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Michael Faraday (UK: /ˈfærəˌdeɪ/ FAR-uh-day, US: /ˈfærədi/ FAR-uh-dee;[1] 22 September 1791 – 25 August 1867) was an English chemist and physicist who contributed to the study of electrochemistry and electromagnetism. His main discoveries include the principles underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and electrolysis. Although Faraday received little formal education, as a self-made man, he was one of the most influential scientists in history.[2] It was by his research on the magnetic field around a conductor carrying a direct current that Faraday established the concept of the electromagnetic field in physics. Faraday also established that magnetism could affect rays of light and that there was an underlying relationship between the two phenomena.[3][4] He similarly discovered the principles of electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism, and the laws of electrolysis. His inventions of electromagnetic rotary devices formed the foundation of electric motor technology, and it was largely due to his efforts that electricity became practical for use in technology.[5] The SI unit of capacitance, the farad, is named after him.[6]

Key Information

As a chemist, Faraday discovered benzene and carbon tetrachloride, investigated the clathrate hydrate of chlorine, invented an early form of the Bunsen burner and the system of oxidation numbers, and popularised terminology such as "anode", "cathode", "electrode" and "ion". Faraday ultimately became the first and foremost Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution, a lifetime position.

Faraday was an experimentalist who conveyed his ideas in clear and simple language. His mathematical abilities did not extend as far as trigonometry and were limited to the simplest algebra. Physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell took the work of Faraday and others and summarised it in a set of equations which is accepted as the basis of all modern theories of electromagnetic phenomena. On Faraday's uses of lines of force, Maxwell wrote that they show Faraday "to have been in reality a mathematician of a very high order – one from whom the mathematicians of the future may derive valuable and fertile methods."[7]

A highly principled scientist, Faraday devoted considerable time and energy to public service. He worked on optimising lighthouses and protecting ships from corrosion. With Charles Lyell, he produced a forensic investigation on a colliery explosion at Haswell, County Durham, indicating for the first time that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion, and demonstrating how ventilation could have prevented it.[8] Faraday also investigated industrial pollution at Swansea, air pollution at the Royal Mint, and wrote to The Times on the foul condition of the River Thames during the Great Stink.[9] He refused to work on developing chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War, citing ethical reservations. He declined to have his lectures published, preferring people to recreate the experiments for themselves, to better experience the discovery, and told a publisher: "I have always loved science more than money & because my occupation is almost entirely personal I cannot afford to get rich."[10]

Albert Einstein kept a portrait of Faraday on his study wall, alongside those of Isaac Newton and James Clerk Maxwell.[11] Physicist Ernest Rutherford stated, "When we consider the magnitude and extent of his discoveries and their influence on the progress of science and of industry, there is no honour too great to pay to the memory of Faraday, one of the greatest scientific discoverers of all time."[2]

Biography

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Early life

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Michael Faraday was born on September 21, 1791 in Newington Butts,[12] Surrey, which is now part of the London Borough of Southwark.[13] His family was not well off. His father, James, was a member of the Glasite sect of Christianity. James Faraday moved his wife, Margaret (née Hastwell),[14] and two children to London during the winter of 1790 from Outhgill in Westmorland, where he had been an apprentice to the village blacksmith.[15] Michael was born in the autumn of the following year, the third of four children. The young Michael Faraday, having only the most basic school education, had to educate himself.[16]

At the age of 14, he became an apprentice to George Riebau, a local bookbinder and bookseller in Blandford Street.[17] During his seven-year apprenticeship Faraday read many books, including Isaac Watts's The Improvement of the Mind, and he enthusiastically implemented the principles and suggestions contained therein.[18] During this period, Faraday held discussions with his peers in the City Philosophical Society, where he attended lectures about various scientific topics.[19] He also developed an interest in science, especially in electricity. Faraday was particularly inspired by the book Conversations on Chemistry by Jane Marcet.[20][21]

Adult life

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Portrait of Michael Faraday by Thomas Phillips, 1842

In 1812, at the age of 20 and at the end of his apprenticeship, Faraday attended lectures by the eminent English chemist Humphry Davy of the Royal Institution and the Royal Society, and John Tatum, founder of the City Philosophical Society. Many of the tickets for these lectures were given to Faraday by William Dance, who was one of the founders of the Royal Philharmonic Society. Faraday subsequently sent Davy a 300-page book based on notes that he had taken during these lectures. Davy's reply was immediate, kind, and favourable. In 1813, when Davy damaged his eyesight in an accident with nitrogen trichloride, he decided to employ Faraday as an assistant. Coincidentally one of the Royal Institution's assistants, John Payne, was sacked and Sir Humphry Davy had been asked to find a replacement; thus he appointed Faraday as Chemical Assistant at the Royal Institution on 1 March 1813.[3] Very soon, Davy entrusted Faraday with the preparation of nitrogen trichloride samples, and they both were injured in an explosion of this very sensitive substance.[22]

Faraday married Sarah Barnard (1800–1879) on 12 June 1821.[23] They met through their families at the Sandemanian church, and he confessed his faith to the Sandemanian congregation the month after they were married. They had no children.[12] Faraday was a devout Christian; his Sandemanian denomination was an offshoot of the Church of Scotland. Well after his marriage, he served as deacon and for two terms as an elder in the meeting house of his youth. His church was located at Paul's Alley in the Barbican. This meeting house relocated in 1862 to Barnsbury Grove, Islington; this North London location was where Faraday served the final two years of his second term as elder prior to his resignation from that post.[24][25] Biographers have noted that "a strong sense of the unity of God and nature pervaded Faraday's life and work."[26]

Later life

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Three Fellows of the Royal Society offering the presidency to Faraday (right) in 1857

In June 1832, the University of Oxford granted Faraday an honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree. During his lifetime, he was offered a knighthood in recognition for his services to science, which he turned down on religious grounds, believing that it was against the word of the Bible to accumulate riches and pursue worldly reward, and stating that he preferred to remain "plain Mr Faraday to the end".[27] Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824, he twice refused to become President.[28] He became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution in 1833.[29]

In 1832, Faraday was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[30] He was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1838. In 1840, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society.[31] He was one of eight foreign members elected to the French Academy of Sciences in 1844.[32] In 1849 he was elected as associated member to the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, which two years later became the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and he was subsequently made foreign member.[33]

Faraday House in Hampton Court where Faraday lived between 1858 and 1867

Faraday had a nervous breakdown in 1839 but eventually returned to his investigations into electromagnetism.[34] In 1848, as a result of representations by the Prince Consort, Faraday was awarded a grace and favour house in Hampton Court in Middlesex, free of all expenses and upkeep. This was the Master Mason's House, later called Faraday House, and now No. 37 Hampton Court Road. In 1858 Faraday retired to live there.[35]

Faraday's grave at Highgate Cemetery, London

Having provided a number of various service projects for the British government, when asked by the government to advise on the production of chemical weapons for use in the Crimean War (1853–1856), Faraday refused to participate, citing ethical reasons.[36] He also refused offers to publish his lectures, believing that they would lose impact if not accompanied by the live experiments. His reply to an offer from a publisher in a letter ends with: "I have always loved science more than money & because my occupation is almost entirely personal I cannot afford to get rich."[10]

Faraday died at his house at Hampton Court on 25 August 1867, aged 75.[37] He had some years before turned down an offer of burial in Westminster Abbey upon his death, but he has a memorial plaque there, near Isaac Newton's tomb.[38] Faraday was interred in the dissenters' (non-Anglican) section of Highgate Cemetery.[39]

Scientific achievements

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Chemistry

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Equipment used by Faraday to make glass on display at the Royal Institution in London

Faraday's earliest chemical work was as an assistant to Humphry Davy. Faraday was involved in the study of chlorine; he discovered two new compounds of chlorine and carbon: hexachloroethane which he made via the chlorination of ethylene and carbon tetrachloride from the decomposition of the former. He also conducted the first rough experiments on the diffusion of gases, a phenomenon that was first pointed out by John Dalton. The physical importance of this phenomenon was more fully revealed by Thomas Graham and Joseph Loschmidt. Faraday succeeded in liquefying several gases, investigated the alloys of steel, and produced several new kinds of glass intended for optical purposes. A specimen of one of these heavy glasses subsequently became historically important; when the glass was placed in a magnetic field Faraday determined the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. This specimen was also the first substance found to be repelled by the poles of a magnet.[40][41]

Faraday invented an early form of what was to become the Bunsen burner, which is still in practical use in science laboratories around the world as a convenient source of heat.[42][43] Faraday worked extensively in the field of chemistry, discovering chemical substances such as benzene (which he called bicarburet of hydrogen) and liquefying gases such as chlorine. The liquefying of gases helped to establish that gases are the vapours of liquids possessing a very low boiling point and gave a more solid basis to the concept of molecular aggregation. In 1820 Faraday reported the first synthesis of compounds made from carbon and chlorine, C2Cl6 and CCl4, and published his results the following year.[44][45][46] Faraday also determined the composition of the chlorine clathrate hydrate, which had been discovered by Humphry Davy in 1810.[47][48] Faraday is also responsible for discovering the laws of electrolysis, and for popularising terminology such as anode, cathode, electrode, and ion, terms proposed in large part by William Whewell.[49]

Faraday was the first to report what later came to be called metallic nanoparticles. In 1857 he discovered that the optical properties of gold colloids differed from those of the corresponding bulk metal. This was probably the first reported observation of the effects of quantum size, and might be considered to be the birth of nanoscience.[50]

Electricity and magnetism

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Faraday is best known for his work on electricity and magnetism. His first recorded experiment was the construction of a voltaic pile with seven British halfpenny coins, stacked together with seven discs of sheet zinc, and six pieces of paper moistened with salt water.[51] With this pile he passed the electric current through a solution of sulfate of magnesia and succeeded in decomposing the chemical compound (recorded in first letter to Abbott, 12 July 1812).[51]

Electromagnetic rotation experiment of Faraday, 1821, the first demonstration of the conversion of electrical energy into motion[52]

In 1821, soon after the Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetism, Davy and William Hyde Wollaston tried, but failed, to design an electric motor.[4] Faraday, having discussed the problem with the two men, went on to build two devices to produce what he called "electromagnetic rotation". One of these, now known as the homopolar motor, caused a continuous circular motion that was engendered by the circular magnetic force around a wire that extended into a pool of mercury wherein was placed a magnet; the wire would then rotate around the magnet if supplied with current from a chemical battery. These experiments and inventions formed the foundation of modern electromagnetic technology. In his excitement, Faraday published results without acknowledging his work with either Wollaston or Davy. The resulting controversy within the Royal Society strained his mentor relationship with Davy and may well have contributed to Faraday's assignment to other activities, which consequently prevented his involvement in electromagnetic research for several years.[53][54]

One of Faraday's 1831 experiments demonstrating induction. The liquid battery (right) sends an electric current through the small coil (A). When it is moved in or out of the large coil (B), its magnetic field induces a momentary voltage in the coil, which is detected by the galvanometer (G).

From his initial discovery in 1821, Faraday continued his laboratory work, exploring electromagnetic properties of materials and developing requisite experience. In 1824, Faraday briefly set up a circuit to study whether a magnetic field could regulate the flow of a current in an adjacent wire, but he found no such relationship.[55] This experiment followed similar work conducted with light and magnets three years earlier that yielded identical results.[56][57] During the next seven years, Faraday spent much of his time perfecting his recipe for optical quality (heavy) glass, borosilicate of lead,[58] which he used in his future studies connecting light with magnetism.[59] In his spare time, Faraday continued publishing his experimental work on optics and electromagnetism; he conducted correspondence with scientists whom he had met on his journeys across Europe with Davy, and who were also working on electromagnetism.[60] Two years after the death of Davy, in 1831, he began his great series of experiments in which he discovered electromagnetic induction, recording in his laboratory diary on 28 October 1831 that he was "making many experiments with the great magnet of the Royal Society".[61]

A diagram of Faraday's iron ring-coil apparatus
Built in 1831, the Faraday disc was the first electric generator. The horseshoe-shaped magnet (A) created a magnetic field through the disc (D). When the disc was turned, this induced an electric current radially outward from the centre toward the rim. The current flowed out through the sliding spring contact m, through the external circuit, and back into the centre of the disc through the axle.

Faraday's breakthrough came when he wrapped two insulated coils of wire around an iron ring, and found that, upon passing a current through one coil, a momentary current was induced in the other coil.[4] This phenomenon is now known as mutual inductance.[62] The iron ring-coil apparatus is still on display at the Royal Institution. In subsequent experiments, he found that if he moved a magnet through a loop of wire an electric current flowed in that wire. The current also flowed if the loop was moved over a stationary magnet. His demonstrations established that a changing magnetic field produces an electric field; this relation was modelled mathematically by James Clerk Maxwell as Faraday's law, which subsequently became one of the four Maxwell equations, and which have in turn evolved into the generalization known today as field theory.[63] Faraday would later use the principles he had discovered to construct the electric dynamo, the ancestor of modern power generators and the electric motor.[64]

Faraday (right) and John Daniell (left), founders of electrochemistry

In 1832, he completed a series of experiments aimed at investigating the fundamental nature of electricity; Faraday used "static", batteries, and "animal electricity" to produce the phenomena of electrostatic attraction, electrolysis, magnetism, etc. He concluded that, contrary to the scientific opinion of the time, the divisions between the various "kinds" of electricity were illusory. Faraday instead proposed that only a single "electricity" exists, and the changing values of quantity and intensity (current and voltage) would produce different groups of phenomena.[4]

Near the end of his career, Faraday proposed that electromagnetic forces extended into the empty space around the conductor.[63] This idea was rejected by his fellow scientists, and Faraday did not live to see the eventual acceptance of his proposition by the scientific community. It would be another half a century before electricity was used in technology, with the West End's Savoy Theatre, fitted with the incandescent light bulb developed by Sir Joseph Swan, the first public building in the world to be lit by electricity.[65][66] As recorded by the Royal Institution, "Faraday invented the generator in 1831 but it took nearly 50 years before all the technology, including Joseph Swan's incandescent filament light bulbs used here, came into common use".[67]

Diamagnetism

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Faraday holding a type of glass bar he used in 1845 to show magnetism affects light in dielectric material[68]

In 1845, Faraday discovered that many materials exhibit a weak repulsion from a magnetic field: an effect he termed diamagnetism.[69]

Faraday also discovered that the plane of polarization of linearly polarised light can be rotated by the application of an external magnetic field aligned with the direction in which the light is moving. This is now termed the Faraday effect.[63] In Sept 1845 he wrote in his notebook, "I have at last succeeded in illuminating a magnetic curve or line of force and in magnetising a ray of light".[70]

Later on in his life, in 1862, Faraday used a spectroscope to search for a different alteration of light, the change of spectral lines by an applied magnetic field. The equipment available to him was, however, insufficient for a definite determination of spectral change. Pieter Zeeman later used an improved apparatus to study the same phenomenon, publishing his results in 1897 and receiving the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics for his success. In both his 1897 paper[71] and his Nobel acceptance speech, Zeeman made reference to Faraday's work.[72]

Faraday cage

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In his work on static electricity, Faraday's ice pail experiment demonstrated that the charge resided only on the exterior of a charged conductor, and exterior charge had no influence on anything enclosed within a conductor. This is because the exterior charges redistribute such that the interior fields emanating from them cancel one another. This shielding effect is used in what is now known as a Faraday cage.[63] In January 1836, Faraday had put a wooden frame, 12 ft square, on four glass supports and added paper walls and wire mesh. He then stepped inside and electrified it. When he stepped out of his electrified cage, Faraday had shown that electricity was a force, not an imponderable fluid as was believed at the time.[5]

Royal Institution and public service

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Michael Faraday meets Father Thames, from Punch (21 July 1855).

Faraday had a long association with the Royal Institution of Great Britain. He was appointed Assistant Superintendent of the House of the Royal Institution in 1821.[73] He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1824.[12] In 1825, he became Director of the Laboratory of the Royal Institution.[73] Six years later, in 1833, Faraday became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a position to which he was appointed for life without the obligation to deliver lectures. His sponsor and mentor was John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, who created the position at the Royal Institution for Faraday.[74]

Beyond his scientific research into areas such as chemistry, electricity, and magnetism at the Royal Institution, Faraday undertook numerous, and often time-consuming, service projects for private enterprise and the British government. This work included investigations of explosions in coal mines, being an expert witness in court, and along with two engineers from Chance Brothers c. 1853, the preparation of high-quality optical glass, which was required by Chance for its lighthouses. In 1846, together with Charles Lyell, he produced a lengthy and detailed report on a serious explosion in the colliery at Haswell, County Durham, which killed 95 miners.[8] Their report was a meticulous forensic investigation and indicated that coal dust contributed to the severity of the explosion.[8] The first-time explosions had been linked to dust, Faraday gave a demonstration during a lecture on how ventilation could prevent it. The report should have warned coal owners of the hazard of coal dust explosions, but the risk was ignored for over 60 years until the 1913 Senghenydd Colliery Disaster.[8]

Lighthouse lantern room from mid-1800s

As a respected scientist in a nation with strong maritime interests, Faraday spent extensive amounts of time on projects such as the construction and operation of lighthouses and protecting the bottoms of ships from corrosion. His workshop still stands at Trinity Buoy Wharf above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse where he carried out the first experiments in electric lighting for lighthouses.[75]

Faraday was also active in what would now be called environmental science, or engineering. He investigated industrial pollution at Swansea and was consulted on air pollution at the Royal Mint. In July 1855, Faraday wrote a letter to The Times on the subject of the foul condition of the River Thames, which resulted in an often-reprinted cartoon in Punch. (See also The Great Stink).[9]

Faraday's apparatus for experimental demonstration of ideomotor effect on table-turning

Faraday assisted with the planning and judging of exhibits for the Great Exhibition of 1851 in Hyde Park, London.[76] He also advised the National Gallery on the cleaning and protection of its art collection, and served on the National Gallery Site Commission in 1857.[77][78] Education was another of Faraday's areas of service; he lectured on the topic in 1854 at the Royal Institution,[79] and, in 1862, he appeared before a Public Schools Commission to give his views on education in Great Britain. Faraday also weighed in negatively on the public's fascination with table-turning,[80][81] mesmerism, and seances, and in so doing chastised both the public and the nation's educational system.[82]

Before his famous Christmas lectures, Faraday delivered chemistry lectures for the City Philosophical Society from 1816 to 1818 in order to refine the quality of his lectures.[83]

Faraday (standing behind a desk) delivering a Christmas Lecture to the general public at the Royal Institution in 1856

Between 1827 and 1860 at the Royal Institution in London, Faraday gave a series of nineteen Christmas lectures for young people, a series which continues today. The objective of the lectures was to present science to the general public in the hopes of inspiring them and generating revenue for the Royal Institution. They were notable events on the social calendar among London's gentry. Over the course of several letters to his close friend Benjamin Abbott, Faraday outlined his recommendations on the art of lecturing, writing "a flame should be lighted at the commencement and kept alive with unremitting splendour to the end".[84] His lectures were joyful and juvenile, he delighted in filling soap bubbles with various gasses (in order to determine whether or not they are magnetic), but the lectures were also deeply philosophical. In his lectures he urged his audiences to consider the mechanics of his experiments: "you know very well that ice floats upon water ... Why does the ice float? Think of that, and philosophise".[85] The subjects in his lectures consisted of Chemistry and Electricity, and included: 1841: The Rudiments of Chemistry, 1843: First Principles of Electricity, 1848: The Chemical History of a Candle, 1851: Attractive Forces, 1853: Voltaic Electricity, 1854: The Chemistry of Combustion, 1855: The Distinctive Properties of the Common Metals, 1857: Static Electricity, 1858: The Metallic Properties, 1859: The Various Forces of Matter and their Relations to Each Other.[86]

Commemorations

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See also: List of things named after Michael Faraday
Statue of Faraday in Savoy Place, London. Sculptor John Henry Foley.

A statue of Michael Faraday stands in Savoy Place, along Victoria Embankment, London, outside the Institution of Engineering and Technology. The Faraday Memorial, designed by brutalist architect Rodney Gordon and completed in 1961, is at the Elephant & Castle gyratory system, near Faraday's birthplace at Newington Butts, London. Faraday School is located on Trinity Buoy Wharf where his workshop still stands above the Chain and Buoy Store, next to London's only lighthouse.[87] Faraday Gardens is a small park in Walworth, London, not far from his birthplace at Newington Butts. It lies within the local council ward of Faraday in the London Borough of Southwark. Michael Faraday Primary school is situated on the Aylesbury Estate in Walworth.[88]

A building at London South Bank University, which houses the institute's electrical engineering departments is named the Faraday Wing, due to its proximity to Faraday's birthplace in Newington Butts. A hall at Loughborough University was named after Faraday in 1960. Near the entrance to its dining hall is a bronze casting, which depicts the symbol of an electrical transformer, and inside there hangs a portrait, both in Faraday's honour. An eight-storey building at the University of Edinburgh's science & engineering campus is named for Faraday, as is a recently built hall of accommodation at Brunel University, the main engineering building at Swansea University, and the instructional and experimental physics building at Northern Illinois University. The former UK Faraday Station in Antarctica was named after him.[89]

Without such freedom there would have been no Shakespeare, no Goethe, no Newton, no Faraday, no Pasteur and no Lister.

—Albert Einstein's speech on intellectual freedom at the Royal Albert Hall, London having fled Nazi Germany, 3 October 1933[90]

Streets named for Faraday can be found in many British cities (e.g., London, Glenrothes, Swindon, Basingstoke, Nottingham, Whitby, Kirkby, Crawley, Newbury, Swansea, Aylesbury and Stevenage) as well as in France (Paris), Germany (Berlin-Dahlem, Hermsdorf), Canada (Quebec City, Quebec; Deep River, Ontario; Ottawa, Ontario), the United States (The Bronx, New York and Reston, Virginia), Australia (Carlton, Victoria), and New Zealand (Hawke's Bay).[91][92][93]

Plaque erected in 1876 by the Royal Society of Arts in Marylebone, London

A Royal Society of Arts blue plaque, unveiled in 1876, commemorates Faraday at 48 Blandford Street in London's Marylebone district.[94] From 1991 until 2001, Faraday's picture featured on the reverse of Series E £20 banknotes issued by the Bank of England. He was portrayed conducting a lecture at the Royal Institution with the magneto-electric spark apparatus.[95] In 2002, Faraday was ranked number 22 in the BBC's list of the 100 Greatest Britons following a UK-wide vote.[96]

Faraday has been commemorated on postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail. In 1991, as a pioneer of electricity he featured in their Scientific Achievements issue along with pioneers in three other fields (Charles Babbage (computing), Frank Whittle (jet engine) and Robert Watson-Watt (radar)).[97] In 1999, under the title "Faraday's Electricity", he featured in their World Changers issue along with Charles Darwin, Edward Jenner and Alan Turing.[98]

The Faraday Institute for Science and Religion derives its name from the scientist, who saw his faith as integral to his scientific research. The logo of the institute is also based on Faraday's discoveries. It was created in 2006 by a $2,000,000 grant from the John Templeton Foundation to carry out academic research, to foster understanding of the interaction between science and religion, and to engage public understanding in both these subject areas.[99][100]

The Faraday Institution, an independent energy storage research institute established in 2017, also derives its name from Michael Faraday.[101] The organisation serves as the UK's primary research programme to advance battery science and technology, education, public engagement and market research.[101]

Faraday's life and contributions to electromagnetics was the principal topic of the tenth episode, titled "The Electric Boy", of the 2014 American science documentary series, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which was broadcast on Fox and the National Geographic Channel.[102]

The writer Aldous Huxley wrote about Faraday in an essay entitled, A Night in Pietramala: "He is always the natural philosopher. To discover truth is his sole aim and interest ... even if I could be Shakespeare, I think I should still choose to be Faraday."[103] Calling Faraday her "hero", in a speech to the Royal Society, Margaret Thatcher declared: "The value of his work must be higher than the capitalisation of all the shares on the Stock Exchange!" She borrowed his bust from the Royal Institution and had it placed in the hall of 10 Downing Street.[5]

Awards named in Faraday's honour

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In honor and remembrance of his great scientific contributions, several institutions have created prizes and awards in his name. This include:

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  • Portrait of young Michael Faraday, c. 1826
    Portrait of young Michael Faraday, c. 1826
  • Michael Faraday in his laboratory, c. 1850s
    Michael Faraday in his laboratory, c. 1850s
  • Michael Faraday's study at the Royal Institution
    Michael Faraday's study at the Royal Institution
  • Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution
    Michael Faraday's flat at the Royal Institution
  • Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours
    Artist Harriet Jane Moore who documented Faraday's life in watercolours

Bibliography

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See also

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References

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Sources

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Michael Faraday

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from Grokipedia
Michael Faraday (1791–1867) was a pioneering British renowned for his groundbreaking work in and , laying the foundations for modern electrical technology and field theory. Born on 22 September 1791 in , , , to a poor family—his father James was a —Faraday received only a basic education before leaving school at age 13 and apprenticing as a bookbinder in , where he self-educated by reading scientific texts. In 1813, he joined the Royal Institution as a laboratory assistant under chemist , accompanying him on a European tour from 1813 to 1815 that exposed him to leading scientists. Faraday married Sarah Barnard in 1821 and became a full member of the Sandemanian church that year, a faith that influenced his life and occasional scientific abstentions. Rising through the ranks, Faraday was appointed director of the Royal Institution's laboratory in 1825 and Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in 1833, delivering famous Christmas Lectures for children from 1827 to 1860. Elected a in 1824, he received numerous honors, though he declined a knighthood and presidency of the Society. Faraday's major contributions began in chemistry: in 1823, he liquefied gas for the first time; in 1825, he isolated ; and in 1833, he formulated the laws of , introducing terms like electrode, , , anion, and cation, and establishing that equal quantities of deposit equivalent amounts of substances. In electromagnetism, his 1821 discovery of electromagnetic rotation demonstrated how a could produce continuous motion, leading to the first . His 1831 breakthrough in —using an to generate from a changing —paved the way for electric generators and transformers; the same year, he created the first with a rotating disc between poles. In 1845, he observed the , where rotate polarized light, and discovered . He also proved that from various sources (batteries, magnets, static) is identical. Faraday's conceptual insights, such as viewing forces as fields rather than actions at a distance, profoundly influenced James Clerk Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism. Despite health issues, including a nervous breakdown in 1839 and memory loss later, he continued advising on lighthouses and scientific matters until his death on 25 August 1867 at Hampton Court, where Queen Victoria granted him residence. His legacy endures in units like the farad for capacitance and the Faraday constant for electric charge, underscoring his role as one of history's greatest experimental physicists.

Biography

Early Life and Education

Michael Faraday was born on September 22, 1791, in , , (now part of the London Borough of ), to a family of modest means. His father, James Faraday, was a originally from who had relocated south for work, while his mother, Margaret Hastwell, came from a farming background in . The family faced financial hardships, with James often in poor health, which limited their resources and shaped Faraday's early experiences of . Faraday received only a rudimentary formal education, attending a local where he learned the basics of by the age of 13. Unable to afford further schooling, he left early to contribute to the household. In , at age 14, Faraday began a seven-year as a bookbinder under George Riebau in London, a position that provided stability while exposing him to a wealth of knowledge. During this time, he cultivated a voracious reading habit, devouring volumes on various subjects that passed through the shop, including scientific works such as Jane Marcet's Conversations on Chemistry (1806), which ignited his interest in the field. Faraday's self-directed learning extended beyond books; in 1812, he attended a series of lectures on chemistry by at Institution, where he meticulously transcribed the content into a 313-page notebook, which he later bound and presented to Davy as a demonstration of his enthusiasm. This effort impressed Davy and led to Faraday's first employment opportunity at the institution as a laboratory assistant in 1813. His upbringing in the Sandemanian sect—a small, devout emphasizing , communal , and moral —profoundly influenced his character and approach to , fostering a sense of ethical responsibility and a view of natural laws as divine expressions. The sect's principles of simplicity and community service remained central to Faraday's life, guiding his rejection of personal acclaim in favor of collaborative and accessible scientific pursuit.

Career Beginnings

In 1812, at the age of 20, Faraday attended a series of lectures by at the Royal Institution and meticulously transcribed his notes, binding them into a volume that he presented to Davy along with a letter seeking employment. Impressed by the young man's diligence and intellect, Davy appointed Faraday as his chemical assistant at the Royal Institution on March 1, 1813. That October, Faraday accompanied Davy and his wife Jane on an extended tour of , lasting until mid-1815, where they visited , , , and other regions amid the post-Napoleonic era. During this journey, Faraday served as both scientific assistant and valet, assisting with experiments and observations while networking with prominent continental scientists, including and . Upon returning to in 1815, Faraday resumed his laboratory duties, contributing to early projects such as the development of the Davy for coal mines between late 1815 and 1816, a hazardous endeavor involving tests on explosive gases to prevent mine disasters. From 1816 onward, Faraday's independent research gained traction, culminating in his 1821 discovery of electromagnetic rotation, which demonstrated the conversion of into mechanical motion and earned him as a in 1824 despite initial opposition from Davy. In 1821, the same year as his electromagnetic rotation discovery, Faraday married Sarah Barnard; the couple had no children. His early publications further solidified his reputation in , including analyses of alloys like from 1818 to 1822 and the identification of two new chlorine-carbon compounds in 1820, published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. These works showcased his precision in experimental techniques and marked his transition from assistant to recognized researcher. Faraday's ascent continued with his appointment as Director of the Laboratory at the Royal in 1825, granting him greater autonomy over research facilities, followed by his appointment as full Superintendent of the House in 1852 and as the inaugural Fullerian Professor of Chemistry in 1833, positions that positioned him as a leader within the institution.

Later Years and Retirement

Faraday reached the height of his scientific productivity during the 1830s and 1840s, a period marked by groundbreaking work in , , and related fields. However, signs of health decline emerged around 1839, stemming from chronic overwork that culminated in a severe nervous breakdown, compelling him to suspend for several years. His condition never fully recovered, with ongoing fatigue and possible from prolonged exposure during experiments contributing to neurological symptoms, including memory loss. By the mid-1850s, Faraday's impairments intensified, limiting his capacity for sustained intellectual effort. In 1858, he accepted an appointment as scientific advisor to , the corporation overseeing English and Welsh lighthouses, where he provided guidance on optical and electrical improvements, such as early electric lighting trials at South Foreland Lighthouse; yet, his participation remained sporadic owing to persistent memory lapses and exhaustion. That year also saw his formal retirement from laboratory duties at the Royal Institution, after which granted him a grace-and-favour apartment at as a token of national appreciation, allowing him a quieter existence while enabling occasional advisory roles. Faraday passed away on August 25, 1867, at age 75 in his Hampton Court residence. Adhering to the tenets of his Sandemanian faith, he insisted on a modest funeral without pomp, attended only by family and close associates; his remains were interred in the Sandemanian section of in . In his later correspondence and reflections, Faraday reiterated his devotion to rigorous , advocating restraint from ungrounded speculation to preserve the integrity of scientific inquiry.

Contributions to Chemistry

Electrochemistry

Between 1832 and 1834, Michael Faraday conducted a series of meticulous experiments at the Royal Institution, decomposing various chemical compounds using electric currents from voltaic batteries and frictional machines. These investigations involved passing controlled quantities of through solutions such as , acids, and salts, measuring the resulting deposition or liberation of substances at the s with precision instruments like the volta-electrometer, which quantified via the volume of and oxygen gases evolved from . For instance, in experiments with and of lead, Faraday observed consistent deposition of lead at the regardless of electrode material or spacing, as long as the total charge passed remained constant. These experiments culminated in Faraday's first law of electrolysis, which states that the mass mm of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity QQ passed through the electrolyte, expressed as m=ZQm = Z Q, where ZZ is the electrochemical equivalent of the substance—a constant representing the mass deposited or liberated per unit charge. This law established that chemical change depends solely on the total electric charge, independent of the current's intensity or source, as verified by Faraday's measurements showing proportional gas evolution from water decomposition across varying electrode sizes and battery strengths. His second law further posits that, for a fixed quantity of electricity, the masses of different elements deposited or liberated are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights—the atomic or molecular weights divided by their valency. This was demonstrated through comparative decompositions, such as equal volumes of electricity yielding masses of silver, copper, and lead in ratios matching their equivalents (e.g., 108 parts silver to 31.7 parts copper). In the same body of work, Faraday introduced foundational terminology to describe electrochemical phenomena, coining "" for the surfaces ( and ) bounding the decomposing body in the current's direction, "" for substances directly decomposed by the current (such as water or acids), "anion" for particles migrating to the , and "cation" for those to the . He also termed the process "," drawing an analogy to chemical analysis. These terms, first appearing in his detailed accounts of experiments with lead and tin compounds, provided a precise that unified observations of ionic migration and decomposition. Faraday presented the quantitative foundations of these laws in his Bakerian Lecture to the Royal Society on December 12, 1833, published in 1834 as "On the Absolute Quantity of Electricity Associated with the Particles or Atoms of Matter." This lecture synthesized data from over 100 experiments, including precise weighings of deposited metals and gas volumes, to argue that electricity acts in discrete units tied to atomic particles, thereby establishing electrochemistry as a rigorous quantitative field linking electrical and chemical forces. The laws had immediate practical implications, enabling early assessments of battery efficiency by relating electrical output to chemical consumption—for example, Faraday's measurements of zinc dissolution in voltaic cells revealed the theoretical charge capacity per gram of , guiding designs to minimize . Similarly, they illuminated processes as electrochemical decompositions, where metals like iron act as anodes in electrolytic environments, losing mass proportional to the charge transferred; Faraday's experiments with acid solutions on metals foreshadowed protective strategies like cathodic shielding.

Discovery of Benzene and Other Organic Compounds

In 1825, Michael Faraday isolated , which he termed "bicarburet of ," from the products of compressed oil and , marking the first preparation of a pure sample of this compound. He obtained the substance as a colorless, volatile liquid through repeated and washing with , noting its high , low around 80°C, and sweet . Faraday's analysis revealed its as , though he expressed it in terms of equivalents, and he highlighted its stability and insolubility in , distinguishing it from other hydrocarbons. This discovery arose from his systematic examination of oily residues from , contributing to early understandings of aromatic compounds. During the early 1820s, Faraday advanced through the synthesis of novel carbon-halogen compounds, including (C2Cl6) and (), the first known organochlorine compounds. These were produced by reacting gas with "Dutch liquid" (a mixture of ethylene chloride and ) under sunlight, yielding heavy, colorless liquids that he characterized by their density, boiling points, and decomposition behaviors. , in particular, served as a key precursor in later syntheses, such as the production of via halogen exchange reactions. Faraday also explored related cyanogen derivatives, isolating compounds like through reactions involving prussic acid and , which expanded knowledge of nitrogen-carbon linkages in organic structures. His work on fluoborates, including the preparation of ammonium fluoborate from and mixtures, demonstrated stable complex formations and aided in understanding boron-fluorine bonding, though these efforts were complicated by the reactivity of precursors. Faraday's investigations into alloys in the involved detailed chemical analyses to enhance material properties for industrial applications, such as cutting tools. He examined compositions of iron-carbon alloys alloyed with , , and other metals, using and techniques to quantify impurities and phase formations, which improved and resistance. These studies revealed how trace elements influenced compound formation and microstructure, laying groundwork for modern metallurgical design without relying on electrical methods. Complementing this, Faraday analyzed the of , where he observed the entrapment of chlorine molecules within a lattice, advancing insights into non-covalent compound assemblies and their stability under varying temperatures. His empirical approach emphasized precise compositional determinations, contributing to broader theories of molecular inclusion. In the , Faraday conducted extensive research on optical glass production to meet demands for high-precision lenses, focusing on purity and homogeneity. Commissioned by , he experimented with lead and formulations, melting them in crucibles to minimize from iron and impurities, achieving refractive indices suitable for achromatic objectives. Faraday documented variations in , dispersion, and annealing processes, establishing standards that reduced bubbles and striae, thereby enhancing optical clarity for astronomical instruments. His innovations, including controlled stirring and slow cooling, represented a significant leap in glass chemistry, prioritizing over mere physical manipulation. These chemical achievements garnered international recognition, leading to Faraday's election as a foreign member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1834 and the in 1844, honors attributed to his rigorous analytical work on organic isolations and material compositions.

Liquefaction of Gases

In 1823, Michael Faraday achieved the first permanent of a gas by compressing into a stable form at low temperatures, marking a significant advancement in understanding the physical states of matter. He employed a robust apparatus, partially filled with dry chlorine hydrate at one end, which was heated in boiling water to release the gas into the upper portion of the tube. The open end was then sealed by fusing the glass, creating high pressure from the expanded gas, and the upper section was immersed in a mixture of and salt to lower the to approximately -20°C, causing the chlorine to condense into a clear, that persisted even after warming to room temperature. Building on this success, Faraday extended the technique to other gases, including , , and , using similar compression in sealed tubes over mercury reservoirs to isolate and cool the samples. For these substances, he generated the gases through chemical reactions—such as heating with lime for ammonia or burning in moist air for sulfur dioxide—and applied pressure via mercury displacement while cooling with ice-salt baths, resulting in colorless or pale liquids that demonstrated no chemical alteration during the . These experiments confirmed that occurred purely through physical means, without , and produced stable liquids that could be preserved under moderate conditions. Faraday detailed these findings in his paper "On the Condensation of Several Gases into Liquids," presented to the Royal Society, emphasizing the generality of the process for gases previously considered non-liquefiable. In 1845, Faraday further challenged the prevailing notion of "permanent gases"—such as hydrogen and , believed incapable of —by achieving their under elevated pressures. Using strengthened glass or metal tubes capable of withstanding intense compression (up to several atmospheres), he introduced the gases and applied mechanical pressure via pistons or sealed expansion, while cooling to near-freezing temperatures, yielding transient but observable phases of (a blue ) and oxygen. These results, reported in "On the and Solidification of Bodies Generally Existing as Gases," underscored that all gases could potentially be liquefied given sufficient pressure and cooling, eroding the distinction between permanent and condensable gases. Faraday's work on gas laid foundational principles for , highlighting phase transitions as reversible physical processes and inspiring subsequent studies on critical points and vapor pressures, which proved essential for the development of technologies.

Contributions to Physics

Electromagnetic Rotation and Induction

In 1821, Michael Faraday conducted experiments that demonstrated the conversion of into mechanical motion through electromagnetic interaction. He suspended a wire above a pool of mercury, with a permanent positioned vertically in the center, and passed an from a battery through the wire via the mercury. The interaction between the current and the caused the wire to rotate around the magnet, producing continuous . This apparatus, often described as Faraday's first , marked the initial practical link between , , and motion. Building on this work, Faraday pursued the reciprocal effect—generating electricity from magnetism—throughout the 1820s, culminating in his discovery of in 1831. On August 29, he constructed an wrapped with two separate coils of insulated wire, one on each side. Connecting the primary coil to a battery produced a momentary current in the secondary coil, detected by a , when the battery circuit was completed or broken; this demonstrated mutual induction, where a changing current in one coil induces a current in an adjacent coil via the varying through the iron core. The device, preserved at the Royal Institution, functioned as the first electrical . Later that year, Faraday confirmed the principle more directly by inserting and withdrawing a bar from a coil of wire connected to a galvanometer, observing induced currents only during motion, which altered the through the coil. These experiments established that a time-varying magnetic field induces an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor, formalized as Faraday's : the induced EMF ϵ\epsilon equals the negative rate of change of magnetic flux ΦB\Phi_B through the circuit, ϵ=−dΦBdt\epsilon = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}. To achieve a steady output, Faraday developed a rotating apparatus in October 1831, consisting of a disk mounted on an axle and spun between the poles of a . Brushes contacted the disk's edge and center, connecting to a ; the disk's rotation in the generated a continuous DC current, as the motion continuously changed the flux for radial elements of the conductor. Known as the Faraday disk or , this device converted mechanical rotation into electrical power without alternating polarity, though eddy currents limited its efficiency. In the ensuing years of the , Faraday refined these findings through further coil experiments, distinguishing mutual induction from self-induction, where a changing current in a single coil induces an EMF opposing the change within itself. He explored various geometries, including helical windings and multiple coils, to quantify induction effects and their dependence on conductor arrangement and magnetic materials. These investigations, detailed in his Experimental Researches in series, solidified the principles underlying generators and inductors. Philosophically, Faraday's results reinforced his conviction in the unity of natural forces, positing and as manifestations of a single underlying phenomenon mediated by a continuous medium, rather than discrete actions at a distance between particles. He rejected instantaneous remote influences, instead envisioning forces propagated along contiguous "lines of force" pervading , a that influenced later field theories.

Laws of Electrolysis and Field Theory

Building on his earlier work in (see Contributions to Chemistry), Faraday extended electrochemical insights to in the , conducting experiments that revealed magneto-electric induction as proportional to strength, thereby linking , chemistry, and through a continuous field concept. In his first series of 1831, he observed that inserting a soft iron core into a helical coil around a intensified the induced current in a connected , indicating that the induction effect scaled with the magnetic force's intensity; subsequent tests with electromagnets in the ninth series (1834–1835) further confirmed that stronger fields produced proportionally larger sparks and shocks upon current cessation. This proportionality suggested that magnetic action permeated space continuously, rather than acting instantaneously at a , allowing Faraday to conceptualize induction as the cutting of invisible magnetic paths by conductors. Central to this synthesis was Faraday's introduction of "lines of force" in the 1830s, a qualitative framework portraying magnetic and as physical entities—tensile lines of stress distributed continuously through space and matter, rather than abstract forces between particles. First sketched in his series to explain induced currents in rotating disks and helices, these lines depicted magnetic influence as curved paths around poles, with induction occurring when conductors intersected them; by the second series, Faraday likened them to concentric rings around a current-carrying wire, emphasizing their role in mediating forces without relying on . This vision, elaborated across the Experimental Researches (–), rejected traditional models positing a passive medium for instantaneous propagation, instead proposing a dynamic, stressed continuum where lines carried inductive powers, profoundly influencing later developments like . Faraday prioritized experimental verification over mathematical abstraction, insisting that phenomena like field curvature in dielectrics must be tested empirically, as in his demonstrations with hemispheres showing bent induction lines. Building on this in the and , Faraday investigated induction, revealing how non-conducting substances participated in and linked to matter's structure. In his eleventh series (1837, published 1838), he quantified the "specific inductive capacity" of materials like and shell-lac, finding that insulators varied in their ability to sustain induced charges—air having a capacity of 1, while denser like reached 2.3—demonstrating that electric forces acted through contiguous particles in the medium, not across voids. By the 1845–1850s, experiments in later series extended this to show polarization aligning with field lines, reinforcing the unity of electric and magnetic actions in a pervasive field that encompassed , thus synthesizing within a broader electrodynamic theory. These findings, compiled in the Experimental Researches in Electricity volumes of 1839 and 1855, underscored Faraday's commitment to observable effects as the foundation of physical understanding, eschewing speculative for tangible demonstrations.

Diamagnetism and Faraday Cage

In 1836, Michael Faraday constructed a large enclosure lined with metal foil, now known as the , to investigate the behavior of static s within conductors. He demonstrated that when high-voltage discharges from an were directed at the exterior of the cage, no penetrated inside, as evidenced by an placed within the room showing no deflection. This experiment illustrated how charges on the conductive surface redistribute to cancel external static s, confining any induced charge to the outer surface. Faraday's work on the laid the groundwork for , which was later applied in early to protect signals from external interference and in modern to safeguard sensitive components from and electromagnetic pulses. In 1845, Faraday discovered the , in which a strong causes the plane of polarization of passing through certain transparent materials, such as glass, to rotate. This magneto-optical phenomenon provided further evidence for the intimate connection between , , and , supporting his field theory and later influencing the development of optical isolators and sensors. Nearly a decade earlier in the , but building toward these insights, Faraday turned his attention in 1845 to the magnetic properties of materials previously thought non-magnetic, discovering through experiments with a sensitive torsion balance. He suspended samples such as between the poles of a powerful and observed that they rotated in the direction opposite to that of paramagnetic substances like iron, indicating repulsion from the . exhibited the strongest diamagnetic effect among the materials tested, including heavy glass, , and various liquids and gases. Faraday explained as arising from induced magnetic fields within the material that oppose the applied field, creating a repulsive force distinct from the attraction seen in . This universal property affects all matter to some degree, contrasting with the polarized alignment in paramagnetic materials. His torsion balance measurements quantified the subtle forces, confirming the phenomenon's consistency across different substances. Building on these findings in the , Faraday explored magnecrystallic forces, revealing that certain crystals, such as , exhibit anisotropic responses to depending on their orientation. He demonstrated this by suspending oriented samples in and observing deflections that varied with the crystal's axial alignment, indicating directional dependencies in not present in isotropic materials. These experiments highlighted the intimate link between a material's atomic structure and its magnetic behavior, extending his earlier work on .

Institutional Roles and Public Engagement

Work at the Royal Institution

Michael Faraday joined the Royal Institution in March 1813 as a laboratory assistant to , following Davy's eye injury from an explosion involving , which created an opening after another assistant was dismissed. His role quickly expanded; by 1821, he served as Assistant Superintendent of the House, and in 1825, he was appointed Director of the Laboratory, a position he held until 1867. In 1833, Faraday became the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry, endowed specifically for him by John 'Mad Jack' Fuller, allowing him to focus on experimental research without financial pressures. As Director, Faraday managed the 's daily operations, including staff oversight, allocation, and enhancements to support rigorous experimentation. He addressed concerns arising from early incidents with volatile compounds by improving ventilation systems and implementing stricter protocols, which helped prevent further accidents in the facility. Under his , the laboratory underwent expansions, such as the installation of specialized furnaces in the 1820s for glassmaking trials, transforming the space into a more efficient hub for chemical and physical investigations. Faraday drove institutional reforms emphasizing empirical, practical science over theoretical speculation, aligning the Royal Institution's mission with hands-on discovery. He oversaw the Friday Evening Discourses, a series established by the in 1825, ensuring they became a cornerstone of scientific exchange while maintaining fiscal responsibility amid the institution's financial challenges. In his administrative capacity, Faraday provided expert consultations on industrial applications, notably in the when he worked with the and Board of to develop high-quality optical glass for lenses, conducting extensive trials at the Royal Institution to refine production techniques. His efforts improved efficiency, including innovations like enhanced chimneys for oil lamps. Faraday's tenure at the Royal Institution spanned over 50 years, from 1813 until his death in 1867, during which he elevated it from a struggling entity into a premier center for scientific advancement, fostering groundbreaking research in chemistry and physics.

Lectures and Educational Outreach

Michael Faraday played a pivotal role in popularizing science through the Friday Evening Discourses at the Royal Institution, a series established by the Institution in 1825 to share recent scientific advancements with a broad audience beyond professional scientists. These weekly lectures, held on Friday evenings, featured live demonstrations and were designed to engage laypeople, scientists, and intellectuals alike, often drawing crowds that included members of the British royalty. Faraday himself delivered many of these discourses, using them to announce groundbreaking developments, such as the first public demonstration of photography in 1839. Complementing the Discourses, Faraday initiated the Christmas Lectures in 1825, specifically tailored for young audiences to foster early interest in science during the holiday season. He personally presented 19 series of these annual lectures starting in 1827, employing simple, everyday apparatus to explain complex concepts in an entertaining manner. A renowned example is his 1860–1861 series, The Chemical History of a Candle, where he dissected the process through vivid experiments with a single , illustrating principles of chemistry, heat, and air. These lectures emphasized observation and wonder, making abstract ideas accessible to children and families. Faraday's lecturing style was characterized by dramatic, hands-on experiments performed without notes, relying on his deep preparation and passion to captivate audiences and evoke a of scientific awe. His performances transformed the Royal Institution's theater into a dynamic space of discovery, blending theater-like flair with rigorous explanation to inspire curiosity. Transcripts of Faraday's lectures were widely published in contemporary journals such as the Quarterly Journal of Science and the Arts and the Philosophical Magazine, extending their reach to those unable to attend in person and preserving his educational innovations for future generations. Later compilations, like The Chemical History of a Candle edited by William Crookes in 1861, further disseminated his work. The impact of Faraday's lectures was profound, inspiring generations of scientists and educators by demonstrating science as an approachable and exciting pursuit. His efforts helped sustain the Royal Institution financially and culturally, with succeeding him as Fullerian Professor of Chemistry and continuing the tradition of public engagement.

Advisory Roles and Honors

In the 1830s and 1840s, Faraday served as a scientific advisor to various government bodies, providing expertise on practical applications of . From 1836 until his retirement in 1865, he acted as scientific advisor to , the authority responsible for lighthouses in , where he conducted extensive experiments on lighthouse optics, including the efficiency of lenses and the use of for illumination. His work helped improve maritime safety by optimizing light projection and testing new technologies for remote installations. Faraday also advised the British government on public health and military matters during this period. In 1855, he contributed to sanitation efforts by authoring a detailed letter to The Times describing the severe pollution of the River Thames, noting how sewage rendered the water a "dark brown" fluid unfit even for industrial use, which influenced subsequent reforms in London's water supply and waste management. In 1846, Faraday investigated the properties of guncotton through correspondence and experiments with its discoverer, Christian Friedrich Schönbein. Faraday's contributions earned him prestigious recognitions from the Royal Society. He was elected a in 1824, acknowledging his early work in chemistry and . The Society awarded him the in 1832 for his chemical analyses and again in 1838 for his investigations into . He received the in 1835 for his electrochemical research and in 1846 for his studies on , and the in 1846 for his work on the of and . Internationally, Faraday was honored for his groundbreaking discoveries. In 1842, he was admitted to the Prussian Order for Sciences and Arts, recognizing his advancements in and . In 1856, the King of bestowed upon him the Cross of the Order of Dannebrog, a distinction for foreign scientists of exceptional merit. Despite these accolades, Faraday's humility led him to decline significant roles. He twice refused the presidency of the Royal Society—in 1857 and on a subsequent occasion—citing his preference to focus on rather than administrative duties, and expressing that such a position would interfere with his scientific pursuits. In recognition of his lifelong service to science, Queen Victoria granted Faraday and his wife a grace-and-favour residence at Hampton Court Palace in 1858, providing them with comfortable lodgings free of rent until his death. This gesture underscored the esteem in which he was held by the British establishment.

Legacy and Influence

Personal Beliefs and Family Life

In 1821, Michael Faraday married Sarah Barnard, whom he had met through their shared involvement in the Sandemanian church; the couple enjoyed a long and devoted partnership until his death in 1867, though they had no children of their own. Sarah directed her nurturing instincts toward Faraday's nieces and godchildren, fostering close familial bonds that enriched their childless home. Faraday's upbringing in a devout Sandemanian household instilled a lifelong commitment to the faith, a strict Protestant emphasizing literal adherence to the , , and the restoration of early Christian communal practices. Faraday's adherence to Sandemanianism involved periods of tension; he was excluded from the church in 1844 amid a congregational dispute but was reinstated. He served as an elder from 1840 to 1844 and again from 1860 to 1864, resigning the latter role in 1864. He viewed and as harmonious pursuits, with no inherent conflict between them, regarding scientific inquiry as a means to uncover the divine laws ordained by in the material world while firmly opposing materialistic interpretations that denied a creator. This perspective stemmed from his belief that the natural world was a "" authored by , revealing orderly principles through empirical study. Faraday maintained simple daily habits reflective of his modest and principled character, living temperately and seldom consuming anything other than pure water, which aligned with his avoidance of alcohol. His personal correspondence often revealed profound and ethical sensitivity in scientific matters; for instance, in an letter, he stressed the primacy of facts over speculation, noting that "facts were important to me, and saved me" from error. In another exchange addressing scientific controversies, he decried polemical disputes as a "great stain" on the pursuit of knowledge, advocating instead for fraternal resolution among researchers.

Scientific Impact and Modern Applications

Faraday's conceptualization of electromagnetic fields through lines of force revolutionized physics by providing a physical framework for understanding interactions at a distance, eschewing action-at-a-distance theories. This intuitive approach directly inspired James Clerk Maxwell to develop his seminal equations in the 1860s, which mathematically unified , , and into a single electromagnetic theory. Maxwell acknowledged Faraday's influence, stating that his equations captured the "geometry of lines of force" to describe field behaviors. These equations later formed the cornerstone of Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity in 1905, where electromagnetic fields exemplify the relativity of space and time, enabling consistent descriptions of phenomena across inertial frames. In , Faraday's laws—stating that the mass of a substance altered at an is proportional to the quantity of transferred and to the substance's —provide the quantitative foundation for numerous . , used to deposit thin metal layers for protection and decorative finishes on objects like automotive parts and jewelry, relies on these laws to control deposition thickness and efficiency. The laws also govern systems, where sacrificial anodes prevent in structures such as pipelines and ships by directing electrochemical reactions away from the metal surface. Modern rechargeable batteries, including lithium-ion variants that power electric vehicles and portable , operate on principles derived from Faraday's , where ion transport and charge balance determine capacity and cycle life. Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which posits that a changing through a circuit induces an proportional to the rate of change, underpins the global electrical power infrastructure. Electric generators in power plants convert from turbines into via rotating coils in magnetic fields, enabling efficient large-scale production. Transformers, essential for in transmission lines, exploit mutual induction between coils to step up voltage for long-distance transport and step it down for consumer use, minimizing energy losses in grids. Electric motors, from those in household appliances to industrial drives, harness induction to produce , converting back into mechanical work with high efficiency. Faraday's 1845 discovery of —the weak repulsion of materials like and in magnetic fields—has found niche but significant applications in precision technologies. In (MRI) scanners, diamagnetic materials such as or polymers are used in shimming to fine-tune field homogeneity, ensuring clear images without distortion. Diamagnetic levitation leverages this repulsion for stable, contactless suspension; for instance, it enables frictionless bearings in high-speed rotors and contributes to train systems, where superconductors enhance the effect to lift and propel trains at speeds over 300 km/h. Beyond specific domains, Faraday's emphasis on field-mediated forces influenced the articulation of conservation laws, particularly the , which he termed the "conservation of force" as the highest physical principle observable by human faculties. His holistic view of nature as interconnected through fields inspired subsequent unified field theories, including Maxwell's and 20th-century attempts by Einstein to merge with into a single framework.

Commemorations and Named Awards

Michael Faraday is commemorated through various statues and plaques in . A bronze statue of Faraday, sculpted by John Henry Foley, stands at Savoy Place, depicting him holding an ; it is a copy of the original marble statue housed at the Royal Institution. The original marble statue resides in the Royal Institution, where Faraday conducted much of his work. A from marks 48 Blandford Street in , where Faraday lived and performed early experiments. Near his birthplace in , the at features an inscription noting his birth in 1791 at that location. Institutions named in Faraday's honor include the Faraday Museum at the Royal Institution in , opened in 1973 to showcase his laboratory and scientific apparatus from over 200 years of history-making discoveries. Several prestigious awards bear Faraday's name. The (IET) Faraday Medal, first awarded in 1922, recognizes notable contributions to and . The Institute of Physics awards the Michael Faraday Medal and Prize biennially for outstanding contributions to . The Royal Society of Chemistry's Faraday Lectureship Prize honors exceptional work in . In scientific nomenclature, the faraday (F), a unit of electric charge equivalent to approximately 96,485 coulombs per mole of electrons, is used in and named after Faraday for his laws of . A lunar in the southern highlands, overlapping the rim of Stöfler, is named Faraday. The bicentennial of Faraday's birth in 1991 was marked by international celebrations, including symposia at Cambridge University, a from , and events honoring his scientific legacy across Britain and beyond.

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