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Vampire squid
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Mollusca
Class: Cephalopoda
Order: Vampyromorphida
Family: Vampyroteuthidae
Genus: Vampyroteuthis
Chun, 1903
Species:
V. infernalis
Binomial name
Vampyroteuthis infernalis
Chun, 1903
Synonyms[1]
  • Cirroteuthis macrope Berry, 1911
  • Danateuthis schmidti Joubin, 1929
  • Hansenoteuthis lucens Joubin, 1929
  • Melanoteuthis anderseni Joubin, 1931
  • Melanoteuthis beebei Robson, 1929
  • Melanoteuthis lucens Joubin, 1912
  • Melanoteuthis schmidti Joubin, 1929
  • Retroteuthis pacifica Joubin, 1929
  • Watasella nigra Sasaki, 1920

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis, lit. 'vampire squid from hell') is a small cephalopod found throughout temperate and tropical oceans in extreme deep sea conditions.[2][3] The vampire squid uses its bioluminescent organs and its unique oxygen metabolism to thrive in the parts of the ocean with the lowest concentrations of oxygen. It has two long retractile filaments, located between the first two pairs of arms on its dorsal side,[4] which distinguish it from both octopuses and squids, though its closest relatives are octopods. As a phylogenetic relict, it is the only known surviving member of the order Vampyromorphida.[5]

The first specimens were collected on the Valdivia Expedition and were originally described as an octopus in 1903 by German teuthologist Carl Chun, but later assigned to a new order together with several extinct taxa.

Etymology

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The genus name Vampyroteuthis comes from Latin vampyrus, meaning vampire, and Ancient Greek τευθίς (teuthís), meaning "squid". The species name "infernalis" means "of hell" in Latin. The name Vampyroteuthis was reportedly inspired by its dark colour and cloaklike webbing, rather than its habits — it feeds on detritus, not blood.[6][7][8]

Discovery

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The vampire squid was discovered during the Valdivia Expedition (1898–1899), led by Carl Chun. Chun was a zoologist who was inspired by the Challenger Expedition, and wanted to verify that life does indeed exist below 300 fathoms (550 meters).[9] Chun later classified the vampire squid into its family, Vampyroteuthidae.[4] This expedition was funded by the German society Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte, a group of German scientists who believed there was life at depths greater than 550 meters, contrary to the Abyssus theory. Valdivia was fitted with equipment for the collection of deep-sea organisms, as well as laboratories and specimen jars, in order to analyze and preserve what was caught. The voyage began in Hamburg, Germany, followed by Edinburgh, and then traced around the west coast of Africa. After navigating around the southern point of Africa, the expedition studied deep areas of the Indian and Antarctic Ocean.[10] Researchers had not before discovered any species from this family that could be traced back to the Cenozoic. This suggests two ideas which are: a notable preservation bias called the Lazarus effect may exist; or an inaccurate determination of when vampire squids originally settled in the deep oceans. The Lazarus effect may result from the scarcity of post-Cretaceous research regions or from the reduced abundance and distribution of vampire squids. In any case, even while the search regions remain the same, it is more difficult to locate and analyze them.[11][8]

Description

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The vampire squid can reach a maximum total length around 30 cm (1 ft). Its 15-centimetre (5.9 in) gelatinous body varies in colour from velvety jet-black to pale reddish, depending on location and lighting conditions.[clarification needed] A webbing of skin connects its eight arms, each lined with rows of fleshy spines or cirri; the inner side of this "cloak" is black. Only the distal halves (farthest from the body) of the arms have suckers.

Dorsal view

Its limpid, globular eyes, which appear red or blue, depending on lighting, are proportionately the largest in the animal kingdom, with a 6 inches (15 cm) squid possessing eyes 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter.[12] Their large eyes are accompanied by the similarly expanded optic lobes of their brain.[13]

Oral view

Mature adults have a pair of small fins projecting from the lateral sides of the mantle. These earlike fins serve as the adult's primary means of propulsion: vampire squid move through the water by flapping their fins. Their beaklike jaws are white. Within the webbing are two pouches wherein the tactile velar filaments are concealed. The filaments are analogous to a true squid's tentacles, extending well past the arms; but differ in origin, and represent the pair that was lost by the ancestral octopus.

The vampire squid is almost entirely covered in light-producing organs called photophores, capable of producing disorienting flashes of light ranging in duration from fractions of a second to several minutes. The intensity and size of the photophores can also be modulated. Appearing as small, white discs, the photophores are larger and more complex at the tips of the arms and at the base of the two fins, but are absent from the undersides of the caped arms. Two larger, white areas on top of the head were initially believed to also be photophores, but are now identified as photoreceptors.[citation needed]

The chromatophores (pigment organs) common to most cephalopods are poorly developed in the vampire squid. The animal is, therefore, incapable of changing its skin colour in the dramatic fashion of shallow-dwelling cephalopods, as such an ability would not be useful at the lightless depths where it lives.

Systematics

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Pyritized fossil of Vampyronassa rhodanica from the Lower Callovian of La Voulte-sur-Rhône.

The Vampyromorphida is the extant sister taxon to all octopuses. Phylogenetic studies of cephalopods using multiple genes and mitochondrial genomes have shown that the Vampyromorphida are the first group of Octopodiformes to evolutionarily diverge from all others.[14][15][16] The Vampyromorphida is characterized by derived characters such as the possession of photophores and of two velar filaments which are likely modified arms. It also shares the inclusion of an internal gladius with other coleoids, including squid, and eight webbed arms with cirrate octopods.

Vampyroteuthis shares its eight cirrate arms with the Cirrata, in which lateral cirri, or filaments, alternate with the suckers. Vampyroteuthis differs in that suckers are present only on the distal half of the arms while cirri run the entire length. In cirrate octopods suckers and cirri run and alternate on the entire length. Also, a close relationship between Vampyroteuthis and the Jurassic-Cretaceous Loligosepiina is indicated by the similarity of their gladii, the internal stiffening structure. Vampyronassa rhodanica from the middle Jurassic La Voulte-sur-Rhône of France is considered as one of a vampyroteuthid that shares some characters with Vampyroteuthis.[17]

The supposed vampyromorphids from the Kimmeridgian-Tithonian (156–146 mya) of Solnhofen, Plesioteuthis prisca, Leptotheuthis gigas, and Trachyteuthis hastiformis, cannot be positively assigned to this group; they are large species (from 35 cm in P. prisca to > 1 m in L. gigas) and show features not found in vampyromorphids, being somewhat similar to the true squids, Teuthida.[18]

Biology

[edit]

The vampire squid's worldwide range is confined to the tropics and subtropics.[19][contradictory] This species is an extreme example of a deep sea cephalopod, thought to reside at aphotic (lightless) depths from 600 to 900 metres (2,000 to 3,000 ft) or more. Within this region of the world's oceans is a discrete habitat known as the oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Within an OMZ, the saturation of oxygen is too low to support aerobic metabolism in most complex organisms. The vampire squid is the only cephalopod able to live its entire life cycle in the minimum zone, at oxygen saturations as low as 3%.

Juvenile

What behavioral data is known has been gleaned from ephemeral encounters with remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROV). Vampire squid are frequently injured during capture, and can survive up to two months in aquaria. It has been hypothesized that they can live for over eight years.[20]

To cope with life in the suffocating depths, vampire squids have developed several adaptations: Of all deep-sea cephalopods, their mass-specific metabolic rate is the lowest. Their blue blood's hemocyanin binds and transports oxygen more efficiently than in other cephalopods,[21] aided by gills possessing an especially large surface area. The animals have weak musculature and a greatly reduced shell,[22] but maintain agility and buoyancy with little effort because of sophisticated statocysts (balancing organs akin to a human's inner ear)[23] and ammonium-rich gelatinous tissues closely matching the density of the surrounding seawater. The vampire squid's ability to thrive in OMZs also keeps it safe from apex predators that require a large amount of oxygen to live.[24]

The vampire squid's large eyes and optic lobes (of their brain) may be an adaptation for greater sensitivity to distant bioluminescence; signs of animals, such as prey aggregations or potential mates. This sensitivity is useful when monitoring a vast area of the water column, which is largely featureless at these depths.[13]

Antipredator behavior

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Like many deep-sea cephalopods, the vampire squid lacks ink sacs. This, along with their low metabolic rate, lead to it adapting various alternate methods of defence. If disturbed, it will curl its arms up outwards and wrap them around its body, turning itself inside-out in a way, making itself seem larger and exposing the spiny projections on its tentacles (the cirri). The underside of the cape is heavily pigmented, concealing most of the body's photophores. The glowing arm tips are clustered together far above the animal's head, diverting attack away from critical areas. This antipredator behavior is dubbed the "pumpkin" or "pineapple" posture.[25][26] The armtips regenerate, so if they are bitten off, they can serve as a diversion allowing the animal to escape while its predator is distracted.[27]

If highly agitated, it may eject a sticky cloud of bioluminescent mucus containing innumerable orbs of blue light from its arm tips.[28] This luminous barrage, which may last nearly 10 minutes, would presumably serve to dazzle would-be predators and allow the vampire squid to disappear into the dark without the need to swim far. The glowing "ink" is also able to stick to the predator, creating what is called the "burglar alarm effect" (making the vampire squid's would-be predator more visible to secondary predators, similar to the Atolla jellyfish's light display). The display is made only if the animal is very agitated, due to the metabolic cost of mucus regeneration.

Their aforementioned bioluminescent "fireworks" are combined with the writhing of glowing arms, along with erratic movements and escape trajectories, making it difficult for a predator to identify the squid itself among multiple sudden targets. The vampire squid's retractile filaments have been suggested to play a larger role in predator avoidance via both detection and escape mechanisms.[4]

Despite these defence mechanisms, vampire squids have been found among the stomach contents of large deep water fish, including giant grenadiers,[29] and deep-diving mammals, such as whales and sea lions.

Feeding

[edit]

Vampire squid have eight arms but lack feeding tentacles (like octopods), and instead use two retractile filaments in order to capture food. These filaments have small hairs on them, made up of many sensory cells, that help them detect and secure their prey. They combine waste with mucus secreted from the suckers to form balls of food. As sedentary generalist feeders, they feed on detritus, including the remains of gelatinous zooplankton (such as salps, larvaceans, and medusae jellies) and complete crustaceans, such as copepods, ostracods, amphipods, and isopods,[24] as well as faecal pellets of other aquatic organisms that live above.[8][30] Vampire squids also use a unique luring method where they purposefully agitate bioluminescent protists in the water as a way to attract larger prey for them to consume.[24]

The mature vampire squid is also thought to be an opportunistic hunter of larger prey as fish bones and scales, along with gelatinous zooplankton, has been recorded in mature vampire squid stomachs.[31]

Life cycle

[edit]
Drawing of dissected adult (center) and two immature specimens

If hypotheses may be drawn from knowledge of other deep-sea cephalopods, the vampire squid likely reproduces slowly by way of a small number of large eggs, or a K-selected strategy. Ovulation is irregular and there is minimal energy devotion into the development of the gonad.[32] Growth is slow, as nutrients are not abundant at depths frequented by the animals. The vastness of their habitat and its sparse population make reproductive encounters a fortuitous event. With iteroparity often seen in organisms with high adult survival rates, such as the vampire squid, many low-cost reproductive cycles would be expected for the species.[20]

Reproduction of the vampire squid is unlike any other coleoid cephalopod; the males pass a "packet" of sperm to a female and the female accepts it and stores it in a special pouch inside her mantle. The female may store a male's hydraulically implanted spermatophore for long periods before she is ready to fertilize her eggs. Once she does, she may need to brood over them for up to 400 days before they hatch. Their reproductive strategy appears to be iteroparous, which is an exception amongst the otherwise semelparous Coleoidea.[20] During their life, coleoid cephalopods are thought to go through only one reproductive cycle whereas vampire squid have shown evidence of multiple reproductive cycles. After releasing their eggs, new batches of eggs are formed after the female vampire squid returns to resting. This process may repeat up to, and sometimes more than, twenty times in their lifespan. These spawning events happen quite far apart due to the vampire squid's low metabolic rate.[32]

Few specifics are known regarding the ontogeny of the vampire squid. Hatchlings are about 8 mm in length and are well-developed miniatures of the adults, with some differences: they are transparent, their arms lack webbing, their eyes are smaller proportionally, and their velar filaments are not fully formed.[33] Their development progresses through three morphologic forms: the very young animals have a single pair of fins, an intermediate form has two pairs, and the mature form again has one pair of fins. At their earliest and intermediate phases of development, a pair of fins is located near the eyes; as the animal develops, this pair gradually disappears as the other pair develops.[34] As the animals grow and their surface area to volume ratio drops, the fins are resized and repositioned to maximize gait efficiency. Whereas the young propel themselves primarily by jet propulsion, mature adults prefer the more efficient means of flapping their fins.[35] This unique ontogeny caused confusion in the past, with the varying forms identified as several species in distinct families.[36]

The hatchlings survive on a generous internal yolk supply for an unknown period before they begin to actively feed.[33] The younger animals frequent much deeper waters, feeding on marine snow and zooplankton.[31]

Relationship with humans

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Conservation status

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The vampire squid is currently not on any endangered or threatened species list and they have no known impact on humans.[37] Vampire squids are at increased risk for micro plastic pollution because their diet is mostly marine snow.[38]

[edit]
Model at Natural History Museum, London

Following an article in Rolling Stone magazine by Matt Taibbi[39] after the subprime mortgage crisis of 2008, the term "vampire squid" has been regularly used in popular culture to refer to Goldman Sachs, the American investment bank.[40][41][42]

Live vampire squids are shown in the "Ocean Deep" episode of Planet Earth.[43]

The Monterey Bay Aquarium (California, United States) became the first facility to put this species on display, in May 2014.[44][45]

Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Vampire squid

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) is a small deep-sea , the sole extant species of the family and order Vampyromorphida, inhabiting the oxygen minimum zones of temperate and tropical oceans worldwide at depths typically between 600 and 1,200 meters. Unlike true squids or octopuses, it represents a basal lineage within the coleoid s, featuring a unique combination of traits such as eight webbed arms connected by a cloak-like and two retractable sensory filaments. Despite its foreboding name—translating to "vampire squid of hell"—it is a harmless , subsisting primarily on , which consists of sinking organic , rather than preying on live animals or drawing blood. This thrives in extreme conditions of near-anoxic waters through specialized physiological adaptations, including a highly efficient copper-based oxygen transport system and reduced metabolic rates that minimize energy expenditure. Its body, reaching up to 30 centimeters in total length, is gelatinous and neutrally buoyant, allowing it to hover motionlessly while deploying filaments to capture particles. For defense, the vampire squid inverts its webbed arms over its body to form a protective "" posture, releases clouds of bioluminescent from photophores on its arms, and possesses organs that can flash to disorient predators, rather than ejecting like its shallower relatives. These traits, evolved for in nutrient-poor, low-oxygen midwaters, underscore its as a key component of deep-sea ecosystems, processing detrital matter with minimal predation pressure. Observations from remotely operated vehicles have revealed its global distribution and consistent foraging behavior, highlighting adaptations that enable persistence in otherwise inhospitable environments.

Taxonomy and Etymology

Scientific Classification

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis Chun, 1903) is the sole extant in the family Vampyroteuthidae and order Vampyromorphida, a lineage that branches early from other cephalopods and exhibits traits intermediate between octopuses and . Its taxonomic position reflects phylogenetic analyses placing it within the superorder Octopodiformes, distinct from the squid-inclusive . The full hierarchical classification is as follows:
RankClassification
DomainEukaryota
KingdomAnimalia
Phylum
Class
Subclass
SuperorderOctopodiformes
OrderVampyromorphida
Family
GenusVampyroteuthis
SpeciesVampyroteuthis infernalis
This classification is supported by molecular and morphological data from databases like NCBI Taxonomy and MolluscaBase, which integrate peer-reviewed revisions confirming the monotypic status of the genus and higher taxa. The order Vampyromorphida encompasses numerous extinct relatives from deposits, underscoring V. infernalis as a living fossil-like remnant.

Origin of the Name

The scientific binomen Vampyroteuthis infernalis was formally established in 1903 by German zoologist Carl Chun, based on specimens collected during the Valdivia deep-sea expedition of 1898–1899. Chun, a specialist in cephalopods, assigned the name to highlight the organism's striking morphology and habitat, drawing parallels to vampiric folklore despite its non-predatory nature. The genus Vampyroteuthis combines the Greek vampyros () with teuthis (), while the specific epithet infernalis derives from Latin, denoting "hellish" or "of the ." This stems from the species' deep-ocean —typically 600–900 meters below the surface—where perpetual darkness prevails, coupled with its physical traits: a velvety, reddish-black mantle; eight webbed arms forming a cape-like ; and paired photophores that emit eerie blue light, mimicking glowing eyes. Chun's choice evoked the infernal depths and vampiric imagery, though the animal lacks blood-feeding behavior or true characteristics, such as a prominent pen or . The "vampire squid" emerged as an English of the name, popularized in and public discourse by the early to convey its allure without implying aggression. Early descriptions emphasized its "demonic" form over ecological role, a framing that persists but contrasts with modern observations of its detritivorous diet and passive defenses.

History of Study

Initial Discovery

The vampire squid, Vampyroteuthis infernalis, was first scientifically described in 1903 by German zoologist Carl Chun, who served as the chief scientist on the German deep-sea expedition aboard the SMS . Specimens were collected during the Valdivia Expedition, which operated from October 1898 to May 1899, exploring depths up to 5,000 meters in the Atlantic, Indian, and Antarctic oceans, with Chun inspired by earlier voyages like the HMS expedition of the 1870s. Chun initially classified the species as a type of within the cirrate group, based on its eight arms connected by webbing and the presence of retractile filaments mistaken for additional arms. This misclassification stemmed from limited preserved samples, which obscured the species' unique morphology linking it to both octopuses and squids.

Key Research Milestones

In 2012, researchers at the (MBARI) conducted the first detailed analysis of Vampyroteuthis infernalis feeding ecology using shipboard-collected specimens and video observations, determining that the species primarily consumes —a aggregation of organic including fecal pellets, dead , and mucous—rather than live prey or blood, overturning prior assumptions of predatory behavior. This study, published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, highlighted the squid's unique detritivorous adaptations, including specialized oral filtration structures, enabling survival in oxygen minimum zones. By 2015, further MBARI investigations, incorporating histological analysis of preserved gonads from specimens collected over decades, established that female V. infernalis exhibit continuous, multiple-batch spawning, producing eggs in at least five distinct cycles throughout their lifespan of approximately four years, a reproductive strategy rare among cephalopods and suited to sparse deep-sea resources. A 2019 global study utilizing (δ¹³C and δ¹⁵N) of 87 specimens from 13 ocean basins positioned V. infernalis as a low-trophic-level reliant on refractory , confirming its detrital diet across populations and underscoring phylogenetic isolation from other cephalopods in terms of ecology. In , paleontological analysis of a V. infernalis specimen from the (dated to approximately 66–61 million years ago) in the Pierre Shale Formation provided evidence of the species' persistence in oxygen-depleted environments since the , bridging a 120-million-year gap in the record and linking modern low-oxygen adaptations to ancient oceanic conditions.

Physical Characteristics

Morphology and Anatomy

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) exhibits a gelatinous body with a maximum mantle length of 210 mm, resulting in a total length of approximately 300 mm including extended arms and filaments. Its external morphology features a prominent interbrachial web connecting the eight arms, forming a cape-like structure that spans nearly the full circumference of the oral region, adapted for low-energy suspension feeding rather than active predation. The skin is dark reddish-black, cryptically colored for the dim deep-sea environment, with reduced chromatophores and embedded photophores arranged in two distinct rows along the dorsal and ventral surfaces for . The arms bear a single median row of up to 21 suckers and up to 10 pairs of cirri on the oral surface, differing from the double rows of suckers typical in squids; these structures aid in manipulating particulate food captured by the web. In addition to the arms, two retractile filaments emerge from specialized pockets between the first and second arm pairs, capable of extending up to eight times the body length and covered in fine, stiff hairs with sensory cells for detecting prey particles. Small, ear-shaped fins are located at the posterior mantle, present from juvenile stages and used for subtle in low-oxygen waters. The eyes are large and highly sensitive to low light levels, positioned dorsally to scan the . Internally, the includes a large for storing detrital food aggregates, supporting a low metabolic rate suited to oxygen-minimum zones, and branchial hearts with high-affinity haemocyanin for efficient oxygen uptake despite reduced surface area. Unlike most cephalopods, it lacks an , relying instead on containing red cells from suckers and cirri for defense. The overall reflects its phylogenetic position as a basal coleoid, blending octopod-like with squid-like fins, but optimized for detritivory in extreme depths.

Sensory and Defensive Features

The vampire squid possesses the largest eye-to-body ratio of any known animal, with fully grown females exhibiting eye diameters up to 2.5 centimeters relative to a mantle length of about 10-15 centimeters. These large, globular eyes are typically red or blue, adapting color based on ambient lighting conditions in the deep ocean, and are oriented upward to detect faint bioluminescent signals from prey or predators above. In addition to suited for low-light environments, the species employs paired sensory filaments extending from the tips of its oral arms; these retractable structures are equipped with tiny hairs and sensory nerves that facilitate detection of particulate matter and environmental cues in the . A highly developed system further enhances balance and orientation, supporting slow, controlled descent through stratified water layers. For defense, Vampyroteuthis infernalis lacks an typical of other cephalopods, relying instead on bioluminescent mechanisms to deter threats. Photophores at the tips of all eight arms produce bright light bursts, which can be activated by tactile stimuli to distract predators by drawing attention away from the body. The can also eject luminous fluid or glowing particles from these arm-tip organs, creating a dispersing cloud of light that confuses attackers in the dark depths, akin to a bioluminescent smokescreen. When threatened, it adopts the "pineapple posture," inverting its webbed arms over the body to form a spiny, ballast-filled cloak resembling a prickly fruit, which may deter close approaches by presenting a less palatable profile. These adaptations, observed in laboratory and studies, underscore the species' reliance on optical over physical evasion or aggression in hypoxic conditions.

Habitat and Ecology

Global Distribution

Vampyroteuthis infernalis exhibits a circumglobal distribution in temperate and tropical oceans, primarily within latitudes spanning approximately 40° N to 40° S, where water temperatures range from 2–6 °C. This species is notably absent from polar regions, favoring open-ocean pelagic environments across major basins including the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans. The vampire squid occupies the , with a core depth range of 600 to 1,200 meters, though records extend to 1,500 meters in some locales and occasionally deeper to around 3,300 meters in tropical waters. It preferentially inhabits oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) within this depth , where low oxygen levels (as little as 2–5% of surface saturation) prevail, correlating with its physiological adaptations for hypoxia tolerance. densities vary regionally, with higher abundances documented in eastern boundary upwelling systems such as off and , potentially linked to enhanced particulate organic matter flux.

Adaptations to Extreme Environments

Vampyroteuthis infernalis permanently inhabits the (OMZ) of the mesopelagic ocean, typically at depths of 600–800 meters, where dissolved oxygen levels drop below 0.5 ml O₂ l⁻¹, equivalent to less than 3% of surface saturation. This environment imposes severe hypoxic stress, compounded by near-freezing temperatures (around 5–10°C), hydrostatic pressures exceeding 60 atmospheres, and perpetual darkness, conditions lethal to most other cephalopods. Unlike vertically migrating species, V. infernalis completes its entire life cycle within this zone, relying on specialized physiological and behavioral traits to maintain viability. Respiratory adaptations center on its copper-based , which demonstrates the highest oxygen affinity recorded among s (P₅₀ ≈ 0.2–0.3 kPa at temperatures and ), allowing maximal oxygen extraction from ambient water despite low partial pressures. This is complemented by a relatively large and moderate diffusion capacity, which together sustain a sufficient oxygen from to tissues, even though surface area is reduced compared to epipelagic s. Metabolic suppression plays a critical role, with V. infernalis exhibiting the lowest mass-specific oxygen consumption rate of any known —approximately 0.07 μmol O₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹ at 5–10°C—enabling survival on minimal aerobic respiration while avoiding the inefficiencies of prolonged anaerobiosis. High tissue concentrations provide , minimizing energy costs associated with postural maintenance under high pressure. Behavioral modifications further optimize oxygen economy, including prolonged immobility with extended oral filaments for passive capture, reducing active ventilation and locomotion demands. via undulation and interbrachial webbing replaces energetically expensive , while reduced musculature limits overall activity scope. These traits collectively permit V. infernalis to exploit the OMZ's relative food abundance (e.g., sinking ) without the metabolic overhead that excludes competitors, underscoring its evolutionary specialization for extreme bathypelagic hypoxia.

Physiology

Oxygen Utilization and Metabolism

Vampyroteuthis infernalis inhabits the oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) of the ocean, typically at depths of 600–900 m where dissolved oxygen concentrations are as low as 0.4 ml L⁻¹ (22 μM O₂) or below 0.5 ml L⁻¹, conditions lethal to most active cephalopods. To survive these hypoxic environments, the species exhibits profound metabolic suppression, achieving the lowest mass-specific metabolic rate documented among cephalopods at approximately 0.07 μmol O₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹. This rate, comparable to that of gelatinous zooplankton like scyphomedusae, reflects a strategy of minimized aerobic metabolism rather than reliance on anaerobic pathways for routine functions. Respiratory adaptations center on , the copper-based oxygen-binding protein in its blood, which possesses the highest oxygen affinity of any known , enabling efficient extraction from severely depleted seawater. This high-affinity , combined with a high percentage of oxygen removal from ventilated and moderate diffusion capacity, maintains an adequate oxygen gradient from environment to tissues despite low ambient partial pressures. The species can tolerate oxygen saturations as low as 3%, far below thresholds for other , without resorting to anaerobic under normal conditions. Complementary physiological and behavioral traits further reduce oxygen demand. , achieved through ammonium-rich tissues and a gelatinous body, minimizes locomotory costs, while reduced musculature and limited swimming capacity conserve energy. These features collectively enable sustained aerobic respiration in OMZs, distinguishing V. infernalis from more active, oxygen-demanding relatives and underscoring its evolutionary specialization for oligoxic habitats.

Bioluminescent Capabilities

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) exhibits through specialized s primarily located at the tips of its eight arms, enabling the emission of bright blue light flashes. These arm-tip s represent a distinct type of light-producing organ observed in living specimens collected from depths exceeding 600 meters off , , where the squid inhabits oxygen-minimum zones. In addition to intrinsic emission, the squid can eject a viscous fluid containing luminous particles from these arm tips, generating prolonged light output during defensive responses. This dual mechanism—organ-based flashes and particle-laden fluid—allows for versatile light production tailored to low-light deep-sea conditions. Photophore distribution includes not only arm tips but also fin-base structures, with surrounding tissues often darkly pigmented to enhance contrast and visibility of the emitted light. Early histological studies identified three putative photophore types in V. infernalis: fin-base, dorsomedial (potentially on the mantle or arms), and arm-tip variants, though functional confirmation varies across specimens. The light spectrum is characteristically blue, aligning with the visual sensitivities of deep-sea predators and facilitating or disruption in near-total darkness. Observations indicate flashes can last from seconds to several minutes, providing temporary disorientation without reliance on sacs, which the species lacks. Bioluminescence serves predominantly antipredator functions, such as confusing attackers or creating decoy glows to enable escape, as evidenced by behaviors in oxygen-poor waters. The ejected bioluminescent cloud, sticky and glowing for up to 10 minutes, further amplifies this defense by forming a persistent luminous barrier. While secondary roles like intraspecific communication or prey attraction have been hypothesized, empirical data from captive and wild observations prioritize defensive utility over or signals. This capability underscores adaptations to midwater environments where visual predation pressure remains high despite dim light levels.

Behavior and Life History

Antipredator Strategies

Vampyroteuthis infernalis exhibits antipredator strategies suited to the oxygen-minimum zones of the mesopelagic , where predator encounters are infrequent but potentially lethal, emphasizing low-energy, distraction-based defenses over sustained flight. Lacking ink sacs typical of shallow-water cephalopods, it compensates with bioluminescent mechanisms and postural displays that minimize metabolic costs. Bioluminescence plays a central role, with photophores at the tips of all eight arms capable of glowing, flashing (1–3 times per second), or pulsating for over two minutes in response to tactile stimuli. These arm-tip lights, triggered by low-threshold contact, produce illumination via coelenterazine-luciferase and often precede escape maneuvers, hypothesized to distract predators or provide against light. Additionally, the squid ejects viscous luminous fluid containing microscopic particles, forming a glowing mucous cloud that persists up to 9.5 minutes, obscuring the animal's position and facilitating evasion. A key behavioral response is the "pineapple posture," in which the squid everts its interbrachial web over the head and mantle, shielding vulnerable areas while exposing rows of oral cirri—spiny projections that may deter close-range attacks—and dark-pigmented oral surfaces for in dim conditions. This inversion, observed in laboratory and footage, transforms the animal into a spiky, ball-like form, potentially startling or warding off assailants. For active evasion, V. infernalis employs short bursts of accelerated swimming at approximately two body lengths per second, achieved via coordinated fin undulation and in erratic, zig-zagging trajectories lasting about five seconds. Prolonged pursuits are infeasible due to limited musculature and low oxygen demands, with retractile filaments possibly aiding early predator detection through sensory cells. Cryptic dark coloration further reduces visibility in the light-scarce .

Feeding and Digestion

Vampyroteuthis infernalis employs a passive detritivorous feeding strategy, extending two thin, retractable filaments from between its arms to collect in the . These filaments, which can reach lengths up to eight times the squid's mantle length, are lined with small, sticky papillae that trap drifting aggregates without active pursuit of prey. The squid remains largely motionless, slowly reeling in the filaments and transferring captured material to its mouth using the webbed arms, an suited to the sparse availability in oxygen minimum zones. The primary diet consists of "," comprising fecal pellets from such as copepods and , remains of microscopic and animals, and mucus debris from houses. Analysis of digestive contents from specimens confirms ingestion of detrital matter ranging from fine particles to larger aggregates, with no evidence of predation on live prey. Stable isotope ratios from global samples indicate a low trophic position consistent with detritivory, distinguishing V. infernalis from predatory cephalopods and reflecting its reliance on refractory organic material in deep-sea environments. Digestion occurs via a specialized including a for temporary storage of ingested , followed by processing in the and caecum complex. The large digestive facilitates intracellular absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream, enabling efficient extraction from low-quality food sources and storage for prolonged periods without feeding. This setup supports the ' low metabolic rate and adaptation to infrequent meals in nutrient-poor habitats.

Reproduction and Development

Vampyroteuthis infernalis exhibits a reproductive strategy distinct from most coleoid cephalopods, which are typically semelparous, reproducing once before death. Females spawn multiple times over their lifespan, potentially exceeding 20 cycles, alternating between active spawning and gonadal resting phases to accumulate energy. Males transfer spermatophores to the female's mantle cavity via the hectocotylus or funnel, with females storing sperm in specialized pouches. Fertilization occurs internally, after which females release batches of approximately 100 fertilized eggs individually into the water column, forming small free-floating masses. These eggs measure 3-4 mm in diameter, and spawning lacks a defined seasonal pattern, occurring year-round. No parental care is provided post-spawning. Egg development proceeds externally in the deep-sea environment at temperatures between 2 and 7°C. Hatchlings emerge at approximately 8 mm mantle length, resembling miniature adults with functional fins and webbing, indicative of direct development rather than an extended planktonic larval phase typical of many squid species. Juveniles maintain the pelagic lifestyle of adults, gradually growing while adapting to the . This strategy supports the species' longevity, estimated at up to a decade, enabling repeated reproduction in resource-poor deep-sea habitats.

Evolutionary Context

Fossil Evidence

The fossil record of vampyromorphs, the order containing the vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis), is limited by the group's predominantly soft-bodied construction, with preservation typically restricted to exceptional Lagerstätten featuring the —an internal, chitinous remnant of the ancestral shell—or rare soft-tissue imprints. These fossils indicate that vampyromorphs originated in the Era, with evidence of predatory lifestyles and adaptations to low-oxygen environments persisting into the . The earliest vampyromorph relatives appear in the Period, such as Vampyronassa rhodanica, known from approximately 20 specimens in the Lower (165–164 million years ago) deposits of La Voulte-sur-Rhône, . This species exhibited elongated arms with suckers and hooks, suggesting active predation on fish and other cephalopods, as evidenced by associated prey remains in some fossils. Similarly, Simoniteuthis michaelyi, described from a Jurassic specimen preserving prey clutched in its arms, further demonstrates predatory capabilities within the during this period. Cenozoic fossils provide direct evidence of vampyromorph persistence beyond the extinction events. A vampyromorph recovered from (circa 30 million years ago) strata in the Central represents the first post- record, with its morphology and stratigraphic context indicating habitation in oxygen-depleted mid-water zones akin to modern oxygen minimum zones. This specimen, rediscovered after being lost during the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, underscores the clade's evolutionary conservatism and adaptation to hypoxic conditions over tens of millions of years. No confirmed fossils of the extant V. infernalis species exist, consistent with its recent evolutionary origin and deep-sea habitat's poor preservation potential.

Phylogenetic Relationships

Vampyroteuthis infernalis comprises the only extant within the order Vampyromorphida, a lineage classified under the subclass of cephalopods. Multi-gene phylogenetic analyses, incorporating both nuclear and mitochondrial sequences from 188 taxa, recover Vampyromorphida as the to Octopoda, collectively forming the clade Octopodiformes. This positioning is corroborated by morphological traits, including eight arms united by a prominent web and the absence of differentiated tentacles, which align V. infernalis more closely with octopuses than with the ten-armed (squids and ). Sperm ultrastructure further supports a close affinity to Octopoda while justifying separation into a distinct order. Molecular clock estimates, derived from concatenated gene datasets, indicate that the divergence between Vampyromorphida and Octopoda occurred approximately 220 million years ago in the Late Triassic. Mitochondrial genome sequencing of V. infernalis reveals conserved gene arrangements similar to those in other coleoids but with unique features, such as translocation of tRNA genes, reinforcing its basal yet octopod-affiliated status within Coleoidea. However, saturation in mitochondrial markers complicates resolution of deep coleoid nodes, prompting calls for expanded nuclear and transcriptomic datasets to refine these relationships.

Conservation and Human Relevance

Population Status and Threats

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) has not been assessed by the and receives no special under U.S. federal listings. Global population abundance remains unquantified due to the inaccessibility of its mesopelagic habitat (600–1,200 m depth), though local densities suggest it is not rare; for instance, 170 individuals were documented via remotely operated vehicles in between 1992 and 2012. Natural threats are dominated by predation from large fishes, , and pinnipeds capable of diving to mid-depths. The species exhibits no direct exploitation by commercial fisheries, as its deep occurrence precludes targeted harvesting and it holds no economic value. Anthropogenic pressures are speculative but potentially significant given the squid's reliance on oxygen minimum zones and particulate "" for sustenance. Ocean deoxygenation and warming could compress habitable depths, while microplastic ingestion—facilitated by web-like feeding structures—poses contamination risks, with studies detecting polymers in deep-sea cephalopods including V. infernalis. Broader deep-ocean industrialization, such as or waste disposal, remains unstudied for this but could indirectly affect prey availability. Overall, indicates resilience in its low-energy niche, with no documented population declines as of 2025.

Role in Culture and Media

The vampire squid (Vampyroteuthis infernalis) has served as a metaphor in philosophical discourse on media and communication. In Vilém Flusser's 1987 treatise Vampyroteuthis Infernalis: A Treatise, with a Report by the Institut Scientifique de Recherche Paranaturaliste, the cephalopod is imagined as an otherworldly intelligence inhabiting a lightless abyss, offering a defamiliarized lens to examine human society transitioning to image-based, telematic culture. Flusser contrasts the squid's tentacular, multidirectional perception—adapted to an environment of total darkness and particulate "snow"—with linear, literate human cognition, arguing it prefigures a future where information flows dissolve subject-object boundaries and foster playful, multidimensional knowing over rigid causality. The work, translated into English in 2012, has influenced media theory by positing the squid's bioluminescence and web-like fins as models for digital interfacing, though critics note its speculative anthropomorphism prioritizes conceptual inversion over empirical biology. In financial journalism, the vampire squid symbolizes predatory capitalism following Matt Taibbi's April 2010 Rolling Stone article "The Great American Bubble Machine," which described Goldman Sachs as "a great vampire squid wrapped around the face of humanity, relentlessly jamming its blood funnel into anything that smells like money." This vivid imagery critiqued the bank's role in the 2008 financial crisis through practices like securitizing subprime mortgages and betting against clients, drawing on the squid's eerie, detritus-feeding habits to evoke exploitative parasitism. The metaphor endured in public discourse, referenced in analyses of Wall Street's influence, such as The Economist's 2023 retrospective on Goldman's market dominance and a 2013 Forbes piece on ongoing litigation against the firm. Taibbi expanded it in his 2010 book Griftopia, linking the squid to broader "long con" schemes in American finance, though defenders of Goldman contested the portrayal as hyperbolic sensationalism detached from regulatory complexities. Beyond metaphors, the species appears in scientific documentaries highlighting deep-sea oddities, such as exhibits and segments on its scavenging lifestyle, reinforcing its "vampire squid from hell" moniker derived from 19th-century dredgings and reddish-black integument. It features marginally in and eco-horror, occasionally as a basis for abyssal monsters, but lacks prominent roles in mainstream film, television, or literature, with cultural impact stemming more from its real biological peculiarities than fictional dramatization.

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