai gained power, it started to adopt and modify these respected Khmer performance styles, which focused on storytelling and graceful movement. This cultural blending played a key role in creating the classical dramatic arts later linked to Siamese courts, combining local traditions with the refined aesthetics of the Khmer.^[31][33]

Further evidence of performance in this era comes from inscriptions and literature, although their details are often misunderstood. For instance, Sukhothai Inscription No. 8, dated 1357 CE, describes a royal pilgrimage marked by the sounds of horns, conches, drums, and other instruments. This creates a vivid image of ceremonial processions filled with music.^[34][35] While this inscription confirms the importance of music in royal and religious events, it lacks specific verbs for dancing. A separate and influential literary work from the time, the Buddhist cosmological text Traibhumikatha (c. 1345), describes celestial beings (devas) in various heavens who entertain themselves by singing and performing. The text uses the general term len (Thai: เล่น), meaning "to play" or "to perform," to refer to these heavenly activities.^[36] Together, these sources show that music and performance were recognized concepts, connected with both earthly ceremonies and heavenly joy. They provide a basis for the more complex dramatic forms that would emerge in later centuries.

Investigating the vocabulary of performance from this period offers insight into its various origins. Historical linguists point out that key Thai terms for dance have unique roots. For instance, the general verb ram (Thai: รำ) comes from Tai, while the term for a choreographed, often ceremonial group performance, rabam (Thai: ระบำ), is generally accepted as a loanword from Old Khmer (rapam).^[37][38] This linguistic evidence aligns with art historical and archaeological findings that show significant Khmer cultural influence on Sukhothai. Although Sukhothai rulers managed to gain political independence from the declining Khmer empire, they also adopted important aspects of Angkorean court culture.^[39] This included ideas of divine kingship, religious art, and state ceremony, which were the established standards of power and refinement in the area. Therefore, although Sukhothai created its own distinct artistic style, it was based on a deep connection to sophisticated Khmer aesthetic and performance traditions.^[40]

Archaeological and historical evidence indicates that before the Ayutthaya Kingdom was officially established in the mid-14th century, the area was home to earlier settlements influenced by the Mon and especially the Khmer civilizations. The site that became Ayutthaya likely held strategic and cultural importance because of its location near the Chao Phraya River. It was under Khmer control before gradually shifting toward the influence of emerging Tai polities.^[41][42] While the Sukhothai Kingdom was officially established earlier, around 1238 CE, Ayutthaya gained prominence later. By the 15th century, it became a major center of power in central Thailand.^[43]

Ayutthaya was a diverse kingdom with a mix of different people, as noted by several European visitors in the 17th century. Simon de la Loubère, in his work Du Royaume de Siam, mentioned the presence of various ethnic groups, including Persians, Indians, Chinese, Malays, and others.^[44] Nicolas Gervaise also highlighted the kingdom’s diversity, estimating that many urban residents were foreigners.^[45] While it is hard to confirm exact demographic numbers, Ayutthaya’s position as a regional trade center drew immigrants from throughout Asia. This included communities such as Khmer, Mon, Lao, Burmese, Chinese, Cham, and Indian.^[43] Some legal documents, like the Palace Law from 1358 CE, reference these groups, showing they were recognized in the kingdom’s administration. However, this recognition does not necessarily indicate their social status or how well they fit into society.^[46]

The Palace Law of Ayutthaya, especially the parts about court entertainment, mentions several types of performance art practiced in the royal court. These include len (play or recreation), ram and rabam (dance), ra-beng (likely a type of dance or movement-based performance), and Nang yai (large shadow puppetry). Other forms are open to interpretation since terminology and transliteration in historical records change over time.^[2] French envoy Simon de la Loubère, who visited in 1687 and 1688, noted three main types of performances at the Siamese court: rabam (dance), lakhon (drama), and khon (masked dance-drama).^[44]

Thai classical dance-drama includes several distinct genres, such as Lakhon chatri, Lakhon nok, and Lakhon nai. Lakhon chatri, which started in southern Thailand, is closely related to the Menora performance tradition of the Malay Peninsula. This connection suggests shared roots with both Mon and Malay cultural practices.^[47][48] While words like ram (to dance) and rabam (a stylized dance form) show up in later Thai literature and may indicate a link to earlier rituals and court traditions, there is not much written evidence that clearly explains their organized use during the Sukhothai period.^[39]

Khon is a highly stylized masked dance-drama performed at the royal court. It appears to be more fully developed during the Ayutthaya period, particularly by the 17th century.^[43] Its narrative is based on the Ramakien, a Thai version of the Indian Ramayana.

Khmer cultural influence on the Siamese court, especially in dance-drama, began before the military invasion of Angkor in 1431. During the early Ayutthaya period, Siamese court traditions were greatly affected by interactions with the weakening Khmer empire, which had deep-rooted ritual and artistic practices linked to Hindu-Buddhist court culture.^[49][50] Although the 1431 campaign under King Borommarachathirat II was a key moment for Thai power, cultural exchange had already been happening through migration, intermarriage, and support from the elite. Many aspects of classical Thai court dance, such as masked performances like Khon and stylized movements in Lakhon, show structural similarities to Khmer court dance.^[51]

According to performance scholar Surapone Virulrak, Thai court performance art changed a lot during the Ayutthaya period, especially between the 15th and 18th centuries. One important ritual, Chak nak Dukdamban, is a ceremonial enactment based on the Samudra Manthana myth from the Indian Mahābhārata. This ritual was performed during special court events and religious festivals.^[52] The myth, which involves churning the ocean to produce immortality, has a deep significance across South and Southeast Asia.

Beyond regional and folk traditions such as Manora, a dance-drama deeply rooted in southern Thailand’s diverse culture and influenced by Indian and Malay performance styles, the two most prominent forms of Thai classical dance drama are Khon and Lakhon Nai. These genres developed in royal courts and were historically performed by dancers trained in the palace. Research shows that Khon and Lakhon Nai were significantly influenced by Khmer court performances, especially during the Ayutthaya period. This reflects broader patterns of cultural exchange in mainland Southeast Asia.^[53][23] Likay, a more popular and improvisational form of folk theatre, did not just emerge as an alternative to court arts. It resulted from interactions among local traditions, Buddhist Jataka tales, and regional performance styles across the Malay Peninsula and Southeast Asia.^[54]

When studying historical records and archaeological findings alongside classical dance postures from early manuscripts, the growth of drama during the Ayutthaya period seems to show a mix of regional influences. Prince Damrong Rajanubhab’s work offers an early understanding of Thai performing arts. However, modern research highlights the varied origins of Lakhon. For instance, Lakhon Nai likely emerged in the royal court and shares strong similarities with Khmer classical dance, which had a notable presence in the area before and during Ayutthaya’s expansion.^[23] At the same time, Lakhon Chatri, often linked to Southern traditions like Manora, was formed by local beliefs and performance styles, possibly influenced by Indian and Southeast Asian elements, including those from Malay and Javanese cultures.^[55]

Evidence of cultural transmission from the Srivijaya-influenced areas of the Malay Peninsula to what is now Southern Thailand can be seen in the spread of Indic religious practices, temple architecture, and literary traditions.^[56][57] The story of Inao in Thai drama comes from the Javanese Panji cycle. This narrative tradition began in Java during the time after Srivijaya, likely in the 13th century, and was later adapted into Thai royal and folk performances like lakhon nai and likay.^[58] Borobudur, built in Central Java in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty, shows the rich Buddhist culture of that time and Srivijaya’s influence in the region. However, it does not directly prove how performance traditions like Nang Yai or Likay later developed or spread into Ayutthaya.^[59] Instead, the sharing of Southeast Asian theatrical themes took place through slower and more complex channels over centuries of cultural exchange.

Since the Ayutthaya period (1350–1767), court and classical dance traditions in what is now Thailand have developed through a mix of cultural influences. These include earlier local styles from Sukhothai and Chaiya, significant Khmer court traditions from the Khmer Empire, and regional Mon and Malay influences.^[61][62] Instead of forming in isolation, these dance forms show the interconnected nature of cultural exchange in Southeast Asia. Key performance traditions like Ramakien and Inao highlight this complexity. Ramakien adapts the Indic Ramayana story, influenced by Khmer and Mon performance practices.^[63] Inside and outside the royal courts, these traditions showed wider regional interactions shaped by politics, religion, and artistic support.^[62][64]

After the fall of Ayutthaya in 1767, the Burmese sack caused major cultural disruption. It led to the scattering of artists and a partial loss of dramatic works, such as those related to Lakhon Nai. Some performers fled to cities that the Burmese did not occupy, like Phitsanulok and Nakhon Si Thammarat. Others were captured and taken to Burma, creating a complex cultural exchange throughout the region.^[43] Despite this chaos, the Lakhon Nok tradition, which was more popular among the general public and performed outside royal circles, remained widespread and continued into later periods.^[23] Some figures, like Princess Pinthawadi, the daughter of King Borommakot, helped pass on court customs into the early Rattanakosin period, but these customs were not kept exactly the same.

During the Rattanakosin era, King Rama I ordered the restoration of Ramakien. This work relied on storytelling traditions that had been passed down orally and in writing since the Ayutthaya period. Instead of directly using Indian versions of the Ramayana, like the Sanskrit, Tamil, or Bengali retellings, the Thai Ramakien was mainly shaped by Khmer adaptations. These adaptations had been part of the Ayutthayan court for a long time and were themselves regional takes on the Indian epic.^[65][66]

The first detailed European record of Khon and other Thai classical dances was made during the Ayutthaya Kingdom. The tradition and styles employed are almost identical to the Thai traditions we still see today. Historical evidence establishes that the Thai art of stage plays was already perfected by the 17th-century. Louis XIV, the Sun King of France, had a formal diplomatic relation with Ayutthaya's King Narai. In 1687, France sent the diplomat Simon de la Loubère to record all that he saw in the Siamese Kingdom and its traditions. In his famous account Du Royaume de Siam, La Loubère carefully observed the classic 17th-century theatre of Siam, including an epic battle scene from a Khon performance, and recorded what he saw in great detail:^[67]: 49

The Siamese have three sorts of Stage Plays: That which they call Cone [Khon] is a figure dance, to the sound of the violin and some other instruments. The dancers are masked and armed and represent rather combat than a dance. And though everyone runs into high motions, and extravagant postures, they cease not continually to intermix some word. Most of their masks are hideous and represent either monstrous Beasts or kinds of Devils. The Show which they call Lacone is a poem intermix with Epic and Dramatic, which lasts three days, from eight in the morning till seven at night. They are histories in verse, serious, and sung by several actors always present, and which do only sing reciprocally.... The Rabam is a double dance of men and women, which is not martial, but gallant ... they can perform it without much tyring themselves, because their way of dancing is a simple march round, very slow, and without any high motion; but with a great many slow contortions of the body and arms.

Of the attires of Siamese Khon dancers, La Loubère recorded that: "[T]hose that dance in Rabam, and Cone, have gilded high and pointed. It was introduced by Persian Lombok hat in King Naraya reign. but which hang down at the sides below their ears, which are adorned with counterfeit stones, and with two pendants of gilded wood."^[67]: 49

La Loubère also observed the existence of muay Thai and muay Lao, noting that they looked similar (i.e., using both fists and elbows to fight), but the hand-wrapping techniques were different.^[67]: 49

The accomplishment and influence of Thai art and culture, developed during the Ayutthaya Period, on neighboring countries was evident in the observation of Captain James Low a British scholar of Southeast Asia, during the early Rattanakosin Era:

The Siamese have attained to a considerable degree of perfection in dramatic exhibitions — and are in this respect envied by their neighbours the Burmans, Laos, and Cambojans who all employ Siamese actors when they can be got.^[68]

In 1768–81, Thai dance was greatly revived by King Taksin and Thais.^[69]: 28 There was evidence that there are still performances of Lakhon Nai and Lakhon Nok, both actors and actresses, in the capital and outside major cities, such as Nakhon Ratchasima, Chiang Mai, Fang or Sawangkhaburi (now Utaradit), and Phitsanulok during Taksin's reunification of Siam. There also were collections of dramatic compositions composed during the Ayutthaya period—more than 10 stories.^[69]: 29

In 1769, in the early period after the establishment of Thonburi Kingdom, King Taksin gathered many scattered actors and actresses. There were actors from Nakhon Si Thammarat sent by the governor of Pattani to King Taksin, and a Thai dance performance was organized at that time on the occasion of the consecration of the Buddha's relics at Wat Phra Mahathat in Nakhon Si Thammarat.^[70] When King Taksin led his army to siege the assembly of Chao Phra Fang,^[71] he organized a Thai dance performance in Fang and Phitsanulok to celebrate the cities after his victory.^[69]: 28

Prince Damrong Rajanubhap stated that the actors and actresses of Nakhon Si Thammarat were members of the Lakhon Nai who had fled from Ayutthaya.^[72]

Throughout the reign of King Taksin, he composed five additional episodes (Four Folding-book manuscripts in total)^[73] of the Thai version, Ramakien. He ordered the establishment of several royal drama theaters for training. There were performances of the Khon, Ramakien, Inao, and royal drama competitions in the Emerald Buddha celebration in 1782 near the end of the reign.^[74]

Meanwhile, at the Burmese royal court, the royal family members of the Ayutthaya court and Thais who were taken to Burma brought the Thai dance to the Burmese court, resulting in Burmese dance being greatly influenced by the Ayutthaya. However, it was an opportunity to be able to revive Thai dance during the Thonburi period until the Rattanakosin period because Thai dance can be traced back to the Thai-Burmese multiculturalism in another way.^{[69]: 29–30}

Lakhon features a wider range of stories than Khon, including folk tales and Jataka stories. Dancers are usually female who play both male and female roles and perform as a group rather than representing individual characters. Lakhon draws inspiration primarily from the Ramakien (Thai adaptation of Hindu epic Ramayana). Percussion instruments and piphat, a type of woodwind, accompany the dance.^[75] Thai literature and drama draw great inspiration from Indian arts and legends.

Khon is the most stylized form of Thai dance. It is performed by troupes of non-speaking dancers, the story being told by a chorus at the side of the stage. Choreography follows traditional models rather than attempting to innovate. Most Khon performances feature episodes from the Ramakien. Costumes are dictated by tradition, with angels, both good and bad, wearing colored masks.

Fon (Thai: ฟ้อน; RTGS: fon) is a form of folk dance accompanied by the folk music of the region. The first fon originated in the northern region of Thailand. It was designed and taught by Chao Dararasami of Chiang Mai. Since then, a variety of fon came into practice, featuring the music and style of each province, such as the fon lep (Thai: ฟ้อนเล็บ; RTGS: fon lep) fingernail dance from Chiang Mai and the fon ngiew from Chiang Rai, which was influenced by Burmese music and costume.^{[citation needed]}

Fon is divided into three types:

• Fon lep (fingernail dance): A northern Thai dance style. Each dancer wears six-inch-long brass fingernails. The long fingernails accentuate the finger movement of each dancer. Dancers wear their hair in a chignon-style with a yellow jasmine flower tiara.
• Fon tian (candle dance): A performance consists of eight dancers, each carrying candles. Dancers are in pairs, one pair to each side. They wear full-length sarongs and jackets with a matching shoulder cloth. This dance is always held at night.
• Fon ngiew (scarf dance): A dance performed at a happy event. The dance is similar to the fon lep but the dance is faster and more fun. Each dancer wears a yellow flower tiara, jong kra bane, and sabai.

The two golden periods of Burmese literature were the direct consequences of the Thai literary influence. The first transmission happened during the two-decade period (1564–83), in which the Toungoo Dynasty briefly managed to subject Siam as its vassal state. This conquest incorporated many Thai elements into Burmese literature. the most evident ones were the yadu or yatu (ရာတု), an emotional and philosophic verse and the yagan (ရာကန်) genre. The next transmission of Thai literary influence to Burma happened in the aftermath of the fall of Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1767. After the second conquest of Ayutthaya (Thailand), many Siamese royal dancers and poets were brought back to the court of Konbaung. Ramakien, the Thai version of Ramayana (ရာမယန), was introduced and was adapted in Burmese where it is now called Yama Zatdaw. Burmese literature during this period was therefore modelled after the Ramayana, and dramatic plays were patronised by the Burmese court.^[76]

Interviews given by HRH Princess Norodom Buppha Devi and Em Theay regarding the Cambodian Royal Dances and influence from the Siamese style
By Norodom Buppha Devi
By Em Theay

Ampha [th]'s Siamese Royal Troupe, which was brought to Cambodia by Saweewath Pramoj after she fled to Cambodia due to the conflict between the Siamese Grand Palace and Front Palace during the reign of King Rama V.

The earliest mention of Cambodian classical dance appeared in the 7th century CE in a Sanskrit inscription.^[78] After the Siamese herded thousands of people from Angkor to the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1421, it resulted in a cultural fusion between these two kingdoms.^{[79][80] [81]} It's believed by modern Thais that the Cambodian Royal Ballet is derived Thai ballet, whereas Cambodians believe the Cambodian ballet is derived from Angkorean dance as it was prior to the Siamese carrying the dancers off to Ayutthaya.^{[79][82] [83][84]}. Khmer court dance reached Ayutthaya in the 1400s and then a modified version returned to Cambodia in the 19th century.^[85]

Meanwhile, after the second fall of Ayutthaya in the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–1767), most of the royal court dances of the Ayutthaya period were completely lost. From the Thonburi and Rattanakosin eras, a lot of Siamese verses and dramatic compositions were reproduced and recomposed again in the period of King Taksin and King Rama I.^[86]

In Theatre In Southeast Asia (1967), James R.Brandon, a specialist and professor of Asian Theatre, wrote:

" It is popular to claim that the dance style of Angkor's apsaras of the twelfth century is perfectly preserved in the Royal Cambodian Ballet dance style. Unfortunately, this is romantic nonsense. A world of difference separates the elaborately costumed, chaste, and refined Cambodian dancers of today from the bare-breasted, hip-swinging beauties of Angkor. Between the thirteenth and the nineteenth centuries, the Thai developed Khmer dance and music in distinctive new directions. Present-day Cambodian dance-drama is virtually a copy of this Thai creation from earlier Khmer forms. Up until World War II, the Royal Cambodian Ballet performed its classic repertory in the Thai language; only since the war have the Thai play scripts been translated into Cambodian" ^[23]

Nonetheless, “poses,” “gestures,” and “movements” present in modern Thai (and Cambodian) dance bear likeness to depictions in ancient Khmer art, underscoring an enduring Khmer impact on Thai dance. Even the Thai words for dance (ระบำ or ‘rabam,’ and รำ or ‘ram’) come from Old Khmer. ^[87][88] Art historian, journalist, and author Denise Heywood puts it:

“It is said that Siamese dancers emulated Khmer movements and Khmer dancers adopted Siamese costumes.”^[89]

Cambodia's King Ang Duong, who came to the throne in 1841, is known to had taken refuge in the court of Siam. He decided to set a new standardization for his own court dance, inspired by the dance he had seen in Thailand. He also adapted the costumes of Siamese models.^[90]

Siam was not exceptional in this regard:

"Cravath notes that the king returned with musicians after his 1872 visit to Manila; that same year, a visit to Singapore saw his return with ‘Malayan coachmen’ [who resided] in Phnom Penh under his protection; the daughter of one of these eventually became a leading dancer in the royal troupe and subsequently one of the most respected teachers of princess roles.' All these artists were given access to Khmer classical dance lessons, additionally performing dances and songs from their own traditions for the entertainment of the king.”^[91]

King Ang Duong's changes may have been an effort to update the dance and make it more palatable to French sensibilities:

First off, he separated male and female dancers into separate troupes and commanded that they each be able to enact dances and dramas without depending on each other. This has resulted in the modern female tradition we associate with the royal court today and the modern all‑male masked tradition of khaol, which is associated with villages and only performs excerpts of the Reamker. Secondly, he covered the half‑clad bodies of the dancers with heavy costumes. This decision reflected an interaction with 'modern' French values as well as the conservative ideas of the Thammayut branch of Theravada Buddhism, which was developed by both Thai and Khmer monks in Bangkok.”^[92]

In 1868–1910, Aunt Chawiwat, also known as Princess Chawiwat Pramoj, daughter of Siamese Prince Vorachak Tharanubhab, took the Siamese Royal dance and Siamese troupe of Chao Chorm Manda Ampa [th] [a high-ranking Siamese court lady], all accessories, along with the Siamese Piphat ensemble, to the court of the Norodom Palace in the Fifth Reign of King Rama V.^[93][94] Contemporary accounts attest that, throughout the reign of King Norodom of Cambodia (r. 1860–1904), the Cambodian royal dance troupe almost entirely consisted of Siamese performers, numbering approximately 500 dancers and instructors. At the time of Norodom's demise (or during the reign of Sisowath), more than 300 Siamese dancers were resident in the Royal Palace at Phnom Penh. Of particular note, the supervision and codification of the troupe's ceremonial protocols were entrusted solely to a single Siamese woman.^[95]: 152

In Cambodian history—Le Royaume du Cambodge (1883) by Jean MOURA (1827–85), a French administrator, it is mentioned that Siamese females provided recruits of Siamese dancers to the ballet corps of King Norodon's palace:

Les femmes siamoises sont charmantes; elles sont grandes généralement et bien faites; elles fournissent des recrues appréciées au corps de ballet du palais du roi Norodon, et ce sont des Siamois qui, moyennant finances, se chargent de ce recrutement en allant, à leurs risques et périls, faire des chargements de filles à Bangkok.^[96]

(Translation): The Siamese women were generally attractive, tall, and beautiful. They assisted in recruiting young Siamese female dancers for the ballet troupe to perform in the palace of King Norodom, and the Siamese took upon themselves the responsibility of taking the errand at their own risk to bring the shipload of dancers back to Bangkok with a charge.

George Groslier (1887–1945), a French civil servant who studied Cambodia's traditional dance art and had access to royal dancers and teachers connected to the king Sisowath’s court, wrote:

Les danseuses cambodgiennes étaient si bien parties de leur malheureux pays que les derniers rois khmers, jusqu’à Norodom, avaient des troupes presque en totalité siamoises. Tous les professeurs des cinq cents "lokhon" de Norodom étaient siamoises. A sa mort, il y avait plus de trois cents actrices thaï au palais de Phnom Penh. De nos jours encore, l’ensemble des professeurs, moins deux, est siamois!...^[97]

(Translation): The Cambodian dancers were so well out of their unfortunate country (after the sack of Angkor) that the last Khmer kings, up to Norodom, had almost entirely Siamese troupes. All the teachers of the five hundred 'lokhon' of Norodom were Siamese. At his death, there were more than three hundred Thai actresses in the palace of Phnom Penh. Even today (under the reign of H. M. Sisowath) all the teachers, minus two, are Siamese! ….^[98][99]

Groslier maintained that the dance itself and "gestures" are Khmer in origin, "preserved" by the Siamese:

Depuis la ruine d’Angkor,depuis que les esclaves sont les maîtres,depuis que tout ce qui était puissance, orgueil n’est plus rien, les Siamois vainqueurs ont conservé, dépositaires respectueux et gardiens adorateurs, les fragiles «lokhon ». Mais si le même rituel, les mêmes gestes demeurent,— parce qu’ils sont immortels, — les costumes subirent l’influence des nouveaux maîtres.^[100]

(Translation) Since the ruin of Angkor, since slaves became masters, since all that was power and pride became nothing, the victorious Siamese have preserved, as respectful custodians and adoring guardians, the fragile "lokhon." But while the same rituals and gestures remain,— because they are immortal — the costumes have been influenced by the new masters.^[101]

Author and ballet practitioner Prumsodun Ok wrote:

"Scholars such as Paul Cravath believe the Churning of the Ocean of Milk, as carved onto the walls of Angkor Wat, is an actual depiction of khaol, or male masked dance. He believes the performance was enacted during coronation ceremonies to assert the king’s role as the central force presiding over the kingdom and the cosmos it represented, whose harmonious control of these forces produced the apsara, celestial dancers, themselves. Cravath notes that Thai dance experts believe this ritual was introduced to Thailand by way of Khmer artists, where it was known as the len dukdamban and performed as late as the reign of King Chulalongkorn (1868 – 1911).”^[102]

A French historian working for Prince of Songkla University (Thailand) in the early 1900s noted:

From the close of the eighteenth century and through the nineteenth century, a number of Khmer pages, classical women dancers, and musicians studied with Thai Ajarn (masters or teachers) in Cambodia. The presence of these Thai elite in Cambodia contributed to the development of strong Thai cultural influence among the Khmer upper classes. Moreover, some members of the Khmer royal family went to the Thai court and developed close relations with well-educated Thai nobility, as well as several court poets. Such cultural links were so powerful that, in some fields, one might use the term Siamization in referring to the processes of cultural absorption at the Khmer court at that time.^[103]

In 1958, King Norodom Sihanouk shared the following with Malcolm MacDonald:

“King Sihanouk propounded to me a theory about the dancers costumes. He told me that in the court of the ancient Khmer empire dancers were lightly clad, like the half-naked apsaras.…Then the dancers were forgotten when the court fled Angkor, in their private quarters, so they fell in the hands of the Thais who took them with other splendid booty to their own capital of Ayuthia…The Thais’ idea of costume, however, was different from that of the Khmers. They were people originating from the cold north in Yunnan, and were used to wear a lot of clothes.”^[104]

In 1968, Frederick P. Munson (et al.) wrote of the Royal Ballet of Cambodia:

"The costumes and crowns used by the Cambodian palace dancers show an unmistakable Thai influence, but there is one notable exception. Every item of jewelry worn by the dancers is authentic. The bracelets and anklets are gold studded with precious stones, and the crowns for male roles are of beaten gold and weigh as much as 5 pounds. When not in use the costumes and jewelry are kept in a museum in the palace."^[79]

Folk dance forms include dance theater forms like likay, numerous regional dances (ram), the ritual dance ram muay, and homage to the teacher, wai khru. Both ram muay and wai khru take place before all traditional muay Thai matches. The wai is also an annual ceremony performed by Thai classical dance groups to honor their artistic ancestors.^{[citation needed]}

• Ram wong (Thai: รำวง) reflects the characteristics of the dance: a type of partner dance in a circle.
• Ram muay (Thai: รำมวย) is the ritualized dance that takes place before Southeast Asian kickboxing matches such as muay Thai.
• Wai khru (Thai: ไหว้ครู) Wai khru ram muay is a ritualized form of dance meant to pay respect to or homage to the khru, or teacher. It is performed annually by Thai classical dance institutions as well as before muay Thai matches.

• Ram si nuan (Thai: รำศรีนวล): A typical dance of central Thailand. Its great popularity is due to the choreography and the sweetness of the music that accompanies it. The lyrics and music evoke the sweet nature of Thai girls. The dance is also an expression of the yearning of a young man won over by such great charm.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram thoet thoeng (Thai: รำเถิดเทิง, 'drum dance'): The teut-teung drum, an instrument used in Thai folk music, is played throughout the country to accompany the parades held at traditional festivals. It is said that the modern style of the teut-teung dance was created by some music teachers.^{[citation needed]}
• Rabam chao na (Thai: ระบำชาวนา, 'farmers' dance'): This is a modern dance created by the Thai Ministry of Culture. The dancers wear the rice growers' traditional costume, and the dance itself enacts the daily activities of these workers who are the backbone of the nation. The ballet opens with the farmers as they come to plough and sow the fields. When they are sure that the rice is growing well, they gather together to pray to Mae Po Sop, the goddess who protects rice-growing. Lastly, the harvest is celebrated with songs and dancing.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram krabi krabong (Thai: รำกระบี่กระบอง): These dances are inspired by types of combat that were typical of Thailand, in which either sticks or swords are used. The skillful use of the short stick depends on the agility of the fighter, who must attack and always remain close to his opponent, while the combatant who takes up the long stick must maintain a critical distance from his rival to use his weapon effectively. The art of sword fighting has been practiced in Thailand since the beginning of time, and, traditionally, a ceremonial dance is performed prior to combat.^{[citation needed]}

• Central Thailand dances
• 
  Thoet thoeng dance
• 
  Krabi krabong practitioners
• 
  Krabi krabong practitioners with Thai swords (daab)

• Serng kratip khoa: This dance is performed during traditional celebrations. Usually, the word serng is added to the name of the domestic object used on stage by the dancers. In the case of the serng kratip, the dancers carry typical rice baskets, known as kratip. Their movements imitate those of the women who bring food to the men working in the fields. The choreography is accompanied by music with a lively rhythm. The instruments used are a long drum, charb (cymbals), grab (a kind of castanet), mong (gong), and the kahen (similar to an old-fashioned syringe).^{[citation needed]}
• Serng Isan: This folk dance is generally performed at traditional festivals. The choreography is entrusted to the dancers, who wear brightly colored costumes and express all the joy of the celebration.^{[citation needed]}
• Fon Phu Thai: This dance is part of a propitiatory ceremony performed by the Phu Thai tribe, who live in the northeast. The music that accompanies it is played on typical instruments like the gong ching (a tribal drum), along with other drums and pipes. The gong ching plays a fundamental part because it sets the rhythm for the dance.^{[citation needed]}
• Serng krapo ('coconut dance'): Krapo is the word for 'coconut' in the Isan language. The dance illustrates the activities of a group of nubile girls from the southern part of the region, known as Isan. The dancers hold two coconut shells, with which they execute complex choreographic movements, shaking them, tossing them, or tapping them lightly. This dance is often accompanied by the sound of the pong lang, a kind of upright xylophone made of strips of wood arranged according to the musical scale.^{[citation needed]}
• Isan bantheong ('the happiness of Isan'): This is a series of folk dances usually performed on festive occasions. The swift, harmonious movements are accompanied by folk songs associated with the northeast region.^{[citation needed]}

• Northeast Thailand dances
• 
  Dancers at a Yasothon festival
• 
  A folk dance in the Rocket Festival parade in Yasothon

• Fon sao mai ('silk weaving dance'): Fon is a type of dance in northern and northeastern Thailand. It is performed in groups and has very slow, graceful, and almost meditative movements. Fon sao mai depicts a traditional profession of northern Thai women in silk weaving. The dance imitates different processes of silk-weaving. For generations, silk production is one of the top home industries in northern and northeastern Thailand and Laos.^{[citation needed]}
• Dance of the Nantha-peri and Pu-cha drums: The nantha-peri is a drum characteristic of northern Thailand, which is used for two purposes: to spur on warriors prior to battle and to pay homage to the Buddha in religious ceremonies. The pu-che, on the other hand, is a type of drum used by the tribes that live in the north: the Tay Yai, the Tai Lue and the Tay Yan. It is used to accompany various dances including, the sword dance, and the kai lai and king ka lai dances.^{[citation needed]}
• Sword Dance: This dance is inspired by an ancient martial art that requires tremendous courage and strength and excellent reflexes. The dancers balance a number of swords on different parts of their bodies while fighting off their rival with a sword sheath.^{[citation needed]}
• Ka-lai dance: Beginners learn to execute graceful and balanced movements through the choreography of this dance.^{[citation needed]}
• King-ka-la dance: The hand movements and steps of the female dancers, who wear spectacular fan-shaped costumes, evoke the movements of a bird.^{[citation needed]}
• The Sounds of the Mountains: The music that accompanies this dance is played on wind instruments characteristic of three tribes in North Thailand: the pi hom (a gourd pipe) of the Tai Lue, the pi joom of the Tay Yuan and the kan nam tao (a gourd flute) of the Li Saw.^{[citation needed]}
• Candle Dance: Typical of the Thai Kheun tribe, this dance is performed in honor of the Buddha. The female dancers pay homage to the divinities that protect the eight cardinal points of the Earth, asking them to pass through the candlelight in homage to the Buddha.^{[citation needed]}
• Khan Dok Dance: The striking choreography of this dance of blessing expresses the calm, serene temperament of the northern peoples.^{[citation needed]}
• Choeng Tua Auk-son Dance: This dance, performed in the Buddha's honor, is characterized by a complex choreography inspired by the calligraphy of the ancient alphabets of the northern regions and by the movements used in martial arts.^{[citation needed]}
• The Sounds of Lanna, the Ancient Kingdom of the North: This music is played on two instruments typical of this region. The phin-phia is a stringed instrument whose body is made from a coconut shell. When he plays it, the musician rests the shell on his bare chest, then moves it or presses it to achieve the desired tonality. In the past, the phin-phia was the instrument used by youths to court the maidens of their village. Few musicians still play it. The sueng is a stringed instrument made of teak or hardwood. It is played by plucking the two metal or brass strings with a horn plectrum.^{[citation needed]}

• Northern Thailand dances
• 
  A dancer in Chiang Mai
• 
  Thai dancers in Laplae wearing Khmer-style dresses and crowns

• Nora: Nora is a traditional dance of southern Thailand (called the Chatri in southern Thai ). Its origins lie in various legends, which there are different versions of. The choreography of Nora varies from region to region, but it is generally composed of 12 positions and 17 movements.^{[citation needed]}
• Nora tua oon: This more refined version of Nora often requires greater interpretive skills and experience. Nora tua oon is often studied from a very young age so that the body can achieve the flexibility necessary to execute the dance's complicated movements. Female Nora tua oon dancers follow a demanding exercise regime and strict discipline.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram taeng kae: Ram taeng kae is an elaborate Nora dance that requires great interpretative skills. In the dance, the protagonist launches a harpoon at a crocodile, whose back, lit by candles, is made from the trunk of a banyan tree. A female dancer moves around the writhing crocodile, poised to pierce its head at the right moment.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram Nora son ram: This dance consists of a basic posture, which is executed by concentrating on hand, arm, and shoulder movements, as well as on the equilibrium and movement of various parts of the body. Ram Nora son ram is accompanied by long lyrics.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram kien pral / yieb louk manao / ram ko soet: This advanced level of Nora is usually performed during competitions between two groups of dancers. To intimidate the rival group, a male dancer strikes an effigy. In the yieb louk manao version, the female protagonist stamps on three lemons, symbolizing the hearts of the rivals. The dance is performed as a sign of victory. Afterward, the female protagonist asks the pran, a comical hunter, to give her a headdress as a symbol of her victory. This is a ceremonial ritual carried out to dishonor rivals and to encourage the members of the group. The dance is characterized by a certain sacredness.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram Nora bot pratom: The choreography of ram Nora bot pratom uses a basic posture in which hand, arm, and shoulder movements are synchronized with head movements.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram ooak pran: In a Nora performance company, the pran, or hunter, plays the part of the fool. He usually wears a hunter's mask or headdress, and the movements are often amusing and designed to make the audience laugh. Each position is in harmony with the dynamic rhythm of the music.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram Nora klong Hong: This advanced level of Nora is performed only on important occasions. The female protagonist plays the role of Hong or kinnaree, a legendary creature who is half woman and half bird. According to a celebrated Nora teacher, ram Nora klong Hong is partly based on the legend of Prasuton-Manora: the seven kinnaree play in the lake in the middle of a wood. Struck by their beauty and lightheartedness, pran Boon, the hunter, chases the maidens in an attempt to catch the youngest. The lively, harmonious movements perfectly evoke pran Boon's pursuit of the kinnaree as the youngest tries to escape.^{[citation needed]}
• Ram Nora tam bot / ram ooak pran: In this dance, the hand movements evoke the beautiful scenery of Songkhla Province in South Thailand. The verses of the song are accompanied by a lively rhythm.^{[citation needed]}
• Rabam Srivichai / rabam Sevichai: This is one of the so-called "Thai archaeological dances". It is a reinvented dance that represents the kingdom of Srivijaya, an 8th to 13th-century Buddhist maritime empire that encompassed present-day Indonesia, Malaysia, and south Thailand. The choreography and dance costumes are based on images carved as a bas-relief on the stupa of Borobudur in central Java and other artifacts of the Srivijaya period. The musical melody is composed in Javanese style, while its colors, black, red, and green, are characteristic of southern Thailand. The dance headdress is called a krabang naa. Some of the movements, poses, and stances are based on classical Javanese and Balinese dance traditions.^[105]

• Southern Thailand dances
• 
  Manora Dance

• Dance of Cambodia
• Dance of Indonesia
• Balinese dance
• Javanese dance
• Sundanese dance