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Bonan people
Bonan people
Bonan people
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The Bonan people (Chinese: 保安族; pinyin: Bǎo'ānzú) are a distinct ethno-linguistic group from all other Mongolic peoples, living in Gansu and Qinghai provinces in Northwestern China. They are one of the "titular nationalities" of Gansu's Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County, which is located south of the Yellow River, near Gansu's border with Qinghai.

Key Information

Bonan are the 10th-smallest (47th out of 56) of the ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.[citation needed] 95% of Bonan live in Jishishan County, numbering 21,400 of the county's population.[1]

History

[edit]

The Bonan people are believed to be descended from Mongol and Central Asian soldiers stationed in Qinghai (around modern day Tongren County) during the Yuan dynasty.[2][3] After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty, the ancestors of the Bonan stayed in the region and eventually intermingled with the surrounding Hui, Tibetan, Han, and Monguor peoples, which would contribute to the emergence of the modern Bonans.[3]

The ancestors of the Bonan people were Tibetan Buddhists, and it is known that around 1585 they lived in Tongren County (in Amdo Region; presently, in Qinghai Province), north of the Tibetan Rebgong Monastery. It was in that year that the town of Bao'an was founded in that area.[4] Later on, some of the members of the Bonan-speaking community converted to Islam and moved north, to Xunhua County. It is said that they have been converted to Islam by the Hui Sufi master Ma Laichi (1681?–1766).[5] Later, in the aftermath of the Dungan Rebellion (1862–1874) the Muslim Bonans moved farther east, into what's today Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang and Salar Autonomous County of Gansu Province.[4]

Hui, Baoan and Dongxiang troops served under Generals Ma Fulu and Ma Fuxiang in the Boxer Rebellion, defeating the invading Eight Nation Alliance at the Battle of Langfang. Hui, Baoan, Dongxiang, Salar and Tibetan troops served under Ma Biao in the Second Sino-Japanese War against the Japanese.

It were the members of this Muslim part of the original Bonan community who are officially recognized as the separate "Bonan" ethnic group in today's PRC. Their brethren who have remained Buddhist and stayed in Tongren, are now officially classified as part of the Monguor (Tu) ethnic group, even though they speak essentially the same Bonan language. The official concept of the "Bonan ethnic group" still remains somewhat artificial for the Bonans themselves.[4]

Nowadays Bonan are concentrated in the villages of Ganhetan, Meipo and Dadun in Jishishan County.[6]

Language

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Both the Muslim Bonans in Gansu and their Buddhist cousins in Qinghai (officially classified as Monguor) have historically spoken the Bonan language, a Mongolic language. The Buddhist Monguor of Qinghai speak a slightly different dialect than the Muslim Bonan of Gansu. Whereas the Bonan language of Gansu has undergone Chinese influences, the Bonan language of Qinghai has been influenced by Tibetan.[4] The language is also closely related to archaic versions of Mongolian.[2]

There are 11 vowels in the Bonan language, as well as many compound vowels and there are 26 consonants, 5 of which are unstable.[7]

They have no script for their language.[8]

The Muslim Gansu Bonans are more numerous than their Buddhist Qinghai cousins (the estimates for the two groups were around 12,200 (in 1990) and around 3,500 (in 1980), respectively). However, it has been observed that in Gansu the use of Bonan language is declining (in favor of the local version – the "Hezhou dialect" – of Mandarin Chinese), while in Qinghai the language keeps being transmitted to younger generations.[4]

Genetics

[edit]

Distribution of Y-chromosome haplogroups in Bonan:[9]

  • O=23.43(O2=20.31,O1a=1.56,O1b=1.56)
  • J=18.75
  • R1=14.07(R1a=10.94,R1b=3.13)
  • C=9.37
  • N=9.17
  • R2=6.25
  • D=6.25
  • I=4.69
  • Others=8.02

In another study in 2010 found:[10]

Culture

[edit]

The Bonan share many traditions with the Dongxiang and Hui. Their traditional dress includes elements of Tibetan, Hui and Dongxiang clothing. Married Bonan women wear black veils, while unmarried women wear green veils. Women wear more colorful dress, including trousers with colored cuffs. Bonan men typically wear black or white skullcaps and white or dark blue jackets. Fur-lined jackets are used during the winter.[11]

The economy of the Bonan consists of farming (mainly wheat and rye), raising livestock, selling local handicrafts and working in the lumber industry.[11] Bonan are especially known for the knife production,[11] with their surrounding areas are rich in copper deposits. Over 620 Bonan knife crafters produce 400,000 knives annually. During the Cultural Revolution, knife making tools were confiscated, but Bonan continued producing knives in secret, upholding their skills. In 2006, Bonan knife making was added to Intangible Cultural Heritage of China list.[6]

Popular pastimes for the Bonan include horse-riding, wrestling, and archery. The Bonan also enjoy poetry, singing, dancing and playing traditional Chinese instruments.[11] Majority of the Bonan are Muslim. A small minority of Bonans are Tibetan Buddhists that reside in Qinghai, but they have been largely acculturated to neighboring ethnic groups.[3]

The Bonan in Jishishan county follow a halal diet consisting mainly of beef and mutton, combined with carrots, potatoes and glass noodles. They also enjoy drinking tea.[7] Bonan traditional villages have the roofs of the houses connected, in a way allowing the villagers to walk between houses over the roofs. However these traditional houses are rare nowadays.[7]

References

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Bonan people

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The Bonan people (Chinese: 保安族; pinyin: Bǎo'ān zú), also known as Bao'an, are a small Mongolic ethnic minority in China, with a population of approximately 20,000 as of recent estimates, primarily concentrated in the Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang, and Salar Autonomous County in Gansu Province, with smaller communities in neighboring Qinghai Province. They speak the Bonan language, which belongs to the eastern branch of the Mongolic language family within the Altaic group, though many are also fluent in Chinese and local dialects. The Bonan adhere predominantly to Sunni Islam, a faith adopted through historical interactions, which shapes their cultural practices including dietary restrictions and communal prayers. Historically, the Bonan trace their origins to Mongol military garrisons stationed in the region during the Yuan and Ming dynasties to guard against Tibetan incursions, later intermingling with local Hui, Han, Tibetan, and Tu populations, leading to their distinct ethnolinguistic identity. This amalgamation fostered a semi-nomadic centered on , , and traditional crafts, notably the of high-quality knives and tools, a skill passed down through generations and tied to their metallurgical expertise. Their society remains clan-based, with extended families living in earthen courtyard homes adapted to the mountainous terrain of the Jishi Mountains, where they cultivate , , and potatoes while herding sheep and yaks. Culturally, the Bonan maintain oral traditions rich in , proverbs, and folk tales that reflect their pastoral heritage and Islamic influences, often performed with stringed instruments like the or wind pipes during festivals. Despite modernization pressures, they preserve endogamous marriage practices and religious observances, though economic shifts have led many to supplement traditional livelihoods with migration labor or small-scale industry. As one of China's smallest recognized ethnic groups, the Bonan exemplify resilience in maintaining linguistic and cultural continuity amid assimilation dynamics in multiethnic northwestern regions.

Demographics and Geography

Population and Distribution

The Bonan ethnic group comprises 24,434 individuals according to China's Seventh National Population Census, conducted in 2020 by the National Bureau of Statistics. Over 90 percent of the Bonan population is concentrated in Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang, and Salar Autonomous County within , Province, where they form a titular nationality alongside the Dongxiang and Salar groups. Smaller numbers, comprising the remainder, reside in adjacent areas of Qinghai Province, including Tongren County. This distribution reflects historical settlement patterns tied to their pastoral and agricultural lifestyles in the region's mountainous terrain. As one of China's 56 officially recognized ethnic minorities, the Bonan rank among the smallest, accounting for roughly 0.0017 percent of the national population. Population growth from 20,074 in the 2010 census indicates modest expansion, potentially influenced by improved socioeconomic conditions in autonomous areas, though detailed fertility and migration data specific to the group remain limited in public records.

Settlements and Migration Patterns

The Bonan people primarily inhabit the mountainous regions of and provinces in , with the majority concentrated in Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang, and Sala Autonomous County in . Their settlements are clustered in rural villages along the River valley and surrounding highlands, where they maintain compact communities adapted to the local terrain. Key traditional settlements include the "three inhabiting places" of Dadun, Ganmei, and Gaoli villages in , which formed as core Bonan enclaves following historical relocations and represent their foundational population centers. Smaller populations reside in Xunhua County, , often intermingled with other Muslim ethnic groups like the Hui and Salar. Historically, Bonan settlement patterns trace to Mongol military migrations during the (1271–1368), when troops were dispatched to the Gansu-Qinghai borderlands to secure frontiers against Tibetan incursions, establishing garrisons that evolved into permanent villages. These migrants, initially nomadic warriors, intermarried with local Han, Tibetan, and Hui populations, leading to sedentarization and while retaining Mongolic linguistic roots. Post-Yuan disruptions, including (1368–1644) conflicts, prompted localized relocations within the region, culminating in the consolidation of the tripartite villages by the as defensive and agricultural hubs. Contemporary migration remains limited, with Bonan communities exhibiting low mobility due to geographic isolation, economic reliance on subsistence farming, , and traditional crafts like knife-making, which anchor families to ancestral lands. Official data indicate that over 90% of the Bonan population (approximately as of recent censuses) resides in their core Gansu-Qinghai enclaves, with minimal flows compared to larger ethnic groups; any dispersal typically involves seasonal labor to nearby urban centers like Linxia or , without significant permanent relocation. This pattern reflects broader trends among China's small Muslim minorities, where ethnic networks and religious ties reinforce endogamous settlement stability over long-distance migration.

Origins and Genetics

Ancestral Background

The Bonan people trace their ancestral roots to Mongol military detachments deployed during the (1271–1368 CE), when and subsequent rulers stationed troops in the frontier regions of present-day and provinces to secure borders against Tibetan polities and facilitate administrative control over diverse ethnic groups. These garrisons, often comprising Eastern Mongolic-speaking soldiers from the core Mongol heartlands, formed semi-permanent settlements around areas like Tongren County in , where they initially maintained pastoral-nomadic lifestyles akin to their steppe origins. Historical records and oral traditions preserved among the Bonan indicate that these troops were tasked with border vigilance, intermarrying with indigenous populations such as Tibetan herders and early Hui Muslim settlers, which laid the foundation for cultural amalgamation without immediate . Ethnogenesis of the Bonan as a distinct group occurred gradually through this intermixing, with the retention of a Mongolic linguistic substrate—evident in the Bonan language's classification within the Eastern Mongolic branch of the Altaic family—serving as a key marker of continuity from these military forebears. Unlike broader Mongol populations that dispersed or assimilated differently, the Bonan ancestors adapted to high-altitude agrarian and semi-nomadic economies in the basin, incorporating Tibetan-influenced vocabulary into their dialect due to prolonged proximity in Tongren before migrations southward into around the Ming-Qing transition (14th–17th centuries). Early ethnonyms were fluid, often subsumed under broader "Hui" or "Tus" labels by Han and Tibetan neighbors, reflecting a lack of unified self-designation until the , though self-perception of Mongol lineage persisted in and clan genealogies. This ancestral profile aligns with patterns observed in other Sinicized Mongolic groups, such as the Dongxiang, where garrison descendants similarly blended steppe heritage with local substrates, but the Bonan's relative isolation in riverine valleys preserved archaic Mongolic phonological features longer than in more urbanized counterparts. Pre-Islamic Bonan society likely mirrored Yuan-era Mongol frontier customs, including shamanistic practices and clan-based organization, prior to the Hui influence that would shape later identity formation.

Genetic Evidence

Genome-wide autosomal genotyping reveals that the Bonan people exhibit a predominantly East Eurasian genetic profile, with approximately 89.1% ancestry derived from Late Bronze/ populations and 10.9% from West Eurasian sources modeled as Andronovo-related steppe groups. This admixture pattern positions the Bonan genetically close to other Northwest Chinese Muslim groups such as the Hui, Dongxiang, and Salar, forming a distinct cluster in that reflects shared East-West Eurasian mixing, though with limited overall West Eurasian input compared to more western-influenced populations. Fine-scale structure analyses, including ADMIXTURE at K=5, further highlight this dual ancestry, with the Bonan showing affinities to and Altaic-speaking groups rather than pure Mongolic or Tibetan profiles, supported by low FST distances and f3 statistics indicating greater shared drift with East Asians. Y-chromosome data indicate male-biased West Eurasian , with R1a1a1b2 (a steppe-associated lineage) reaching 18.75% among Bonan males, alongside East Asian-dominant O3-M122 at 24-30% and R-M17 () at 26%. In contrast, autosomal short tandem repeat (STR) loci across 15 markers demonstrate strong similarity to populations in , with pairwise FST values below 0.002 and clustering coefficients of 58.3-63.9% in East Asian components, underscoring minimal divergence from indigenous East Asian genetic stock. Admixture dating estimates place the primary East-West mixing event between 630-930 years ago, aligning with historical Mongol expansions and Islamic during the Song-Yuan transition, rather than substantial demic migration from the . qpAdm modeling (p=0.0536) supports a two-source origin from East Asian agriculturalists and pastoralists, with qpAdm-admixtools confirming male-mediated as the driver of West Eurasian elements, consistent with patrilocal practices and settlements. These findings refute large-scale Middle Eastern genetic contributions to Bonan origins, favoring assimilation of local East Asians by Mongol-Islamic elites through cultural rather than demographic dominance.

History

Pre-Islamic Period and Mongol Roots

The Bonan people's ancestral roots trace to Mongol and (Central Asian Muslim and non-Han) military personnel dispatched to the Tongren County area in present-day Province during the (1271–1368 CE), when Mongol forces under established control over and its frontiers. These settlers were primarily tasked with garrisoning strategic border regions to counter Tibetan resistance and maintain imperial authority in the Amdo , an originally Tibetan-inhabited territory. Over generations, they formed semi-permanent communities through intermarriage with local Tibetan and other indigenous populations, laying the ethnolinguistic foundation for the Bonan as a distinct group. In the pre-Islamic era, these proto-Bonan communities predominantly practiced , reflecting significant with the surrounding Tibetan majority, including adoption of Buddhist rituals, architecture influences, and social structures. Historical accounts indicate that by the late , groups identifiable as Bonan ancestors resided in Tongren as Tibetan Buddhists, with no widespread Islamic presence until later conversions. This period of Buddhist adherence persisted among many until the , when factional splits led to Islamization among a subset, while related Buddhist Bonan subgroups (such as the Tongren Bonan) retained their faith, highlighting the hybrid Mongol-Tibetan heritage prior to religious divergence. The enduring Mongol genetic and linguistic imprint is evident in the Bonan language, classified within the Shirongolic subgroup of , which preserves archaic Mongolic features despite substrate influences from Tibetan and other contact languages. Genetic studies corroborate this descent, showing Bonan populations cluster closely with other Mongolic groups, underscoring their origin as descendants of Yuan-era Mongol soldiery rather than purely local Tibetan ethnogenesis.

Adoption of Islam and Cultural Shifts

The Bonan people, originally practicing forms of and possibly residual shamanistic traditions inherited from their East Asian nomadic ancestors, experienced a pivotal religious shift beginning in the early through gradual conversion to . This process was driven by interactions with neighboring Muslim ethnic groups, including the Hui and Salar, who introduced ic teachings via trade, intermarriage, and missionary efforts in the Gansu-Qinghai border regions. Conversion was not uniform; only a portion of the Bonan adopted initially, leading to acute communal friction with non-converting kin who adhered to . The Muslim converts faced expulsion and persecution from Buddhist Bonan and Tu neighbors, prompting migration northward to more accommodating territories such as Jishishan Bonan Autonomous County and Xunhua Salar Autonomous County by the mid-. By this period, had become the dominant faith among the group, solidifying their distinction from non-Muslim highland communities. Cultural transformations accompanying Islamization were multifaceted, reshaping social norms, rituals, and material practices to align with Hanafi jurisprudence. Dietary customs shifted to strict halal observance, eliminating pork and alcohol consumption, which contrasted with prior omnivorous habits influenced by pastoral and foraging lifestyles. Religious life centered on the five pillars, including daily salat prayers and mosque-based communal gatherings; by the early 1980s, Xunhua County alone hosted 73 mosques serving Bonan and allied Muslim populations. The Bonan divided into two primary sects—Gedimu (Old Teaching), emphasizing traditional Sufi-influenced rituals, and Ikhwan (New Teaching), a reformist movement advocating scriptural purity and anti-Sufi stances—mirroring broader patterns among northwest China's Muslim minorities. These changes reinforced within Muslim networks, limiting intermarriage with non-Muslims and fostering ties with Hui, Dongxiang, and Salar groups, though Bonan retained linguistic and identities. Festivals transitioned from Buddhist lunar observances to Islamic holidays like and , marked by feasting, prayer, and charity, while customary attire adopted modest Islamic styles, including headscarves for women and prayer caps for men. Education integrated Quranic studies in madrasas, blending with agricultural skills, and burial practices standardized to Islamic ground interment facing , supplanting any prior sky burials or cremations. Despite these adaptations, core Bonan elements like matrilocal marriage remnants and herding economies persisted, illustrating a selective synthesis rather than wholesale replacement. episodes, including violent clashes with Buddhist locals, heightened in-group cohesion and accelerated sinicized Islamic expressions resilient to Qing-era restrictions.

Interactions with Dynasties and Modern Era

During the , Bonan communities fortified their presence in the Tongren area of with the establishment of a castle during the Hongwu era (1368–1398) and the construction of Bonan Town during the Wanli era (1572–1620). These developments reflected their role as descendants of Mongol garrisons tasked with border defense against Tibetan incursions, integrating agricultural and military functions amid interactions with Han and Tibetan neighbors. Under the , Bonan barracks were formalized in Tongren, reinforcing their semi-autonomous military status within the imperial system of for frontier ethnic groups. However, escalating conflicts with local Tibetan Buddhist elites, particularly over religious differences and water rights near Longwu Temple, led to oppression during the Xianfeng (1851–1861) and Tongzhi (1862–1874) reigns. This prompted large-scale migration eastward: initial relocation to Xunhua County in , followed by settlement in Province at the foot of Jishi Mountain, including areas like Dahejia, Ganhetan, and Jishishan, where they established enduring villages by the late . The move, involving most of the population from original sites like Bonan, Xiazhuang, and Gasa'er villages, marked a shift from 's Tibetan-dominated highlands to more Han-influenced lowlands, reducing direct Tibetan hostilities but increasing reliance on Han administrative structures. In the modern era following the founding of the in 1949, the Bonan were officially recognized as one of the 56 ethnic minorities, entitling them to benefits under the state's ethnic autonomy policy. The Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang, and Salar Autonomous County was established in 1981 in Province, encompassing core Bonan settlements and housing approximately 21,400 Bonan—over 90% of the group's total population of around 25,000 as of recent censuses. This administrative framework facilitated local in , , and , including and , while integrating Bonan into national modernization efforts such as and projects in the 1980s–2000s. doubled from about 10,000 in the 1980s to over 20,000 by the 2010s, attributed to improved healthcare and economic stability, though the community maintains Islamic practices and Bonan language use amid broader pressures.

Language

Linguistic Classification and Features

The Bonan language belongs to the Mongolic family within the proposed Altaic phylum, specifically the Shirongolic branch, which also includes Dongxiang and Santa. It comprises two main dialects: Jishishan, spoken in Province, and Tongren, spoken in Province, with sub-variations such as Ganhetan and Dadun in Jishishan, and Nianduhu, Guomari, and Gasari in Tongren. These dialects differ in phoneme inventories, with Tongren featuring additional like /ç/, /ɬ/, and /ʑ/, and more long vowels, while both adhere to structures of (C)V, V(C), CV, or CVC. Bonan displays agglutinative morphology through suffixation for grammatical categories, lacking noun but marking number (e.g., =la for , =ʁala for dual), case, and possession on nouns. Case system includes nominative (zero-marked for subjects and indefinite objects), accusative (=nə for definite objects and possessors), dative-locative (=da for indirect objects and locations), ablative (=sa), and (=ʁala). Verbs feature three stem forms—terminal, multifunctional, and connecting—with suffixes for tense, aspect, and mood, such as -tɕə (imperfective), -to or -saŋ (perfective), (-əʁa), and reciprocal (-tɕʰe); occurs via =ku (imperfective) or -saŋ (perfective). Phonologically, Bonan has six vowels (i, e, ə, a, o, u) without length distinctions in younger speakers and 34 , including aspirated stops and affricates; stress falls on the final , and clusters like kʰətʰəχə occur. It lacks vowel harmony typical of core , attributable to Amdo Tibetan substrate and contact effects. The incorporates ~40% Chinese loanwords, Tibetan borrowings (especially in Tongren), and Arabic-Persian terms for Islamic concepts, alongside retained Mongolic roots. Syntactically, Bonan follows subject-object-verb order with dependent marking, optional object accusativization, and areal traits like morphological topic marking (ma) and terminative serial verb markers (-tala), shared with contact languages such as Wutun Mandarin. These features reflect convergence in the Qinghai-Gansu linguistic area, including sociative cases derived from numerals (e.g., =ʁala from 'two' for comitative roles).

Usage, Endangerment, and Revitalization Efforts

The Bonan language, a Mongolic tongue lacking a standardized , is primarily an oral medium used in familial and intra-community settings among older speakers in rural areas of and provinces. Bilingualism in predominates, with the latter dominating education, official interactions, and intergenerational communication, leading to restricted domains for Bonan in daily life. Usage has contracted due to socioeconomic pressures, including and Mandarin-centric schooling, confining the language mostly to domestic contexts among grandparents and limited peer groups. Bonan is assessed as definitely endangered, with weakening intergenerational transmission as younger cohorts prioritize Mandarin proficiency for economic and social mobility. Vitality differs by village, but overall decline stems from state policies emphasizing Mandarin, minimal institutional support despite official recognition in , and encroachment by dominant languages in the region. Linguistic documentation highlights its precarious status, with speaker numbers historically estimated in the low tens of thousands but eroding amid assimilation dynamics. Revitalization initiatives are limited and largely academic, centered on phonological and lexical , sketches, and material compilation to the before further loss. No robust community or state-sponsored programs exist, though international efforts via platforms like the offer bibliographic resources and awareness to support potential preservation. These activities underscore the need for development and educational integration, yet face barriers from resource scarcity and shifting cultural priorities.

Religion

Islamic Faith and Practices

The Bonan people adhere predominantly to , having converted en masse around 1750 under the influence of the missionary Muhammed Amin. They maintain their own mosques for worship, with historical records noting 73 such structures in nearby Xunhua County by the early 1980s. Core beliefs align with orthodox Sunni tenets, including faith in as the singular deity, recognition of angels, reverence for Islamic scriptures, acceptance of prophets, and belief in resurrection and after death. Bonan Islamic practices emphasize the five pillars, including daily prayers conducted in mosques or homes, strict adherence to dietary laws prohibiting , , alcohol, and from carnivorous or naturally deceased animals, and a preference for beef and mutton. Communal meals often begin with recitation from the by a senior family member or host. Women traditionally wear veiled hats during religious observance, reflecting norms. Key observances include the month-long fast of in the ninth lunar month, followed by (known locally as Kaizhai or Lesser Bairam), and (Corban Festival or Daerde), which involves animal sacrifices approximately 70 days post-. Additional festivals encompass the Almsgiving Festival, featuring cattle or sheep sacrifices, ritual chanting in mosques led by women, and the al-Nabi commemorating the Prophet Muhammad's birth. These events reinforce community bonds, with practices bearing similarities to those of neighboring Hui and Dongxiang Muslims while incorporating local adaptations. Burial rites follow Islamic prescriptions, entailing ground interment of the deceased wrapped in white cloth, without . The Bonan are divided into "Old Teaching" (more traditional, Sufi-influenced) and "New Teaching" adherents, reflecting historical schisms within Chinese , though both remain within the Sunni framework. This sectarian distinction influences emphases but does not alter fundamental .

Distinctiveness from Other Muslim Ethnicities

The Bonan people, comprising approximately 20,000 individuals primarily in Province, adhere predominantly to , with a small portion following following a historical . Their adoption of occurred relatively late, in the early , distinguishing them from groups like the Hui, whose conversions trace back to the Tang and Yuan dynasties, or the Uyghur, with deeper Central Asian Islamic roots predating Mongol influences. This timing reflects interactions with neighboring Muslim communities such as the Dongxiang and Salar, yet the Bonan retained a unique ethnic boundary, reinforced by their Mongolic linguistic heritage, in contrast to the Sinitic-speaking Hui or Turkic Uyghur. Religiously, the Bonan are divided into Old and New sects, a bifurcation that parallels but is more pronounced in their small-scale communities compared to the diverse menhuan orders among the Hui. Practices include standard Sunni observances such as Ramadan fasting, Eid celebrations (Lesser Bairam), and ground burials, alongside the Almsgiving Festival involving livestock sacrifices and communal chants often led by women, elements that underscore localized adaptations not as prominently featured in larger groups like the Uyghur. A pivotal distinction arose in 1862, when religious and resource conflicts—particularly over water rights—prompted the Muslim Bonan to separate eastward from their Tibetan Buddhist kin in Qinghai, solidifying a dual religious identity absent in uniformly Muslim ethnicities like the Salar or Kazakh. This split, driven by friction between Islamic monotheism and Buddhist polytheism, highlights the Bonan's maintenance of doctrinal purity amid ethnic pressures, differing from the more syncretic historical integrations seen in Hui communities.

Culture and Society

Traditional Livelihoods and Economy

The Bonan people have historically relied on as their primary economic activity, cultivating staple crops such as and in the fertile valleys and terraced fields of and provinces. This subsistence farming is adapted to the region's high-altitude, , with techniques supporting yields in areas like Jishishan County. rearing complements , involving the breeding of sheep, , and other animals for , , and , which provides resilience against crop shortfalls. Handicrafts constitute a significant supplementary livelihood, with the Bonan renowned for their expertise in knife forging—a cottage industry utilizing local materials like high-carbon blades, , , or ox bone for handles. These Bao'an waist daggers (宝安腰刀) and utility knives are produced through traditional techniques involving repeated forging and quenching, achieving durability prized in regional trade across and . Sales of these items, alongside minor pursuits like and , historically generated income beyond farm outputs, fostering economic self-sufficiency in isolated communities. This diversified approach underscores the Bonan's adaptation to environmental constraints, balancing sedentary farming with skilled artisanal production rather than extensive nomadism.

Customs, Festivals, and Family Structure

The Bonan maintain a patriarchal structure characterized by strong parental authority, with monogamous marriages traditionally arranged by parents through and requiring parental approval. Betrothal involves substantial gifts from the groom's family, and weddings occur on Fridays or auspicious days associated with the numbers 3, 6, or 9, featuring a by the groom to the bride's home accompanied by a team of 20 to 30 relatives, predominantly male, followed by rituals such as ash-daubing and grain-throwing for blessings. Early marriages have been noted in some cases, reflecting extended units where elders exert influence over major life decisions. Daily customs are deeply shaped by , with adherence to dietary rules prohibiting pork, blood, alcohol, smoking, and meats from dogs, horses, donkeys, mules, snakes, turkeys, or carrion animals; meals begin with Quranic recitation, and livestock is slaughtered with prayers. Hospitality norms dictate that guests sit on the left side of the heatable brick bed (kang), women avoid interacting directly with unrelated male visitors, and social exchanges emphasize modesty and community cohesion in compact village settlements. Secular traditions include wrestling, folk dancing resembling Tibetan styles, and , alongside handicrafts like knife-making, which reinforce ethnic identity. Festivals blend Islamic observances with local traditions. Key religious events include fasting in the ninth lunar month, the Roza festival marking its end, Lesser Bairam () 70 days later with sacrifices, the Almsgiving Festival in the ninth lunar month involving cattle or sheep offerings and alms distribution led by women at mosques, Corban Festival, Kaizhai Festival, (Prophet's Birthday), and Daerde Festival. Secular celebrations feature the five-day Hua'er Festival from the fourth to sixth lunar months (May to ), centered on competitive singing of improvised folk songs, and the Langshan Festival in late May or early June, a communal spring outing with picnics and gatherings. These events foster social bonds and cultural preservation among the approximately 20,000 Bonan as of the 2010 census.

Arts, Clothing, and Material Culture

The Bonan people are renowned for their handicrafts, particularly in and , with Bonan broadsword recognized as a provincial-level of since 2006. Skilled artisans, numbering over 600 in specialized villages, produce waist daggers (known as daokan) featuring intricate engravings of floral motifs, , and geometric patterns on blades forged from high-carbon and handles inlaid with , , or ox bone; these items serve both practical and ornamental purposes, with annual output exceeding hundreds of thousands of pieces for local and regional markets. Women contribute to folk arts through paper-cutting techniques that depict symmetrical floral designs and auspicious symbols, often applied to decorative panels or clothing embellishments, reflecting influences from neighboring Hui and Dongxiang traditions while adhering to Islamic prohibitions on figurative representation. Bonan musical traditions emphasize vocal and instrumental performances during festivals and communal gatherings, utilizing instruments such as the (a producing reed-like tones) and featuring epic songs that narrate historical migrations and daily life, though these practices have waned with . Engraving extends to household items, including furniture, utensils, and tools, where craftsmen incise detailed arabesque patterns using fine chisels, a passed down through apprenticeships in workshops. Traditional Bonan clothing draws from Islamic modesty norms and regional pastoral influences, with men typically wearing white gowns (), black sleeveless vests, and round white skullcaps embroidered with simple threads, paired with loose for agricultural labor. Women favor layered ensembles of colorful or dresses in vibrant hues like red and green, accented by embroidered floral borders on hems and collars, over which they drape shawls; veiling practices distinguish , with unmarried women donning green embroidered veils and married or older women black ones to cover the head and shoulders during public outings or prayers. These garments, handmade with or synthetic blends in modern iterations, incorporate practical elements like reinforced seams for herding and farming, though younger generations increasingly adopt urban attire. Material culture artifacts underscore the Bonan's adaptive craftsmanship, including forged knives and daggers as multifunctional tools for butchery, , and status symbols, often sheathed in with silver fittings; these reflect resourcefulness in utilizing local iron ores and deposits from the Jishi Mountains. Domestic items like wooden chests and trays bear hand-engraved motifs echoing Quranic verses or nature-inspired designs, serving ritual and everyday roles in Sunni Muslim households, with preservation efforts focusing on programs to counter skill erosion from economic shifts toward wage labor.

Contemporary Status

Integration and Assimilation Dynamics

The Bonan people, numbering approximately 20,481 as of the 2010 census, have historically integrated into broader Chinese society through intermarriage and cultural exchange with neighboring Han, Hui, and Tu populations, a process that began after the Yuan dynasty's collapse when their Mongol ancestors settled in and provinces. This mingling contributed to the formation of their distinct identity while fostering linguistic and customary borrowings, such as the adoption of vocabulary into the Bonan language and the use of Chinese as the primary written medium. Linguistic assimilation dynamics are pronounced, with the Bonan language—a Mongolic tongue spoken by fewer than 6,000 individuals—classified as endangered due to generational shifts toward and local Hui dialects for daily communication and . Sociolinguistic surveys indicate that younger Bonan increasingly prioritize Chinese proficiency for economic opportunities, leading projections that the group may linguistically merge with the dominant Hui minority in regions like Jishishan County, , absent revitalization efforts. This shift aligns with broader patterns of minority language attrition in , where state-mandated Mandarin accelerates integration but erodes heritage tongues. Culturally, Bonan assimilation mirrors that of the Hui, with shared Sunni Islamic practices and agrarian lifestyles facilitating social cohesion; most Bonan reside in mixed communities where inter-ethnic marriages remain common, though persists to preserve . Economic integration into the national framework, via farming, herding, and migration to urban centers, has further blurred distinctions, as Bonan participate in state programs promoting "ethnic unity" that emphasize Han-centric norms without overt resistance reported in ethnographic accounts. However, as a small, officially recognized minority, they benefit from limited affirmative policies, such as autonomous counties, which temper full assimilation while embedding them in China's sinicization-oriented governance.

Relations with the Chinese State and Challenges

The Bonan people reside primarily in the Jishishan Bonan, Dongxiang, and Salar Autonomous County in Gansu Province, established as a form of regional ethnic under the of China's 1954 , allowing local governance bodies dominated by Bonan, Dongxiang, and Salar representatives to manage internal affairs in alignment with national laws. This structure theoretically enables the Bonan to preserve cultural and religious practices while integrating into the broader Chinese socialist framework, with the providing infrastructure development and poverty alleviation funds targeted at minority areas. In practice, Bonan leaders participate in national political processes, such as serving as deputies in local people's congresses, reflecting a state emphasis on multi-ethnic unity under leadership. Despite these formal relations, the Bonan face economic challenges rooted in their remote, mountainous location and small population of approximately 25,000 as of recent estimates, which limits industrial diversification and perpetuates reliance on , , and seasonal labor migration. Jishishan County ranks among China's poorest regions, with historically lagging due to arid terrain and vulnerability to , including the December 18, 2023, magnitude 6.2 that damaged homes and , prompting state-led reconstruction efforts but highlighting ongoing . Poverty alleviation programs since 2012 have relocated thousands from uninhabitable areas and promoted eco-protection subsidies, yet relapse risks persist amid uneven policy implementation and limited local capacities. Religiously, as Sunni Muslims, the Bonan adhere to practices influenced by Hanafi jurisprudence but encounter state-driven "Sinicization of Islam" policies intensified since 2018, which mandate alignment of religious doctrine with "socialist core values" through patriotic for imams, state registration of mosques, and architectural modifications to remove Arab-Persian elements in favor of Chinese styles. These measures, applied nationwide to Muslim communities including those in , restrict foreign religious influences, limit youth participation in rituals, and require clergy loyalty oaths to the Party, potentially eroding traditional Bonan Islamic customs despite their historical accommodation compared to Turkic groups. Linguistically, the Bonan language—a Mongolic —is endangered, with fewer than 3,000 fluent speakers primarily among elders, driven by mandatory Mandarin-medium and intergenerational shift, posing risks to cultural transmission amid assimilation dynamics. While state recognition affords protections, these pressures underscore tensions between ethnic preservation and national unification imperatives.

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