October 28

October 28 is the 301st day of the year (302nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 64 days remaining until the end of the year.^[1] In Greece and Cyprus, it is celebrated as Ohi Day (meaning "No Day"), commemorating Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas's rejection of an Italian ultimatum for surrender on October 28, 1940, which prompted Greece's entry into World War II against the Axis powers and subsequent resistance that delayed German advances in the Balkans.^[2] The date has also been marked by foundational developments in education and symbolism, such as the establishment of Harvard University in 1636 as the first institution of higher learning in the American colonies^[3] and the official dedication of the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor in 1886 by President Grover Cleveland, symbolizing Franco-American alliance and immigration ideals.^[4] Pivotal political shifts have occurred on this date, including the March on Rome in 1922, when Benito Mussolini's fascist squads converged on the Italian capital, pressuring King Victor Emmanuel III to appoint Mussolini as prime minister the following day and initiating fascist rule in Italy.^[5] In 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis reached its resolution when Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev publicly announced the dismantling and withdrawal of offensive missiles from Cuba, averting nuclear confrontation after U.S. demands and a naval quarantine.^[6] Notable births include Jonas Salk, developer of the polio vaccine, in 1914, and Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft, in 1955, while deaths encompass philosopher John Locke in 1704 and Founding Mother Abigail Adams in 1818.^[7] These events underscore October 28's recurrence of themes in resistance, institutional foundations, and high-stakes diplomacy.

Events

Pre-1600

On October 28, 306, the Praetorian Guard and elements of the Roman Senate in Rome proclaimed Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius as emperor amid dissatisfaction with the Tetrarchy's succession following the death of Constantius Chlorus earlier that year. Maxentius, son of the retired emperor Maximian, was elevated as princeps in a usurpation that challenged the legitimacy of Severus II, who had been appointed Augustus by Galerius. This act exploited local grievances over taxation and military deployments, restoring Maximian as co-ruler shortly thereafter, though Maxentius avoided the title of Augustus initially to evade direct confrontation with the eastern emperors.^[8] Six years later, on October 28, 312, Constantine I decisively defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge near Rome, securing control over the western provinces. Constantine's forces, numbering around 40,000, outmaneuvered Maxentius' larger army of approximately 100,000 by advancing from the north and forcing the engagement across the Tiber River, where the weakened Pons Milvius bridge collapsed under retreating troops, leading to Maxentius' drowning. Ancient accounts attribute Constantine's pre-battle adoption of the Chi-Rho symbol—following a vision of a cross with the words "In hoc signo vinces"—to divine favor, as reported by Lactantius and Eusebius, though modern scholars note the symbol's appearance on shields marked a pivotal shift toward toleration of Christianity. The victory dissolved the Praetorian Guard and ended Maxentius' rule, consolidating Constantine's power and paving the way for the Edict of Milan in 313.^[9][10][11]

1601–1900

On October 28, 1628, the Siege of La Rochelle concluded after 14 months, with the Huguenot defenders surrendering to French royal forces under Cardinal Richelieu, marking the end of significant Protestant resistance in western France and leading to the city's submission to royal authority.^[12] The Massachusetts General Court voted on October 28, 1636, to establish what became Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as the first institution of higher learning in the English colonies of North America, initially funded to train clergy amid concerns over ministerial shortages.^[13] William Penn granted the Charter of Privileges on October 28, 1701, to the inhabitants of Pennsylvania and the territories, establishing a framework for representative government that emphasized religious tolerance, property rights, and assembly consent for taxation, serving as the colony's constitution until the Revolution.^[14] A magnitude 8.6–8.8 earthquake struck near Lima and Callao, Peru, on October 28, 1746, at approximately 10:30 p.m. local time, destroying most buildings in the capital and port, generating a tsunami that obliterated Callao, and causing an estimated 18,000 deaths while prompting extensive rebuilding with stricter seismic standards.^[15] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed the overture to his opera Don Giovanni on October 28, 1787, the night before its premiere in Prague, after composing it in haste following delays in the production schedule.^[16] President Grover Cleveland dedicated the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886, amid rainy weather and parades attended by over a million spectators, commemorating the centennial of American independence with the French-gifted monument symbolizing enlightenment and friendship between nations.^[17]

1901–present

On October 28, 1919, the United States Congress overrode President Woodrow Wilson's veto of the Volstead Act, establishing the legal framework for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment by prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors nationwide, with implementation set to begin in January 1920.^[18] The Act, named after its sponsor Andrew Volstead, defined "intoxicating" beverages as those containing more than 0.5% alcohol and authorized federal enforcement, including warrantless searches of suspected violators' premises, amid widespread public support for temperance but leading to a rise in organized crime and bootlegging.^[18] On October 28, 1940, Italian forces under Benito Mussolini launched an invasion of Greece from Albania following Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas's rejection of an ultimatum demanding Greek surrender of strategic territories, an event commemorated in Greece as Ohi Day symbolizing national resistance.^[19] Despite Mussolini's aim to emulate Axis successes and secure a quick victory, Greek troops mounted a fierce defense in the Pindus Mountains, repelling the initial assault and counterattacking into Albania by November, which embarrassed Italy and prompted German intervention in spring 1941.^[19] The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, reached its full height of 630 feet (192 meters) on October 28, 1965, when workers installed the final stainless-steel section, completing construction of the monument designed by Eero Saarinen to symbolize westward expansion.^[20] Built at a cost of $13 million using a unique catenary curve supported by weighted legs anchored 60 feet into bedrock, the Arch endured challenges like wind sway during assembly but has since become an enduring landmark, officially dedicated in 1968 as part of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial.^[21] Spain held its general election on October 28, 1982, resulting in a landslide victory for the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) under Felipe González, securing 202 of 350 seats in Congress and forming the country's first socialist government since the Second Spanish Republic in the 1930s.^[22] The election, held seven years after Francisco Franco's death and amid economic recession, marked a consolidation of democracy under the 1978 Constitution, with PSOE's platform emphasizing modernization, NATO entry, and social reforms, though it faced criticism for later corruption scandals.^[22] On October 28, 2007, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner won Argentina's presidential election with 45% of the vote, becoming the nation's second female president after her husband Néstor Kirchner and the first elected directly to the office in that capacity.^[1] Her victory, supported by Peronist policies focused on economic interventionism and social welfare expansion, continued the Kirchners' influence but was shadowed by allegations of media control and inflation underreporting during her subsequent term amid global financial turbulence.^[1]

Births

Pre-1600

On October 28, 306, the Praetorian Guard and elements of the Roman Senate in Rome proclaimed Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius as emperor amid dissatisfaction with the Tetrarchy's succession following the death of Constantius Chlorus earlier that year. Maxentius, son of the retired emperor Maximian, was elevated as princeps in a usurpation that challenged the legitimacy of Severus II, who had been appointed Augustus by Galerius. This act exploited local grievances over taxation and military deployments, restoring Maximian as co-ruler shortly thereafter, though Maxentius avoided the title of Augustus initially to evade direct confrontation with the eastern emperors.^[8] Six years later, on October 28, 312, Constantine I decisively defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge near Rome, securing control over the western provinces. Constantine's forces, numbering around 40,000, outmaneuvered Maxentius' larger army of approximately 100,000 by advancing from the north and forcing the engagement across the Tiber River, where the weakened Pons Milvius bridge collapsed under retreating troops, leading to Maxentius' drowning. Ancient accounts attribute Constantine's pre-battle adoption of the Chi-Rho symbol—following a vision of a cross with the words "In hoc signo vinces"—to divine favor, as reported by Lactantius and Eusebius, though modern scholars note the symbol's appearance on shields marked a pivotal shift toward toleration of Christianity. The victory dissolved the Praetorian Guard and ended Maxentius' rule, consolidating Constantine's power and paving the way for the Edict of Milan in 313.^[9][10][11]

1601–1900

On October 28, 1628, the Siege of La Rochelle concluded after 14 months, with the Huguenot defenders surrendering to French royal forces under Cardinal Richelieu, marking the end of significant Protestant resistance in western France and leading to the city's submission to royal authority.^[12] The Massachusetts General Court voted on October 28, 1636, to establish what became Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as the first institution of higher learning in the English colonies of North America, initially funded to train clergy amid concerns over ministerial shortages.^[13] William Penn granted the Charter of Privileges on October 28, 1701, to the inhabitants of Pennsylvania and the territories, establishing a framework for representative government that emphasized religious tolerance, property rights, and assembly consent for taxation, serving as the colony's constitution until the Revolution.^[14] A magnitude 8.6–8.8 earthquake struck near Lima and Callao, Peru, on October 28, 1746, at approximately 10:30 p.m. local time, destroying most buildings in the capital and port, generating a tsunami that obliterated Callao, and causing an estimated 18,000 deaths while prompting extensive rebuilding with stricter seismic standards.^[15] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed the overture to his opera Don Giovanni on October 28, 1787, the night before its premiere in Prague, after composing it in haste following delays in the production schedule.^[16] President Grover Cleveland dedicated the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886, amid rainy weather and parades attended by over a million spectators, commemorating the centennial of American independence with the French-gifted monument symbolizing enlightenment and friendship between nations.^[17]

1901–present

On October 28, 1919, the United States Congress overrode President Woodrow Wilson's veto of the Volstead Act, establishing the legal framework for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment by prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors nationwide, with implementation set to begin in January 1920.^[18] The Act, named after its sponsor Andrew Volstead, defined "intoxicating" beverages as those containing more than 0.5% alcohol and authorized federal enforcement, including warrantless searches of suspected violators' premises, amid widespread public support for temperance but leading to a rise in organized crime and bootlegging.^[18] On October 28, 1940, Italian forces under Benito Mussolini launched an invasion of Greece from Albania following Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas's rejection of an ultimatum demanding Greek surrender of strategic territories, an event commemorated in Greece as Ohi Day symbolizing national resistance.^[19] Despite Mussolini's aim to emulate Axis successes and secure a quick victory, Greek troops mounted a fierce defense in the Pindus Mountains, repelling the initial assault and counterattacking into Albania by November, which embarrassed Italy and prompted German intervention in spring 1941.^[19] The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, reached its full height of 630 feet (192 meters) on October 28, 1965, when workers installed the final stainless-steel section, completing construction of the monument designed by Eero Saarinen to symbolize westward expansion.^[20] Built at a cost of $13 million using a unique catenary curve supported by weighted legs anchored 60 feet into bedrock, the Arch endured challenges like wind sway during assembly but has since become an enduring landmark, officially dedicated in 1968 as part of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial.^[21] Spain held its general election on October 28, 1982, resulting in a landslide victory for the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) under Felipe González, securing 202 of 350 seats in Congress and forming the country's first socialist government since the Second Spanish Republic in the 1930s.^[22] The election, held seven years after Francisco Franco's death and amid economic recession, marked a consolidation of democracy under the 1978 Constitution, with PSOE's platform emphasizing modernization, NATO entry, and social reforms, though it faced criticism for later corruption scandals.^[22] On October 28, 2007, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner won Argentina's presidential election with 45% of the vote, becoming the nation's second female president after her husband Néstor Kirchner and the first elected directly to the office in that capacity.^[1] Her victory, supported by Peronist policies focused on economic interventionism and social welfare expansion, continued the Kirchners' influence but was shadowed by allegations of media control and inflation underreporting during her subsequent term amid global financial turbulence.^[1]

Deaths

Pre-1600

On October 28, 306, the Praetorian Guard and elements of the Roman Senate in Rome proclaimed Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius as emperor amid dissatisfaction with the Tetrarchy's succession following the death of Constantius Chlorus earlier that year. Maxentius, son of the retired emperor Maximian, was elevated as princeps in a usurpation that challenged the legitimacy of Severus II, who had been appointed Augustus by Galerius. This act exploited local grievances over taxation and military deployments, restoring Maximian as co-ruler shortly thereafter, though Maxentius avoided the title of Augustus initially to evade direct confrontation with the eastern emperors.^[8] Six years later, on October 28, 312, Constantine I decisively defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge near Rome, securing control over the western provinces. Constantine's forces, numbering around 40,000, outmaneuvered Maxentius' larger army of approximately 100,000 by advancing from the north and forcing the engagement across the Tiber River, where the weakened Pons Milvius bridge collapsed under retreating troops, leading to Maxentius' drowning. Ancient accounts attribute Constantine's pre-battle adoption of the Chi-Rho symbol—following a vision of a cross with the words "In hoc signo vinces"—to divine favor, as reported by Lactantius and Eusebius, though modern scholars note the symbol's appearance on shields marked a pivotal shift toward toleration of Christianity. The victory dissolved the Praetorian Guard and ended Maxentius' rule, consolidating Constantine's power and paving the way for the Edict of Milan in 313.^[9][10][11]

1601–1900

On October 28, 1628, the Siege of La Rochelle concluded after 14 months, with the Huguenot defenders surrendering to French royal forces under Cardinal Richelieu, marking the end of significant Protestant resistance in western France and leading to the city's submission to royal authority.^[12] The Massachusetts General Court voted on October 28, 1636, to establish what became Harvard College in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as the first institution of higher learning in the English colonies of North America, initially funded to train clergy amid concerns over ministerial shortages.^[13] William Penn granted the Charter of Privileges on October 28, 1701, to the inhabitants of Pennsylvania and the territories, establishing a framework for representative government that emphasized religious tolerance, property rights, and assembly consent for taxation, serving as the colony's constitution until the Revolution.^[14] A magnitude 8.6–8.8 earthquake struck near Lima and Callao, Peru, on October 28, 1746, at approximately 10:30 p.m. local time, destroying most buildings in the capital and port, generating a tsunami that obliterated Callao, and causing an estimated 18,000 deaths while prompting extensive rebuilding with stricter seismic standards.^[15] Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart completed the overture to his opera Don Giovanni on October 28, 1787, the night before its premiere in Prague, after composing it in haste following delays in the production schedule.^[16] President Grover Cleveland dedicated the Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886, amid rainy weather and parades attended by over a million spectators, commemorating the centennial of American independence with the French-gifted monument symbolizing enlightenment and friendship between nations.^[17]

1901–present

On October 28, 1919, the United States Congress overrode President Woodrow Wilson's veto of the Volstead Act, establishing the legal framework for enforcing the Eighteenth Amendment by prohibiting the manufacture, sale, and transportation of intoxicating liquors nationwide, with implementation set to begin in January 1920.^[18] The Act, named after its sponsor Andrew Volstead, defined "intoxicating" beverages as those containing more than 0.5% alcohol and authorized federal enforcement, including warrantless searches of suspected violators' premises, amid widespread public support for temperance but leading to a rise in organized crime and bootlegging.^[18] On October 28, 1940, Italian forces under Benito Mussolini launched an invasion of Greece from Albania following Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas's rejection of an ultimatum demanding Greek surrender of strategic territories, an event commemorated in Greece as Ohi Day symbolizing national resistance.^[19] Despite Mussolini's aim to emulate Axis successes and secure a quick victory, Greek troops mounted a fierce defense in the Pindus Mountains, repelling the initial assault and counterattacking into Albania by November, which embarrassed Italy and prompted German intervention in spring 1941.^[19] The Gateway Arch in St. Louis, Missouri, reached its full height of 630 feet (192 meters) on October 28, 1965, when workers installed the final stainless-steel section, completing construction of the monument designed by Eero Saarinen to symbolize westward expansion.^[20] Built at a cost of $13 million using a unique catenary curve supported by weighted legs anchored 60 feet into bedrock, the Arch endured challenges like wind sway during assembly but has since become an enduring landmark, officially dedicated in 1968 as part of the Jefferson National Expansion Memorial.^[21] Spain held its general election on October 28, 1982, resulting in a landslide victory for the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) under Felipe González, securing 202 of 350 seats in Congress and forming the country's first socialist government since the Second Spanish Republic in the 1930s.^[22] The election, held seven years after Francisco Franco's death and amid economic recession, marked a consolidation of democracy under the 1978 Constitution, with PSOE's platform emphasizing modernization, NATO entry, and social reforms, though it faced criticism for later corruption scandals.^[22] On October 28, 2007, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner won Argentina's presidential election with 45% of the vote, becoming the nation's second female president after her husband Néstor Kirchner and the first elected directly to the office in that capacity.^[1] Her victory, supported by Peronist policies focused on economic interventionism and social welfare expansion, continued the Kirchners' influence but was shadowed by allegations of media control and inflation underreporting during her subsequent term amid global financial turbulence.^[1]

Holidays and Observances

Religious Observances

In the Roman Catholic Church, October 28 is the feast day of Saints Simon and Jude, two of the Twelve Apostles.^[23] Simon, often identified as "the Zealot" due to his possible affiliation with the Jewish Zealot movement opposing Roman rule, and Jude (also known as Thaddeus or Lebbaeus), traditionally regarded as the brother of James the Less and author of the Epistle of Jude in the New Testament, are commemorated jointly as martyrs who preached the Gospel in regions including Persia and were killed for their faith around 65 AD.^[24] Their shared feast reflects their pairing in the Roman Canon of the Mass and early liturgical traditions, emphasizing apostolic witness amid persecution.^[25] Saint Jude holds particular devotion as the patron saint of desperate causes, a role stemming from medieval traditions where petitioners invoked him when other saints seemed unresponsive, reinforced by his biblical letter urging perseverance in faith against false teachers.^[26] This patronage is formally recognized in Catholic hagiography, with the feast prompting novenas and prayers for hopeless situations, though such intercessory practices lack empirical validation beyond anecdotal reports of efficacy.^[27] Saint Simon, less distinctly patronized, is associated with tanners and curriers in some traditions, linked to legendary missionary labors requiring manual trades.^[25] The observance aligns with the liturgical readings from Ephesians 2:19-22 and Luke 6:12-19, highlighting the apostles' role in building the Church's foundation.^[28] In Anglican and Lutheran calendars, the date similarly honors Simon and Jude, though with varying emphases on their scriptural depictions rather than later hagiographical elaborations.^[24] Eastern Orthodox churches using the Revised Julian calendar (aligned with Gregorian) observe the same feast, while Julian calendar adherents commemorate different saints on the equivalent date, reflecting calendrical divergences formalized after the 16th-century Gregorian reform.^[24] No major observances in Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, or other faiths fixedly occur on this Gregorian date, though movable feasts like Diwali may occasionally coincide.^[29]

National and Political Holidays

October 28 is observed as Ohi Day (also known as Oxi Day) in Greece and Cyprus, a national public holiday commemorating Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas's rejection of an Italian ultimatum on October 28, 1940. At 3:00 a.m. that day, Italian envoy Emanuele Grazzi delivered Benito Mussolini's demand for Greek surrender and free passage for Axis troops, which Metaxas famously rebuffed with a single word, "Óchi" (Greek for "No"), invoking cultural and religious grounds.^[2] This refusal triggered the Greco-Italian War, during which Greek forces repelled the initial invasion, holding territory in Albania until German intervention in April 1941. The holiday features military parades in major cities like Athens, where thousands of students and personnel march past the parliament, along with wreath-laying ceremonies at war memorials; schools and many businesses close, emphasizing national pride in resistance to fascism.^{[30] [31]} In the Czech Republic and Slovakia, October 28 is the Day of the Establishment of the Independent Czechoslovak State, a state holiday marking the proclamation of Czechoslovakia's independence from Austria-Hungary on October 28, 1918. The declaration was issued in Prague by the Czechoslovak National Council, led by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, amid the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I; it established a democratic republic that existed until 1993, when it peacefully dissolved into the modern Czech Republic and Slovakia. Commemorations include official ceremonies, flag-raising, and educational events focused on the role of figures like Masaryk and the Paris Peace Conference in recognizing the new state.^[32] Both successor states retain the observance, reflecting shared historical origins despite separate paths post-Velvet Divorce.^[32]

Secular and Cultural Observances

International Animation Day is observed globally on October 28 to recognize the contributions of animators, artists, and technicians to the field of animation. Founded in 2006 by the Association Internationale du Cinéma d'Animation (ASIFA), an international organization dedicated to promoting animation, the observance commemorates the first public performance of animated projections by French inventor Charles-Émile Reynaud on October 28, 1892, using his Théâtre Optique device in Paris.^[33] Events typically feature film screenings, workshops, exhibitions, and discussions highlighting animation's role in entertainment, education, and cultural expression, with participation from professional societies and educational institutions worldwide.^[34] In the United States, October 28 is informally marked as National Chocolate Day, encouraging public appreciation of chocolate through tastings, recipes, and educational content on its history and production, though it lacks official federal recognition and stems from promotional traditions rather than legislative mandate. Similarly, Statue of Liberty Dedication Day recalls the ceremonial unveiling of the statue in New York Harbor on October 28, 1886, as a symbol of freedom and friendship between France and the United States, with cultural commemorations including historical reenactments and public lectures at sites like the National Park Service's Liberty Island, emphasizing its engineering and immigrant heritage significance. These observances underscore secular themes of innovation, indulgence, and historical symbolism without ties to religious or governmental holidays.