Hubbry Logo
KhotonsKhotonsMain
Open search
Khotons
Community hub
Khotons
logo
7 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Khotons
Khotons
Khotons
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

The Khoton or Qotung[4] people (Mongolian: Хотон (ястан) are a Mongolian-speaking ethnic group in (Outer) Mongolia and Inner Mongolia.[5][2] Most Mongolian Khotons live in Uvs Province in western Mongolia. In China, the Khotons (often called Qotungs) live in Inner Mongolia, concentrated in Alxa League and are classified as ethnic Mongols. They speak the Dörbet or Alasha dialect of the Oirat language.[6] According to the Great Russian Encyclopedia, modern Khoton people are a part of the "Mongols — a group of peoples who speak Mongolian languages".[7]

Key Information

Demography

[edit]

In Mongolia, most Khotons live in Uvs Province, especially in Tarialan, Naranbulag and Ulaangom. There were officially about 6,100 Khotons in 1989.[8]

According to USFR 20,000 Khotons residing primarily in the province of Uvs.[9]

In 2020, there were around 12,057 Khotons in Mongolia.[10]

The Khotons of Inner Mongolia reside in Alxa League, mainly in Alxa Left Banner. Some also live in Bayannuur. A 2004 study reported that Khoton informants estimated their total population to be about 1,200.[2]

Historical population in Mongolia
YearPop.±%
1956 2,603—    
1963 2,874+10.4%
1969 4,056+41.1%
1979 4,380+8.0%
1989 6,076+38.7%
2000 9,014+48.4%
2010 11,304+25.4%
2020 12,057+6.7%
Source: National Statistical Office of Mongolia[citation needed]

History

[edit]

Khoton, Khotong or Qotung was originally a Mongol term for Muslim Uyghur and Hui people, or Chinese language-speaking Muslims.[8] However, while the term historically included multiple groups, modern research indicates that the Khotons are not directly related to the Hui people. Instead, the Khotons have distinct origins, being primarily descendants of Turkic peoples brought to Mongolia by the Oirats or who migrated there during historical conflicts, particularly during the 17th and 18th centuries.[11]

The Khotons were settled in Mongolia by the Oirats when the latter conquered Xinjiang and took their city-dwelling ancestors to Mongolia. According to another version, they settled in Mongolia after 1753, when their leader, the Dörbet Prince Tseren Ubashi, surrendered to the Qing Dynasty.[8] The Khotons soon adapted and assimilated Mongolian or Oirat culture and speech.[8] According to some scholars, the Khotons can be considered Mongolized Uyghurs as a result.[12]

The Khotons of Inner Mongolia that reside in Alxa League are considered to be descended of Turkic peoples originally from Hami, Xinjiang, who later adopted and assimilated into local Mongol culture.[2] Most scholars believe that the ancestors of the Khotons were brought to the area around the 18th century or earlier as captives from Xinjiang after the prince of the Alasha Mongols returned from fighting the Dzungars.[13] According to local tradition, the ancestors of the Khotons arrived in the area in the late 17th century as merchants and eventually settled and assimilated with the Alasha Mongols.[2] Occasional later migrants from Xinjiang and some Hui from nearby regions who were incorporated into the Khotons helped to maintain and increase their community.[2][13]

Culture

[edit]

Unlike most Mongolians, Khotons follow a syncretic form of Islam that incorporates Buddhist and traditional elements (like Tengrism).[14][8] They traditionally avoid intermarriage with other ethnic groups and tend to avoid mainstream Mongolian written culture.[8]

In Inner Mongolia, many Khotons are pastoral nomads though in recent times, an increasing amount are now settled.[2]

Language

[edit]
Main article: Khoton language

Khotons used to speak the Khoton language (a dialect of the Uyghur language). The language became extinct around the 19th century.[15] Once settled in Mongolia, the Khotons adopted the Dörbet or northern dialect of Oirat.[16][14][8] In Inner Mongolia, the Khotons speak the Alasha dialect of Oirat.[2]

Notable Figures

[edit]

Bibliography

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Khotons

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Khotons are a small ethnic minority in of Turkic origin, primarily residing in the northwestern region, where they number around 12,000 people and maintain a semi-nomadic lifestyle centered on herding such as horses, yaks, sheep, and goats. Originating from migrations out of East during the 17th and 18th centuries under the influence of the Junggar Khanate, they integrated into Mongolian society while retaining distinct cultural elements, including a primary adherence to alongside influences from . Historically, the Khotons—whose likely derives from terms denoting settled or urban communities, reflecting their partial adoption of unlike the predominantly nomadic —emerged from an admixture of Central Asian groups such as , Kyrgyz, and others brought to regions like Uvs, Khovd, and Bayan-Ölgii provinces. Genetic analyses confirm their Turkish nomadic ancestry, showing differentiation from other Mongolian populations like the Khalkha and , with affinities to northern East Asian and Central Asian gene pools. Their original Turkic language, a Karluk-branch dialect akin to Uyghur with Kyrgyz influences and documented through basic vocabulary like Swadesh lists, became extinct by the due to assimilation pressures, leading them to adopt the Dörbet-Oirat dialect of for daily use. In contemporary Mongolia, Khotons are officially recognized as one of 24 ethnic groups (ястан), concentrated in soums such as Tarialan and Naranbulag in Uvs Province, where they preserve traditions like distinctive deel clothing—often black with sheepskin elements for men—and hand-fertilization farming techniques, though challenges including limited education access persist. Their Islamic identity, marked by practices resistant to full Buddhist assimilation, underscores their unique position within the country's multi-ethnic fabric, with smaller communities also present in Inner Mongolia, China.

Demographics

Population Statistics

The Khoton population in stands at approximately 12,000 individuals, primarily concentrated in . According to the 2020 Population and Housing Census conducted by the National Statistical Office of , this figure represents a significant increase from 2,603 recorded in the 1956 census, reflecting steady growth over the decades amid broader national demographic expansion. In , the Khoton community is smaller, with estimates from a 2004 ethnographic study placing their numbers at around 1,200, mainly in Alxa Left Banner of ; however, more recent data is lacking, underscoring the need for updated surveys to capture potential changes. Demographic trends among the Khotons mirror those of Mongolia's overall population, characterized by a high proportion of youth, with over two-thirds under age 30 as of the 2020 census, which supports sustained growth rates of about 1.6% annually. Historically low intermarriage rates with neighboring groups have contributed to their ethnic cohesion and relative isolation, preserving distinct social structures despite geographic proximity to larger Mongolian communities. Genetic analyses provide further insights into Khoton demographics, revealing a unique profile shaped by isolation and admixture. A study of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on the demonstrated close affinities to other Mongolian groups while highlighting distinct markers of Turkic and Mongolian ancestry, indicative of limited . Y-chromosome analysis further identified a predominant R1a-Z93 in over 80% of sampled Khoton males (83% R1a1 in a sample of 40), suggesting historical Indo-European influences alongside Central Asian Turkic origins, which has implications for understanding their endogamous practices and population stability.

Geographic Distribution

The Khotons are predominantly distributed in western , where the majority reside in , particularly in the sums of Tarialan, Naranbulag, and the urban center of . Small populations are also present in neighboring western provinces, including Khovd and Bayan-Ölgii. With an estimated total of around 12,000 individuals in , this concentration reflects their historical ties to the region's landscapes. In , Khotons—often designated as Qotungs—are mainly found in the of the Autonomous Region, with a focus in Alxa Left Banner, where they have integrated into broader Mongol communities and are officially categorized as part of the Mongol ethnicity. This area borders the , contributing to a semi-arid environment that influences local livelihoods. Khoton settlements in western have traditionally centered on across the arid zones of the northwest, adapted to harsh continental climates with low and extreme temperature variations. In contrast, communities in Inner Mongolia's Alxa region show increasing sedentarization, driven by economic transitions toward settled herding and agriculture amid ongoing grassland management policies.

History

Origins and Ethnic Background

The Khotons are recognized as a distinct ethnic group within Mongolia, classified as Mongolian-speaking but with primary origins tracing back to Turkic peoples of Central Asia. Their ethnic identity emerged from the integration of various Altaic-speaking communities, including those related to Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, Uzbeks, and Sarts, distinguishing them from the broader Oirat Mongols despite later linguistic assimilation to Oirat dialects. This classification reflects a historical process where Turkic groups adopted Mongolian nomenclature while retaining core cultural elements. Debates on Khoton ancestry highlight possible descent from Uyghur or other Karluk-branch , with historical ties to the oasis in southern , . Genetic studies support Central Asian roots, showing the Khoton population's close affinity to groups like the Kirghiz and , evidenced by an exceptionally high frequency of Y-chromosome R1a1 (83%), indicative of a bottleneck effect and differentiation from other Mongolian ethnic groups such as the Khalkh and . X-chromosome analyses further confirm genetic distinctiveness, with distributions pointing to nomadic heritage rather than pure East Asian Mongolian lineages. Their pre-migration background includes sedentary agricultural practices influenced by these early Central Asian Turkic foundations, contrasting with nomadic Mongolian traditions and contributing to their later designation as "Khoton," possibly derived from "Hot" meaning "" in reference to urbanized settlements. This identity solidified in Mongolian contexts as a marker of Turkic-Muslim settlers, separate from Oirat assimilation, preserving elements of Kyrgyz-Turkic vocabulary and customs into the modern era.

Migration and Settlement

The Khotons began significant migrations into during the 17th and 18th centuries, primarily brought by the Oirat as allies or subjects during their expansion under the Junggar . These movements originated from settled Muslim communities in southern , particularly the region known as Little Bukhara encompassing areas around and , where the term "Khoton" was formalized as an ethnic designation under Oirat leader in 1678 to refer to these Turkic-origin groups integrated into Oirat society. The Khotons served in Oirat military campaigns, including conflicts with the , which sought to subdue the western Mongol territories. Following the Oirat defeat in the mid-18th century, particularly after the Qing conquest of the between 1755 and 1758, surviving Khoton groups were dispersed and resettled by Qing authorities in western . This post-conquest relocation included placement in the newly established Khovd Frontier Region, where Khotons were directed to adopt agricultural practices distinct from the nomadic Oirat lifestyle, contributing to the region's multi-ethnic composition alongside groups like the Dörbet and Bayad. By the late 18th century, many Khotons had established permanent communities in what is now , particularly around Tarialan Soum, marking the beginning of their concentrated settlement in the area. In parallel, a branch of Khotons migrated from Hami in Xinjiang to Inner Mongolia during the 18th century, settling among the Alasha Mongols in the Alxa League region under Qing administrative oversight. This movement facilitated their gradual assimilation into local Mongol society by the late 1700s, as they adopted Mongolian language and customs while maintaining agricultural traditions. Over time, Khoton communities in both Outer and Inner Mongolia pursued long-term integration, gradually embracing a broader Mongolian identity through economic interdependence and limited intermarriage, yet preserving their distinct ethnic status as a recognized yastan (subgroup) into the modern era.

Culture

Religion and Syncretism

The Khotons primarily adhere to , a faith rooted in their Turkic ethnic origins from , where they likely encountered the religion through interactions with Uyghur and other Muslim communities prior to their migration. This Islamic identity distinguishes them as a Muslim minority amid the predominantly Buddhist Mongolian population, with historical records indicating adoption around 300 years ago upon settlement in during the 17th and 18th centuries. As descendants of diverse groups including , Kyrgyz, and Sarts from and surrounding regions, the Khotons integrated as a core element of their ethnic formation, adapting it to their new nomadic and semi-sedentary lifestyle in western . Syncretism characterizes Khoton religious practice, blending with elements of , Lamaism, and indigenous influenced by their Oirat-Mongolian surroundings. Ritual texts like Garvaa Gorvoo, preserved orally in Mongolian, incorporate Quranic suras such as Al-Fatiha alongside shamanistic invocations for protection, , and sacrifices, reflecting a fusion of Islamic prayers with pre-Islamic Altaic traditions. This hybridity is evident in daily observances, where are marked alongside Buddhist-influenced rituals and folk elements like , often transmitted secretly within families to evade historical suppression under socialist policies. In rural , where most of the approximately 12,000 Khotons reside as of 2015, religious infrastructure remains limited, with few formal mosques and reliance on informal gatherings for prayers and ceremonies. Despite pressures toward assimilation in a Buddhist-majority society, the Khotons have retained a distinct Muslim identity, reinforced by genetic and cultural isolation stemming from their migratory history and endogamous practices. This persistence underscores their role as an "island of " in Oirat , where syncretic beliefs continue to sustain community cohesion without fully supplanting local spiritual traditions.

Lifestyle and Social Practices

The traditional economy of the Khotons revolves around pastoral nomadism, with a primary focus on sheep, goats, and horses across the western Mongolian steppes. Historical records from the early indicate that a typical Khoton family managed substantial holdings, reflecting a self-sufficient system adapted to the arid grasslands. This herding lifestyle supports the production of meat, dairy, and wool, essential for daily sustenance and trade within their communities. In , where Khotons are often classified under the broader Mongol ethnic category, there has been increasing sedentarization, with many transitioning to settled alongside limited pastoral activities to meet modern economic demands. Khoton social structure is organized around clans, which historically emphasized to maintain ethnic distinctiveness amid surrounding Oirat and other Mongol groups. Extended households form the core family unit, where multiple generations collaborate on tasks, decision-making, and resource sharing, fostering strong ties in a traditionally isolated setting. This clan-based system, rooted in Turkic origins, continues to influence social interactions, though modernization has led to some inter-clan flexibility. Cultural practices among the Khotons incorporate festivals that blend Mongol traditions with their unique heritage, notably participation in the national games of wrestling, , and , which celebrate nomadic prowess. Traditional , such as the deel robe—often black with sheepskin elements for men—tailored for mobility on horseback, and cuisine centered on fermented dairy products like airag and boiled mutton, underscore their enduring nomadic influences. In recent decades, economic pressures including climate variability and market integration have prompted shifts toward settled farming or urban migration among Khotons, particularly in remote . Lower levels in these areas limit opportunities for youth, exacerbating out-migration to cities for schooling and employment, though many retain seasonal practices.

Language

Historical Development

The Khoton language originated as a dialect of Uyghur within the Karluk branch of the Turkic , spoken by the Khoton people who settled in western around the 18th century. This language persisted in use until the 19th century, reflecting the Turkic ethnic foundations of the Khotons tied to historical Karluk-Uyghur tribes from the , Uyghur, and Karakhanid states. The extinction of the Khoton language occurred primarily due to the dominance of Mongolian linguistic influences, with the Khotons fully assimilating into Mongolian-speaking groups by the . In the transition period of the 18th and 19th centuries, post-migration contact with Oirat communities accelerated this shift, as Khotons adopted the Dörbet dialect of the for daily communication under social pressures. Linguistic features of the Khoton language retained notable Turkic elements despite assimilation, including vocabulary in religious and familial domains, such as terms for basic concepts (e.g., koz for "eye" and agach for "bark") that comprise over 83% of a reconstructed Swadesh list. Phonetic traits like the preference for "y" over "zh" sounds and double vowels, along with Kyrgyz influences, marked its Turkic profile. Oral traditions played a key role in preserving pre-assimilation elements, transmitting hybrid texts that blended Turkic lexicon with Mongolian phonological and grammatical adaptations, as seen in ritual prayers. Documentation of the Khoton language relies on early historical-oral materials, including collections of Muslim prayers like Khudaya and ceremonial recitations such as Garvaa Gorvoo, which were orally passed down and later transcribed. Scholarly analysis has focused on tribe names and appearance-linked linguistic traits through anthroponyms, revealing retained Turkic naming customs (e.g., zoonymic and status suffixes like -khan and -bai) with phonetic shifts from Mongolic contact, such as elongated vowels. Key records include vocabularies compiled by Vladimirtsov (1916, 116 words), Potanin (2005, 100 words), and Solongo & Sarangjerjel (2020, 300 words), alongside lexicostatistical studies confirming its Turkic classification. Recent efforts, such as those in 2020, continue to document remnants to prevent full lexical loss.

Current Usage and Dialects

The Khotons primarily speak variants of Oirat Mongolian, which have fully integrated into the broader Mongolian linguistic framework in terms of and . In , the Dörbet dialect serves as the main variety among Khoton communities, reflecting northern Oirat features such as vibrant consonants and preserved double vowels. Everyday communication among Khotons occurs in these Oirat variants of Mongolian, with older generations occasionally retaining limited Turkic or Kyrgyz elements in vocabulary due to historical linguistic transitions. Writing systems differ by region: is standard for Oirat Mongolian in , while the traditional vertical is used in . Khotons often exhibit bilingualism, particularly in educational settings where standard (in ) or Inner Mongolian dialects alongside Mandarin (in ) are taught to foster integration. The Oirat dialects spoken by Khotons play a key role in preserving ethnic identity amid broader Mongolian assimilation, helping to distinguish their through unique lexical and phonetic markers. However, these dialects face challenges from and media exposure to dominant , leading to gradual standardization and potential erosion of distinct features, including limited retention of Turkic loanwords. Linguistic studies highlight morphological similarities between Khoton Oirat variants and other western Mongolian groups, such as shared conjugations and case endings, underscoring their interconnected development within the Mongolic .

References

  1. https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/20515
  2. https://mongolia-guide.com/about-mongolia/ethic-group/khoton
  3. http://journals.isccac.org/d/file/lunwen/2023-12-28/0e0bf8580331b6f48f9061703ec74acb.pdf
  4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7636110_Genetic_features_of_Khoton_Mongolians_revealed_by_SNP_analysis_of_the_X_chromosome
  5. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1443169.pdf
  6. https://en.nso.mn/censuses/3
  7. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42912745
  8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16125340/
  9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2005.06.029
  10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20165
  11. https://irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com/5ddddb20/files/uploaded/mongol-alxa.pdf
  12. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285975565_How_Mongolian_herders_are_transforming_nomadic_pastoralism
  13. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-the-Alxa-Left-Banner-in-northern-China-The-Banner-covers-an-area-of-80-412_fig1_236947895
  14. https://bulpolit.enu.kz/index.php/main/article/view/278
  15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8017181_Genetic_feature_of_Mongolian_ethnic_groups_revealed_by_Y-chromosomal_analysis
  16. https://www.oeaw.ac.at/fileadmin/kommissionen/vanishinglanguages/Collections/Oirat_Kalmyk/Altai_Oirat/Bibliography_pdfs/Chuluunbaatar_2010_-_Culture_Oirat.pdf
  17. https://doi.org/10.32601/ejal.1122
  18. https://ejal.info/menuscript/index.php/ejal/article/download/1080/412/3001
  19. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/387681211_From_the_Experience_of_Inventory_of_the_Vocabulary_of_the_Lost_Turkic_Language
  20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43192885
  21. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41431-019-0399-0
  22. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/naadam-mongolian-traditional-festival-00395
  23. https://www.nomadicexpeditions.com/naadam-festival/
  24. https://oxfordre.com/asianhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277727-e-753
  25. https://tsj.enu.kz/index.php/new/article/view/615
  26. https://bulphil.enu.kz/index.php/main/article/view/705
  27. https://ejal.info/menuscript/index.php/ejal/article/download/1080/412
  28. https://berkeley.pressbooks.pub/languagesofberkeley/chapter/mongolian-cyrillic-khalkha/
  29. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED604958
  30. https://minpaku.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/2407/files/SES86_03.pdf
  31. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/75c5/fd49489236d97269b237f97d6c21a93fd31a.pdf
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.