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August 21: Black slaves begin uprising against white slave masters in Haitian Revolution.
1791 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1791
MDCCXCI
Ab urbe condita2544
Armenian calendar1240
ԹՎ ՌՄԽ
Assyrian calendar6541
Balinese saka calendar1712–1713
Bengali calendar1197–1198
Berber calendar2741
British Regnal year31 Geo. 3 – 32 Geo. 3
Buddhist calendar2335
Burmese calendar1153
Byzantine calendar7299–7300
Chinese calendar庚戌年 (Metal Dog)
4488 or 4281
    — to —
辛亥年 (Metal Pig)
4489 or 4282
Coptic calendar1507–1508
Discordian calendar2957
Ethiopian calendar1783–1784
Hebrew calendar5551–5552
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1847–1848
 - Shaka Samvat1712–1713
 - Kali Yuga4891–4892
Holocene calendar11791
Igbo calendar791–792
Iranian calendar1169–1170
Islamic calendar1205–1206
Japanese calendarKansei 3
(寛政３年)
Javanese calendar1717–1718
Julian calendarGregorian minus 11 days
Korean calendar4124
Minguo calendar121 before ROC
民前121年
Nanakshahi calendar323
Thai solar calendar2333–2334
Tibetan calendarལྕགས་ཕོ་ཁྱི་ལོ་
(male Iron-Dog)
1917 or 1536 or 764
    — to —
ལྕགས་མོ་ཕག་ལོ་
(female Iron-Boar)
1918 or 1537 or 765
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1791.
January 2: Big Bottom massacre

1791 (MDCCXCI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1791st year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 791st year of the 2nd millennium, the 91st year of the 18th century, and the 2nd year of the 1790s decade. As of the start of 1791, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.

Events

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January–March

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April–June

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July–September

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October–December

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Date unknown

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Births

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Samuel Morse
Michael Faraday
Charles Babbage
James Buchanan

Deaths

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Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

1791

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia

1791 marked a year of profound revolutionary upheaval and institutional consolidation, highlighted by the ratification of the on December 15, which enshrined protections for individual liberties including , religion, and assembly against federal infringement. In parallel, the intensified amid domestic radicalization and international backlash, as the suppressed republican petitioners in the on July 17, resulting in scores of deaths, while the Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27 saw and warn against attacks on , escalating fears of monarchical intervention. Most consequentially in the colonial sphere, a massive slave revolt erupted in the French colony of on August 22, organized by enslaved Africans who torched plantations and massacred white planters, initiating the that ultimately dismantled slavery and colonial rule through protracted warfare. In the early American republic, the First Bank of the United States was chartered on February 25 to stabilize finances and foster economic growth, though it fueled emerging partisan divides between Federalists and Anti-Federalists. Native American confederacies also delivered a severe setback to U.S. expansionism with the Battle of the Wabash on November 4, where Miami and Shawnee warriors under and annihilated General Arthur St. Clair's forces, the worst defeat ever inflicted on the U.S. Army by indigenous fighters. These events underscored 1791's role in amplifying transatlantic struggles over , , and power structures, with causal chains linking Enlightenment ideals to violent contestations that reshaped empires and nations.

Events

January–March

On January 2, Lenape and Wyandot warriors attacked the Big Bottom blockhouse settlement in the Ohio Country, near present-day Stockport in Morgan County, Ohio, killing 12 of the approximately 38 settlers and capturing several others, including women and children. The assault, involving around 100 Native fighters, exploited the settlers' inadequate defenses and overconfidence following the American Revolutionary War, marking the onset of intensified frontier conflict in the Northwest Indian War. This event prompted federal military responses and underscored ongoing tensions over land cessions under treaties like the 1785 Treaty of Fort McIntosh, which Natives viewed as coerced. In , Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a key moderate figure in the National Constituent Assembly, was elected president on January 30, reflecting his influence in advocating amid revolutionary pressures. Mirabeau's leadership sought to balance royal authority with assembly reforms, though his secret dealings with the court later complicated his legacy. On February 25, the chartered the First Bank of the United States for a 20-year term, establishing a national to manage federal funds, issue , and support economic stability as proposed by Treasury Secretary . The legislation passed despite opposition from figures like , who argued it exceeded constitutional powers, highlighting early debates on federal authority. In early March, specifically on March 2, and his brothers conducted the first public demonstration of their optical telegraph system between Brûlon and Parcé, covering 14 kilometers, laying groundwork for visual long-distance signaling later adopted by the French military. This invention preceded electrical telegraphs by decades, relying on articulated arms visible via telescopes to transmit messages.

April–June

In , the National Constituent Assembly continued enacting reforms amid growing tensions between revolutionaries and royalists. On April 2, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a key figure who had secretly advised King while publicly supporting the Revolution, died of natural causes, depriving the moderate faction of a crucial leader. His death prompted the Assembly to transfer his remains to the on April 4 as a symbol of revolutionary honor, though later revelations of his double-dealing led to their removal in 1794. Tensions escalated on April 18 when the royal family attempted to travel to for Mass but was blocked by a hostile crowd in , highlighting the increasing restrictions on the monarchy's mobility and the rising influence of radical factions like the Cordeliers Club. In May, addressed ecclesiastical and colonial issues: on May 7, it allowed non-juring priests—those who refused the —to perform services, a concession to Catholic sentiment that failed to quell refractory clergy resistance; on , it extended citizenship rights to free-born people of color in the colonies amid unrest in (modern ). These measures reflected efforts to consolidate revolutionary gains while navigating divisions over religion and empire. Legislative actions intensified in mid-May and June. On May 16, proposed and the Assembly adopted the self-denying ordinance, prohibiting current deputies from serving in the upcoming to prevent entrenchment of power, though it later fueled factionalism. On June 14, the Le Chapelier Law banned workers' associations, strikes, and guilds, ostensibly to promote free markets but effectively suppressing labor organization in favor of property rights. The period culminated in a constitutional crisis on June 20–21, when , , and their immediate family secretly fled in disguise, aiming to reach loyalist troops at near the Austrian border. The escape, organized by Count Axel von Fersen, covered over 200 kilometers before the royals were recognized and arrested at due to delays and local alerts. The event shattered the king's credibility, confirming suspicions of counter-revolutionary collusion with foreign powers and accelerating demands for his deposition; the Assembly suspended him on June 21 and ordered the family's return to under guard by June 25, where they faced intensified scrutiny and at the . Elsewhere, on May 3, the of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth adopted Europe's first codified , establishing a , strengthening the executive, granting political rights to burghers while limiting noble privileges (), and aiming to reform a weakened state amid Russian influence; it was the second written national globally after the '. This progressive document sought to modernize governance and avert partition but provoked conservative noble opposition and Russian intervention, contributing to Poland's dismemberment the following year.

July–September

In 1791, anti-Dissenter riots erupted in Birmingham, , on the second anniversary of the , targeting supporters of the . The disturbances, known as the or Church-and-King Riots, began on July 14 when mobs attacked dissenting chapels and the home and laboratory of chemist and philosopher , a prominent advocate for political reform and . The violence lasted several days, destroying property associated with Dissenters perceived as radical, amid heightened tensions over the perceived threat of revolutionary ideas spreading from . On July 17, 1791, the occurred in during the . Following the royal family's failed in June, a petition demanding the abdication of King gathered over 50,000 signatures, leading to a mass assembly at the . The , under orders from the Marquis de Lafayette, opened fire on the crowd after reports of hidden weapons, resulting in approximately 50 deaths and hundreds wounded, according to contemporary estimates. This event deepened divisions between moderates and radicals, eroding support for the . In late August 1791, the commenced in the French colony of . On the night of August 22–23, thousands of enslaved Africans launched a coordinated uprising in the northern plains, led by figures including , burning plantations and killing white colonists in a bid for freedom amid grievances over brutal slavery conditions and inspired partly by revolutionary rhetoric from . The revolt rapidly spread, destroying over 1,000 plantations and causing around 2,000 white deaths within weeks, marking the beginning of a prolonged struggle that would culminate in Haitian independence. The Declaration of Pillnitz was issued on August 27, 1791, by Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II and King Frederick William II of Prussia at Pillnitz Castle near Dresden. The statement declared their concern for the safety of Louis XVI and readiness to act in concert with other European powers to restore order in France, though it explicitly conditioned intervention on collective European action. French revolutionaries interpreted it as a veiled threat of invasion, fueling war fever and contributing to the radicalization of the Legislative Assembly. In September 1791, the National Constituent Assembly finalized and passed the on September 3, establishing a with legislative power vested in a single unicameral assembly elected by active citizens—adult males paying a minimum . King formally accepted the constitution on September 14, taking an to uphold it, which temporarily stabilized the but masked underlying tensions. The assembly dissolved itself on September 30, transitioning to the new amid ongoing economic woes and émigré threats.

October–December

On October 1, the of convened for its first session in , succeeding the National Constituent Assembly and operating under the newly adopted Constitution of 1791, which established a with limited royal powers and a unicameral legislature elected by active male citizens. This body, comprising 745 deputies divided into royalist Feuillants, moderate , and radical , immediately faced tensions over émigré nobles, refractory clergy, and foreign threats, setting the stage for escalating revolutionary conflicts. In the , a U.S. expeditionary force of approximately 1,000 soldiers under Major General suffered a catastrophic defeat on November 4 near the in present-day , attacked at dawn by a Native American confederacy led by Miami chief and Shawnee leader , resulting in over 600 U.S. troops killed and 240 wounded—the highest casualty rate for U.S. forces until the Battle of Little Bighorn in 1876. The rout, attributed to supply shortages, illness reducing effective strength to under 600 combatants, and inadequate scouting, exposed vulnerabilities in federal military capacity against unified Indigenous resistance to settler expansion and prompted congressional investigations and reforms, including increased funding for a professional army. The ratification of the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, known as the Bill of Rights, was completed on December 15 when became the tenth state to approve, rendering them effective and enshrining protections for individual liberties such as , religion, assembly, the press, and safeguards against unreasonable searches, excessive bail, and . Drafted primarily by in response to Anti-Federalist concerns during the 1787-1788 ratification debates, these amendments limited federal overreach and affirmed state sovereignty in , influencing subsequent constitutional frameworks globally.

Date unknown

The School for the Indigent Blind is established in , , by a group of local philanthropists including the blind reformer Edward Rushton and merchant John Christie, marking the first such charitable institution in the dedicated to educating and employing indigent blind individuals through trades like basket-making and weaving. The school, initially operating from two houses on Commutation Row, aimed to provide vocational training to reduce pauperism among the blind, reflecting Enlightenment-era emphases on practical education and self-sufficiency for the disabled. It remains operational today as the Royal School for the Blind, the oldest continuously running specialist school for the blind globally.

Notable People

Births

– (d. ), fifteenth from to . April 27 – Samuel F. B. Morse (d. 1872), American inventor who developed the telegraph and . September 22 – (d. 1867), English and known for contributions to and . December 26 – (d. 1871), English mathematician and engineer regarded as the father of the computer for designing .

Deaths

Notable deaths in 1791 included several influential figures across politics, religion, and the arts. On March 2, , the English cleric and theologian who founded , died in at the age of 87 after a brief illness. On April 2, Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau, a prominent statesman and orator pivotal in the early phases of the , died in at age 42 from complications related to overexertion and health issues. Francis Hopkinson, an American judge, inventor, author, and signer of the Declaration of Independence, died on May 9 in at age 55. Grigory Potemkin, the Russian military leader and statesman known for his role in Catherine the Great's expansions, died on October 16 near Jassy at age 52 during military campaigns. On December 5, Wolfgang Amadeus , the prolific Austrian composer whose works defined the , died in at age 35 from a sudden and severe illness, possibly or another acute condition.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

Science, Exploration, and Inventions

The , commanded by Captain of the Royal Navy, departed Falmouth, England, on April 1, 1791, aboard HMS Discovery and Chatham, with objectives including surveying the Pacific coast of North America from to , negotiating Spanish claims at amid international tensions, and attempting to locate a viable . The four-and-a-half-year voyage mapped over 1,600 miles of coastline with unprecedented accuracy using chronometers and triangulation, contributing foundational hydrographic data that informed later British territorial assertions and colonial navigation. In the same year, the French d'Entrecasteaux expedition, led by Joseph-Antoine de Bougainville and Joseph-François de La Billardière, sailed from Brest on September 29, 1791, primarily to search for the missing La Pérouse expedition of 1785 while conducting scientific observations in the southern Indian and Pacific Oceans. The flotilla, comprising Recherche and Espérance, charted previously unrecorded sections of Tasmania's coast, the southwest Australian mainland, and Pacific islands, collecting botanical, zoological, and ethnographic specimens that advanced European knowledge of Australasian geography and indigenous cultures despite the mission's ultimate failure to locate La Pérouse. Spanish efforts included the expedition of Francisco de Eliza, who departed San Blas, Mexico, on April 26, 1791, with corvettes San Carlos and Argonauta to explore and assert sovereignty along the from northward, continuing surveys of the initiated by earlier voyages. Eliza's command established temporary outposts and mapped inlets, yielding detailed coastal profiles that reinforced Spain's diplomatic position in the Nootka Conventions amid rivalries with Britain and . Inventions advanced amid industrial and chemical pursuits. British engineer John Barber received a patent on January 14, 1791, for a proto-gas , which compressed air mixed with combustible fuel, ignited it in a , and expelled gases to drive a —foreshadowing modern principles though not practically implemented at the time due to material limitations. In the United States, the Board issued key grants on August 26, 1791, including one to John Fitch for applying to boat propulsion via paddle wheels, enabling steamboat navigation trials on the , and another to James Rumsey for an improved design enhancing efficiency through multiple flues. John Stevens secured patents around May 1791 for twin-flued cylindrical and a screw-propeller mechanism for steam vessels, prototypes tested on the that influenced subsequent maritime engineering. These American innovations, granted under the 1790 Act, spurred early mechanized transport amid competition between Fitch, Rumsey, and Stevens for viable commercial steamboats.

Arts, Literature, and Music

In music, 1791 marked the culmination of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's career with the premieres of two operas. La clemenza di Tito, K. 621, commissioned for the coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia, debuted on September 6 at the Estates Theatre in Prague. Die Zauberflöte, K. 620, a Singspiel with libretto by Emanuel Schikaneder, premiered on September 30 at the Theater auf der Wieden in Vienna, where Mozart conducted the orchestra. These works showcased Mozart's synthesis of dramatic narrative, ensemble singing, and orchestral innovation amid his financial struggles and declining health. Mozart died on December 5 in Vienna at age 35, leaving his Requiem in D minor, K. 626, incomplete; it was finished posthumously by his student Franz Xaver Süssmayr. Joseph Haydn composed Symphonies Nos. 93 to 96 during this period, including No. 94 in , later known as "Surprise," though its premiere occurred in ; these reflected his maturing style before his visits. In literature, published The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. in , a detailed drawing on personal journals and conversations, establishing it as a landmark in English letters for its vivid portrayal of 18th-century intellectual life. Thomas Paine's , Part I, appeared in February, defending the against Edmund Burke's critiques and advocating , natural rights, and progressive taxation; it sold over 50,000 copies rapidly, influencing radical thought. Susanna Rowson's , a depicting moral perils of seduction, became a in America upon its 1791 edition. Visual arts saw designing tapestry cartoons for the Spanish Royal Tapestry Factory, including The Wedding (1791–92), depicting festive rural life, and Playing at Giants (1791–92), blending satire with popular customs amid Spain's Enlightenment influences. Théodore Géricault, a future Romantic painter, was born on September 26 in , .

Significance and Legacy

Political and Constitutional Impacts

The ratification of the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution on December 15, 1791, known as the Bill of Rights, established fundamental protections against federal overreach, including freedoms of speech, religion, assembly, and the press; rights to bear arms, , and protection from unreasonable searches; and safeguards in criminal proceedings such as speedy trials and prohibition of cruel punishments. These amendments addressed Anti-Federalist concerns during the original ratification debates, limiting congressional power and reserving unenumerated rights to states and individuals, thereby reinforcing and individual liberty as core principles of American governance. Their enduring impact lies in serving as a model for constitutional rights protections worldwide, though implementation faced early challenges like the , which tested free speech limits. In Poland-Lithuania, the Constitution of May 3, 1791, adopted by the , marked Europe's first codified modern constitution, introducing , a to end elective chaos, , and expansion of political rights to urban burghers while curbing noble privileges like the that had paralyzed governance. Aimed at reforming the weakened Commonwealth amid Russian influence, it emphasized national sovereignty and civic equality to avert partition, but its progressive elements provoked conservative nobles and foreign powers, contributing directly to the Second Partition of 1793 and ultimate erasure of Polish statehood by 1795. The document's legacy endures as a symbol of enlightened reform efforts, influencing later European despite its short lifespan. France's Constitution of September 3, 1791, transformed the into a limited constitutional one, vesting sovereignty in a unicameral elected indirectly by active male citizens (those paying direct taxes), subordinating King to legislative veto overrides, and guaranteeing rights from the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, such as and property inviolability. This framework, influenced by Montesquieu's , aimed to stabilize the Revolution post-Bastille but excluded passive citizens and maintained property-based , fostering divisions that empowered radical factions. Its political impact accelerated instability: the king's flight attempt in June and the August 27 —wherein and urged European intervention to restore Louis—radicalized , leading to war declarations in and the constitution's suspension, paving the way for and the . Britain's Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the Province of Quebec into (predominantly English Protestant, future ) and (French Catholic, future ), each with a lieutenant-governor, appointed executive council, and elected , while reserving significant powers for colonial officials and . Intended to assimilate Loyalist influxes post-American Revolution and accommodate French civil law traditions, the act entrenched bicameral legislatures modeled on Westminster but without , sowing seeds for later demands and the 1837-38 Rebellions by highlighting executive dominance over elected bodies. This bifurcation institutionalized English-French cultural divides, influencing Canada's path to confederation in 1867 and ongoing federal tensions over language and provincial autonomy.

Long-term Consequences of Conflicts

The of July 17, 1791, in which troops under Lafayette killed between 12 and 50 unarmed petitioners demanding a , eroded support for the and accelerated the radicalization of French politics. This event discredited moderate leaders like Lafayette, whose forces fired on the crowd after discovering hidden weapons, thereby strengthening Jacobin and republican factions that dominated the by October 1791. In the ensuing months, it contributed to the National Assembly's refusal to compromise with the crown, fostering the political instability that led to Louis XVI's deposition in August 1792 and the onset of the . The Declaration of Pillnitz, issued on August 27, 1791, by and , urged European powers to restore while disclaiming unilateral intervention, but French revolutionaries interpreted it as a prelude to invasion. This perception fueled Girondin calls for preemptive war, culminating in 's declaration against on April 20, 1792, which ignited the . These conflicts expanded into prolonged coalitions against , spreading revolutionary ideals across , destabilizing monarchies, and laying groundwork for Napoleon's conquests by 1799, with over 1 million military deaths by 1815. The , ignited by slave uprisings on August 22–23, 1791, in , dismantled French colonial rule through 13 years of warfare involving 100,000 combatants and resulting in 200,000 deaths. It achieved Haitian independence on January 1, 1804, creating the first sovereign nation led by former slaves and prompting Napoleon's sale of to the in 1803 for $15 million to finance European campaigns. The revolution inspired abolitionist movements in the , heightening slaveholder fears that contributed to stricter controls in the U.S. South and , while its destruction of plantations and infrastructure—reducing sugar exports from 79,000 metric tons in 1789 to near zero by 1800—initiated Haiti's persistent economic stagnation, exacerbated by isolation from trade networks until the . The in Birmingham from July 14–17, 1791, targeted dissenting intellectuals amid anti-French Revolution fervor, destroying four chapels and 27 homes, including Joseph Priestley's library of 1,500 books. These events prompted the exodus of radicals like Priestley, who emigrated to Pennsylvania in 1794, and entrenched conservative Anglican dominance in Britain, contributing to repressive measures such as the 1795 Treasonable Practices Act that curtailed dissent until the 1820s. In the , the on January 2, 1791, where and Wyandot warriors killed 12 settlers in a stockade near present-day Stockport, , escalated the . It spurred federal expeditions under Harmar (October 1790, repelled) and St. Clair (November 1791, defeated with 623 casualties), but ultimately Anthony Wayne's victory at Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794, forced the on August 3, 1795, ceding two-thirds of —approximately 25 million acres—to U.S. settlement and enabling statehood in 1803, while displacing indigenous populations westward.
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References

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