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Late Neolithic
Late Neolithic
Late Neolithic
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Late Neolithic
After the initial Pre-Pottery Neolithic phase from northwestern Mesopotamia to Jarmo (red dots, circa 7500 BCE), the Pottery Neolithic culture of Mesopotamia in the 7th–5th millennium BCE was centered around the Hassuna culture in the north, the Halaf culture in the northwest, the Samarra culture in central Mesopotamia and the Ubaid culture in the southeast, which later expanded to encompass the whole region.
Geographical rangeOld World
PeriodPottery Neolithic
Datesc. 6,400–3,500 BCE
Preceded byPre-Pottery Neolithic B
Followed byBronze Age

In the archaeology of Southwest Asia, the Late Neolithic, also known as the Ceramic Neolithic or Pottery Neolithic, is the final part of the Neolithic period, following on from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic and preceding the Chalcolithic. It is sometimes further divided into Pottery Neolithic A (PNA) and Pottery Neolithic B (PNB) phases.[1]

The Late Neolithic began with the first experiments with pottery, around 7000 BCE, and lasted until the discovery of copper metallurgy and the start of the Chalcolithic around 4500 BCE.

Southern Levant

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Yarmukian pottery vessel, Sha'ar HaGolan.

The Neolithic of the Southern Levant is divided into Pre-Pottery and Pottery or Late Neolithic phases, initially based on the sequence established by Kathleen Kenyon at Jericho. In the Mediterranean zone, the Pottery Neolithic is further subdivided into two subphases and several regional cultures. However, the extent to which these represent real cultural phenomena is debated:[2]

In the eastern desert regions of the Southern Levant—the Badia—the whole period is referred to as the Late Neolithic (c. 7000–5000 BCE).[3] It is marked by the appearance of the first pastoralist societies in the desert, who may have migrated there following the abandonment of the large PPNB settlements to the west.[4][5]

In the southern Negev and Sinai Deserts, the Late Neolithic is characterised by the pastoralist Timnian culture, which persisted through to the Bronze Age.[6]

Mesopotamia

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The Late Neolithic began around 6,400 BCE in the Fertile Crescent, succeeding the period of the Pre-Pottery Neolithic.[7] By then distinctive cultures emerged, with pottery like the Halafian (Turkey, Syria, Northern Mesopotamia) and Ubaid (Southern Mesopotamia).

First experiments with pottery (c. 7000 BCE)

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Pottery bowl from Jarmo, Mesopotamia, 7100-5800 BCE.

The northern Mesopotamian sites of Tell Hassuna and Jarmo are some of the oldest sites in the Near-East where pottery has been found, appearing in the most recent levels of excavation, which dates it to the 7th millennium BCE.[8] This pottery is handmade, of simple design and with thick sides, and treated with a vegetable solvent.[9] There are clay figures, zoomorphic or anthropomorphic, including figures of pregnant women which are taken to be fertility goddesses, similar to the Mother Goddess of later Neolithic cultures in the same region.

Halaf culture (6000–5000 BCE)

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Main article: Halaf culture

Pottery was decorated with abstract geometric patterns and ornaments, especially in the Halaf culture, also known for its clay fertility figurines, painted with lines. Clay was all around and the main material; often modelled figures were painted with black decoration. Carefully crafted and dyed pots, especially jugs and bowls, were traded. As dyes, iron oxide containing clays were diluted in different degrees or various minerals were mixed to produce different colours.

The Halaf culture saw the earliest known appearance of stamp seals.[10] They featured essentially geometric patterns.[10]

Female fertility figurines in painted clay, possibly goddesses, also appear in this period, circa 6000–5100 BCE.[11]

  • Jar decorated with diverse geometric patterns; 4900-4300 BC; ceramic; by Halaf culture; Erbil Civilization Museum (Erbil, Iraq)
    Jar decorated with diverse geometric patterns; 4900-4300 BC; ceramic; by Halaf culture; Erbil Civilization Museum (Erbil, Iraq)
  • Shard; 5600-5000 BC; painted ceramic; 7.19 × 4.19 cm; by Halaf culture
    Shard; 5600-5000 BC; painted ceramic; 7.19 × 4.19 cm; by Halaf culture
  • Halaf culture female figurines, 6000-5100 BC Louvre Museum
    Halaf culture female figurines, 6000-5100 BC Louvre Museum
  • Stamp seal and modern impression- geometric pattern. Halaf culture
    Stamp seal and modern impression- geometric pattern. Halaf culture
  • Fragment of a bowl; 5600-5000 BC; 8.2 cm; by Halaf culture
    Fragment of a bowl; 5600-5000 BC; 8.2 cm; by Halaf culture
  • Shard; 5600-5000 BC; painted ceramic; 3.96 × 5.21 cm; by Halaf culture
    Shard; 5600-5000 BC; painted ceramic; 3.96 × 5.21 cm; by Halaf culture

Hassuna culture (6000–5000 BCE)

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Main article: Hassuna culture

The Hassuna culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia dating to the early sixth millennium BCE. It is named after the type site of Tell Hassuna in Iraq. Other sites where Hassuna material has been found include Tell Shemshara. The decoration of pottery essentially consists in geometrical shapes, and a few ibex designs. The monochrome pottery from the latest level at Ginnig has been described as "proto-Hassuna". As the oldest layers at the site lacked pottery, Ginnig may represent a rare example of site in Upper Mesopotamia that was occupied during the transition from the aceramic to the ceramic Neolithic.[12]

  • Hassuna redware bowl, circa 5500 BCE
    Hassuna redware bowl, circa 5500 BCE
  • Fragment of pottery with incised and painted decor. From Tell Hassuna, 6500 - 6000 BCE.
    Fragment of pottery with incised and painted decor. From Tell Hassuna, 6500 - 6000 BCE.
  • Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)
    Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)
  • Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)
    Reconstitution of Neolithic dwelling in northern Mesopotamia (Akarcay Tepe II)

Samarra culture (6000–4800 BCE)

[edit]
Main article: Samarra culture

The Samarra culture is a Chalcolithic archaeological culture in northern Mesopotamia that is roughly dated to 5500–4800 BCE. It partially overlaps with the Hassuna and early Ubaid.

  • Samarra plate, with a design consists of a rim, a circle of eight fish, and four fish swimming towards the center being caught by four birds, at the center being a swastika symbol; circa 4000 BCE; painted ceramic; diameter: 27.7 cm; Vorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin)
    Samarra plate, with a design consists of a rim, a circle of eight fish, and four fish swimming towards the center being caught by four birds, at the center being a swastika symbol; circa 4000 BCE; painted ceramic; diameter: 27.7 cm; Vorderasiatisches Museum (Berlin)
  • Samarra period fine ware, with central Ibex motif; circa 6200-5700 BCE; Vorderasiatisches Museum
    Samarra period fine ware, with central Ibex motif; circa 6200-5700 BCE; Vorderasiatisches Museum
  • Fragment of Samarra pottery with geometrical designs in University of Chicago Oriental Institute (USA)
    Fragment of Samarra pottery with geometrical designs in University of Chicago Oriental Institute (USA)
  • Female figurine found in the Tell es Sawwan (middle Tigris, near Samarra), level 1, ca. 6000 BCE.
    Female figurine found in the Tell es Sawwan (middle Tigris, near Samarra), level 1, ca. 6000 BCE.

Ubaid culture (6500–3800 BCE)

[edit]
Main article: Ubaid culture
Northern expansion of the Ubaid culture after c.4500 BCE.

The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3800 BCE)[13] is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid in Southern Mesopotamia, where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woolley.[14]

In South Mesopotamia the period is the earliest known period on the alluvial plain although it is likely earlier periods exist obscured under the alluvium.[15] In the south it has a very long duration between about 6500 and 3800 BCE when it is replaced by the Uruk period.[16]

In North Mesopotamia, Ubaid culture expanded during the period between about 5300 and 4300 BCE.[16] It is preceded by the Halaf period and the Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period and succeeded by the Late Chalcolithic period. The new period is named Northern Ubaid to distinguish it from the proper Ubaid in southern Mesopotamia.[17]

With Ubaid 3 (circa 4500 BCE) numerous examples of Ubaid pottery have been found along the Persian Gulf, as far as Dilmun, where Indus Valley Civilization pottery has also been found.[18]

Stamps seals start to depict animals in stylistic fashion, and also bear the first known depiction of the Master of Animals at the end of the period, circa 4000 BCE.[19][10][20]

  • Jar; Late Ubaid period (4500-4000 BC); pottery; from Southern Iraq; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (USA)
    Jar; Late Ubaid period (4500-4000 BC); pottery; from Southern Iraq; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (USA)
  • Fragment of pottery with a painting of an Ibex; 4700-4200 BC; painted ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[21]
    Fragment of pottery with a painting of an Ibex; 4700-4200 BC; painted ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[21]
  • Female figurines; 4700-4200 BC; ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[22]
    Female figurines; 4700-4200 BC; ceramic; from Girsu; Louvre[22]
  • Terracotta stamp seal with Master of Animals motif, Tello, ancient Girsu, End of Ubaid period, Louvre Museum AO14165. Circa 4000 BC.[19]
    Terracotta stamp seal with Master of Animals motif, Tello, ancient Girsu, End of Ubaid period, Louvre Museum AO14165. Circa 4000 BC.[19]

Diffusion

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Indus Valley Civilization (5500–2000 BCE)

[edit]
Early Neolithic sites in the Near East and South Asia 10,000–3,800 BCE

The Fertile Crescent in the Ancient Near East is one of the independent origins of the Neolithic, the source from which farming and pottery-making spread across Europe from 9,000 to 6,000 years ago at an average rate of about 1 km/yr.[23] There is also strong evidence for causal connections between the Near-Eastern Neolithic and that further east, up to the Indus Valley.[23] There are several lines of evidence that support the idea of connection between the Neolithic in the Near East and in the Indian subcontinent.[23] The prehistoric site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan (modern Pakistan) is the earliest Neolithic site in the north-west Indian subcontinent, dated as early as 8500 BCE.[23] Neolithic domesticated crops in Mehrgarh include more than barley and a small amount of wheat. There is good evidence for the local domestication of barley and the zebu cattle at Mehrgarh, but the wheat varieties are suggested to be of Near-Eastern origin, as the modern distribution of wild varieties of wheat is limited to Northern Levant and Southern Turkey.[23] A detailed satellite map study of a few archaeological sites in the Baluchistan and Khybar Pakhtunkhwa regions also suggests similarities in early phases of farming with sites in Western Asia.[23] Pottery prepared by sequential slab construction, circular fire pits filled with burnt pebbles, and large granaries are common to both Mehrgarh and many Mesopotamian sites.[23] The postures of the skeletal remains in graves at Mehrgarh bear strong resemblance to those at Ali Kosh in the Zagros Mountains of southern Iran.[23] Despite their scarcity, the 14C and archaeological age determinations for early Neolithic sites in Southern Asia exhibit remarkable continuity across the vast region from the Near East to the Indian Subcontinent, consistent with a systematic eastward spread at a speed of about 0.65 km/yr.[23]

Mehrgarh painted pottery. 3000-2500 BCE.[24]

During the Mehrgarh Culture, precursor of the Indus Valley Civilization, Period II (5500 BCE–4800 BCE) and Merhgarh Period III (4800 BCE–3500 BCE) were ceramic Neolithic, using pottery, and later chalcolithic. Period II is at site MR4 and Period III is at MR2.[25] Much evidence of manufacturing activity has been found and more advanced techniques were used. Glazed faience beads were produced and terracotta figurines became more detailed. Figurines of females were decorated with paint and had diverse hairstyles and ornaments. Two flexed burials were found in Period II with a red ochre cover on the body. The amount of burial goods decreased over time, becoming limited to ornaments and with more goods left with burials of females. The first button seals were produced from terracotta and bone and had geometric designs. Technologies included stone and copper drills, updraft kilns, large pit kilns and copper melting crucibles. There is further evidence of long-distance trade in Period II: important as an indication of this is the discovery of several beads of lapis lazuli, once again from Badakshan. Mehrgarh Periods II and III are also contemporaneous with an expansion of the settled populations of the borderlands at the western edge of South Asia, including the establishment of settlements like Rana Ghundai, Sheri Khan Tarakai, Sarai Kala, Jalilpur and Ghaligai.[25]

Europe

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Main article: Neolithic Europe
Neolithic expansion of Cardium pottery and Linear Pottery culture according to archaeology.

The European Neolithic is generally dated to 7000–3000 BCE. The spread of the Neolithic in Europe was first studied quantitatively in the 1970s, when a sufficient number of 14C age determinations for early Neolithic sites had become available.[26] Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza discovered a linear relationship between the age of an Early Neolithic site and its distance from the conventional source in the Near East (Jericho), thus demonstrating that, on average, the Neolithic spread at a constant speed of about 1 km/yr.[26] More recent studies confirm these results and yield the speed of 0.6–1.3 km/yr at 95% confidence level.[26]

Greece

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Main article: Neolithic Greece

Neolithic Greece is marked by some remarkable creations from stone or pottery. The settlement at Sesklo gives its name to the earliest known Neolithic culture of Europe, which inhabited Thessaly and parts of Macedonia. The oldest fragments researched at Sesklo place development of the civilization as far back as c. 7510 BCE — c. 6190 BCE, known as "proto-Sesklo" and "pre-Sesklo". They show an advanced agriculture and a very early use of pottery that rivals in age those documented in the Near East.

Ceramic decoration evolves to flame motifs toward the end of the Sesklo culture. Pottery of this "classic" Sesklo style also was used in Western Macedonia, as at Servia. That there are many similarities between the rare Asia Minor pottery and early Greek Neolithic pottery was acknowledged when investigations were made regarding whether these settlers could be migrants from Asia Minor, but such similarities seem to exist among all early pottery found in near eastern regions. The repertoire of shapes is not very different, but the Asia Minor vessels demonstrate significant differences.

The Sesklo culture is crucial in the expansion of the Neolithic into Europe. Dating and research points to the influence of Sesklo culture on both the Karanovo and Körös cultures that seem to originate there, and who in turn, gave rise to the important Danube civilization current.

  • Neolithic clay cups from Sesklo, circa 5,500 BCE. National Museum Athens
    Neolithic clay cups from Sesklo, circa 5,500 BCE. National Museum Athens
  • Female figurine, marble, Thessaly, 5,300–3,300 BCE
    Female figurine, marble, Thessaly, 5,300–3,300 BCE
  • Female figurine of a woman holding a baby, Sesklo, Neolithic, 4,800–4,500 BCE
    Female figurine of a woman holding a baby, Sesklo, Neolithic, 4,800–4,500 BCE
  • Sesklo culture vase
    Sesklo culture vase

Central and Northern Europe: Linear Pottery culture (5500–4500 BCE)

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Main article: Linear Pottery culture
Linear pottery: "The vessels are oblated globes, cut off on the top and slightly flattened on the bottom suggestive of a gourd."—Frank Hibben[27] Note the imitation of painted bands by incising the edges of the band. Stroked Ware is shown in the upper left corner.

The Linear Pottery culture is a major archaeological horizon of the European Neolithic, flourishing c. 5500–4500 BCE. It is abbreviated as "LBK" (from German: Linearbandkeramik), and is also known as the "Linear Band Ware", "Linear Ware", "Linear Ceramics" or "Incised Ware culture", and falls within the "Danubian I culture" of V. Gordon Childe.

The densest evidence for the culture is on the middle Danube, the upper and middle Elbe, and the upper and middle Rhine. It represents a major event in the initial spread of agriculture in Europe. The pottery after which it was named consists of simple cups, bowls, vases, and jugs, without handles, but in a later phase with lugs or pierced lugs, bases, and necks.[27]

Important sites include Nitra in Slovakia; Bylany in the Czech Republic; Langweiler and Zwenkau in Germany; Brunn am Gebirge in Austria; Elsloo, Sittard, Köln-Lindenthal, Aldenhoven, Flomborn, and Rixheim on the Rhine; Lautereck and Hienheim on the upper Danube; and Rössen and Sonderhausen on the middle Elbe.

Two variants of the early Linear Pottery culture are recognized:

Middle and late phases are also defined. In the middle phase, the Early Linear Pottery culture intruded upon the Bug-Dniester culture and began to manufacture "musical note" or notenkopf pottery, where lines are sometimes interrupted by dots and stabs. In the late phase, the Stroked Pottery culture moved down the Vistula and Elbe.

A number of cultures ultimately replaced the Linear Pottery culture over its range, but without a one-to-one correspondence between its variants and the replacing cultures. The culture map, instead, is complex. Some of the successor cultures are the Hinkelstein, Großgartach, Rössen, Lengyel, Cucuteni-Trypillian, and Boian-Maritza cultures.

The Neolithic period in Europe was succeeded by the Bronze Age, circa 3000 BCE.

References

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Sources

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Late Neolithic

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from Grokipedia
The Late Neolithic represents the concluding phase of the Neolithic period in archaeological terms, a transformative era in human prehistory characterized by intensified agricultural practices, the emergence of monumental architecture, and early signs of social complexity, with timelines varying regionally—for instance, spanning ca. 7000–5000 BCE in the Near East but generally from the late fifth to third millennia BCE (ca. 4500–2000 BCE) in Europe. In temperate Europe, this period roughly aligns with the late fifth to fourth millennia BCE (ca. 4500–3000 BCE), during which communities expanded settled farming lifestyles across diverse landscapes, transitioning from earlier Neolithic foundations laid by the spread of domesticates from the Near East. Key defining features include the refinement of stone tool technologies, such as polished axes for woodland clearance, and the cultivation of staple crops like emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon), einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum), and barley (Hordeum vulgare), which supported population growth and denser settlements. Economically, the Late Neolithic saw the dominance of slash-and-burn agriculture in regions with suitable climates and fertile soils in central and , yielding high initial harvests of up to 5 tons per due to nutrient-rich from burning. This method, involving direct sowing without plowing, facilitated the creation of anthropogenic landscapes or "anthrosols" but required periodic relocation of fields to maintain productivity, contributing to a semi-sedentary pattern of village life. Technological innovations included the production of finer ceramics and the experimental use of in some areas, foreshadowing the or Copper Age, while focused on , sheep, and pigs for meat, dairy, and traction. Regionally, in , the period ended around 4000 BCE with rich material cultures featuring decorated pottery and figurines, followed by a transitional gap before the Early . Socially and culturally, Late Neolithic societies exhibited growing complexity, evidenced by the construction of megalithic structures—such as passage tombs and stone circles—in western and , which served as communal sites and possibly centers, linking related kin groups across landscapes. These monuments, like those associated with the , reflect organized labor and shared ideologies, alongside emerging hierarchies indicated by prestige goods in elite s and fortified settlements in some regions. Evidence of inter-community conflict, including skeletal trauma from , suggests tensions over resources amid population pressures, while craft specialization in and ornaments points to increased trade networks. Overall, the Late Neolithic bridged foraging-hunting origins and metal-age societies, laying groundwork for the through adaptive responses to environmental and demographic challenges.

Definition and Characteristics

Chronology and Regional Variations

The Late Neolithic represents the final phase of the period, a time of increasing social complexity, technological refinement, and cultural elaboration following earlier stages of agricultural adoption. In the context of and adjacent areas, it generally spans the fourth and third millennia BCE (ca. 4500–2500 BCE), varying by region due to differences in the pace of Neolithic expansion, local adaptations, and environmental factors. This phase precedes the or early , marked by the initial use of metals. While the term "Late Neolithic" is primarily applied in European archaeology, analogous late prehistoric phases occur elsewhere, such as the final Neolithic in the (ca. 5500–4000 BCE) or late phases in , though with different terminologies and timelines detailed in subsequent sections. In temperate , the Late Neolithic aligns with ca. 4500–3000 BCE, building on the foundations of Early and Middle Neolithic farming communities that spread from around 6500 BCE. Regional variations include an earlier end around 4000 BCE in , transitioning to cultures, and extension to ca. 2500 BCE in northern and western areas with cultures like Funnelbeaker and Corded Ware precursors. In , late Neolithic phases date to ca. 3000–2600 BCE, while in , they extend to ca. 2000 BCE, incorporating local agricultural traditions. These differences arise from the gradual diffusion of farming practices, modulated by , , and indigenous innovations, with the Late phase characterized by intensification rather than initial adoption.

Technological and Cultural Developments

During the Late Neolithic, ceramic technology was already well-established from earlier phases, but saw refinements in production techniques and decorative styles, such as cord-impressed wares in Europe, supporting advanced food processing and storage for growing populations. Agricultural practices intensified with the widespread use of polished stone axes for land clearance, cultivation of staple cereals like emmer and einkorn wheat, and barley on fertile soils, often employing slash-and-burn methods that yielded high initial harvests but required field rotation. Animal husbandry emphasized cattle, sheep, and pigs for meat, dairy, and draft power, enhancing productivity and supporting denser settlements. Early experiments with copper metallurgy appeared in some regions, particularly in the Balkans and central Europe, signaling the transition to the Copper Age. Settlement patterns evolved toward larger, more permanent villages with organized layouts, such as longhouses in or clustered dwellings accommodating communities of several hundred, often near monumental structures. advanced through specialized ground stone tools, including axes from imported materials indicating , and early textiles evidenced by weights. Symbolic expressions included clay figurines and megalithic monuments like passage tombs and stone circles, serving and functions. Social organization displayed emerging complexity, with evidence of hierarchies from prestige goods in burials, fortified enclosures, and skeletal trauma suggesting inter-group conflict. Genetic studies of sites like Gurgy in (ca. 4850–4500 BCE) reveal patrilineal , female , and corporate leadership structures fostering community ties.

Origins in the Near East

Southern Levant

The Late Neolithic in the Southern Levant, spanning approximately 7000–5000 BCE, followed the collapse of the (PPNB) around 7000 BCE, a period marked by environmental stressors such as that led to the abandonment of large sedentary villages and a shift toward more dispersed, mobile communities. This transition reflected local adaptations to semi-arid conditions, with continuity in economies but greater emphasis on and seasonal exploitation of resources, particularly in marginal zones like the and Sinai deserts. Key cultures of this period included the Yarmukian (c. 6500–6000 BCE), centered in the Mediterranean and , known for its distinctive herringbone-decorated and small-scale settlements focused on supplemented by . Succeeding it was the Wadi Rabah culture (c. 6000–5000 BCE), which featured more refined traditions, including incised and combed wares, and evidence of intensified alongside crop cultivation in riverine areas. In the arid periphery, the Timnian culture (c. 6000–3000 BCE) emerged as a nomadic pastoralist complex, characterized by mobile herder-hunter groups using seasonal camps and producing coarse, handmade suited to desert mobility. Representative sites illustrate these developments: Munhata in the shows stratigraphic continuity from Yarmukian to Wadi Rabah phases, with mud-brick houses, storage facilities, and faunal remains indicating a blend of domesticated goats, sheep, and wild game, underscoring increased mobility within a farming framework. Similarly, 'Ain Ghazal in central , primarily a PPNB site, exhibits early Pottery Neolithic layers with rudimentary coarse wares and signs of post-collapse resettlement by smaller groups practicing herding in the surrounding highlands. Timnian adaptations are evident at desert sites like those in the , where ephemeral campsites reveal lithic tools for processing wild plants and animals, alongside tumuli burials reflecting among pastoral nomads. Evidence of interregional interactions includes artifacts sourced from Anatolian deposits, such as , found at Pottery Neolithic sites like Munhata and Sha'ar Hagolan, suggesting long-distance exchange networks that connected the Southern Levant to northern regions for raw materials. These trade links also extended eastward, with parallels in pottery styles and goods indicating contacts with Mesopotamian groups, facilitating the flow of ideas and resources amid the period's adaptive shifts.

Mesopotamia

The Late Neolithic in , spanning approximately 7000–3800 BCE, marked a period of significant cultural diversification and agricultural intensification in the fertile river valleys of the and , transitioning from early pottery-using villages to more complex societies with emerging urban precursors. This era encompassed the Pottery Neolithic and extended into the , characterized by the adoption of irrigation systems, specialized crafts, and inter-regional trade networks that supported growing settlements. Northern and central saw the rise of distinct pottery-bearing cultures, while southern expansions laid foundations for monumental architecture and social hierarchy. In northern , the (ca. 7000–6000 BCE) represented an early phase of , with small villages of 100–200 inhabitants featuring courtyard houses and early production. Hassuna pottery, often incised or lightly painted with simple geometric motifs, was produced in household contexts, reflecting nascent agricultural communities reliant on rain-fed farming of , , and . Key sites like Tell Hassuna yielded evidence of large tells—accumulated settlement mounds—indicating long-term occupation and the beginnings of craft activities such as grinding stone manufacture. These villages showed limited social differentiation, with burials suggesting egalitarian structures, though inter-regional exchange of and shells hinted at broader connections. Overlapping with Hassuna, the (ca. 6500–5500 BCE) flourished in northern and adjacent , known for its finely painted featuring elaborate polychrome geometric and zoomorphic designs on buff ware. Settlements like Arpachiyah and included circular tholoi tombs built of mud-brick or stone, often used for communal burials with such as beads and female figurines, pointing to ritual practices and emerging social elites. Halaf economy centered on and , with evidence of craft specialization in workshops that produced prestige items traded across the region, including to central . Stamp seals and amulets from sites like Sabi Abyad suggest administrative control over resources, fostering inter-community exchanges. In central , the (ca. 7000–6000 BCE) introduced innovations in water management, with evidence of planned canals at sites like Tell es-Sawwan, enabling intensified cultivation of crops such as and grains in the alluvial plains. Samarra pottery, characterized by geometric painted designs in black and red on a cream slip, was wheel-turned and mass-produced, indicating specialized workshops and organized labor. Villages featured T-shaped buildings for storage and ritual, alongside fortified structures with buttressed walls, reflecting into hierarchical kin groups capable of communal projects. Trade networks brought in materials like , , and , supporting craft production and suggesting economic interdependence with northern groups. The Ubaid culture (ca. 6200–3800 BCE), originating in the south and expanding northward, unified much of Mesopotamia under shared material traditions, with its painted pottery on a slow wheel becoming a hallmark of regional identity. By the late phases, irrigation along the Tigris and Euphrates supported larger towns like Eridu, where multi-level mud-brick temples served as precursors to urban religious centers, overseeing community labor and resources. Cylinder and stamp seals, depicting animals and geometric patterns, emerged as tools for marking ownership and administration, evidencing craft specialization in seal carving and token systems for accounting. Trade extended to the Persian Gulf for shells and fish, and inland for lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, imported as early as the Late Ubaid for elite ornaments and seals, highlighting inter-regional exchange networks. Social aspects included increasing hierarchy, with female figurines and differentiated burials indicating gender roles and status distinctions, alongside evidence of organized fishing and herding. Influences from Levantine nomadic pastoralism may have contributed to Ubaid herding practices, though southern sedentism dominated.

Anatolia

The Late Neolithic in , spanning approximately 7000–6000 BCE, represents the Pottery Neolithic phase and marks a period of cultural maturation following the , characterized by the widespread adoption of ceramics and intensified resource management. This era overlaps with the final stages of major settlements like , where occupation continued until around 6200 BCE, and exhibits continuity from earlier sites such as through evolving architectural and subsistence practices that bridged aceramic and ceramic traditions. Key innovations included the production of painted pottery, often featuring geometric and naturalistic motifs, which facilitated storage and exchange, alongside extensive trade networks centered on central Anatolian sources like , distributing tools and raw materials across the region. Prominent sites illustrate these developments, such as Hacılar in southwestern , occupied from circa 7000–6000 BCE, where fortified settlements with mud-brick walls enclosed clusters of rectangular houses, suggesting emerging and defense needs; traces of early processing hint at proto-metallurgical experiments. At Can Hasan in central , evidence from faunal remains indicates intensified , with increased proportions of domesticated sheep and goats alongside management, reflecting a shift toward more reliable pastoral economies to support growing populations. Cultural traits included the use of megaron-style houses—rectangular structures with central hearths and porticos—that emphasized communal living spaces, as seen in late phases at Çatalhöyük and Hacılar. Symbolic burials, often placed beneath house floors with like beads and , underscored beliefs in ancestral ties to domestic spaces, a practice continuous from Pre-Pottery contexts. Connections to the Halaf culture in northern occurred via northern Anatolian routes, facilitating the exchange of pottery styles and symbolic motifs through highland passes. Anatolia's central position enabled the export of Neolithic ideas and goods, including farming techniques, ceramics, and , to the via southern corridors and to through Aegean maritime and overland paths, influencing the adoption of sedentary in southeastern by around 6500 BCE. Influences from Mesopotamian , such as incised wares, appear in eastern Anatolian assemblages, underscoring broader Near Eastern interactions.

Spread to Europe

Southeastern Europe

The Late Neolithic in Southeastern Europe, spanning approximately 5000–4500 BCE, built upon earlier farming foundations with increased social complexity and technological advancements, evident in cultures like the late Vinča and the Gumelnița–Karanovo complex. These societies expanded across the Carpathian Basin and , refining agricultural practices with wheat, , and , while developing distinctive and early symbolic systems. Genetic studies indicate continuity from Anatolian farmer ancestry with local admixtures, supporting gradual cultural evolution rather than new migrations. The late (ca. 5000–4500 BCE), centered in and extending to and , is renowned for large proto-urban settlements like Vinča-Belo Brdo, covering up to 29 hectares and housing thousands, with multi-room houses and evidence of craft specialization in ceramics and figurines featuring intricate motifs. In the Lower region, the Gumelnița–Karanovo VI complex (ca. 4700–4000 BCE) featured tell settlements such as Karanovo, where layered villages revealed advanced mortuary practices, including flexed burials with , and decorated with spiral and designs. These communities practiced on fertile plains, supplemented by and , with emerging hierarchies suggested by differential grave furnishings. The in (c. 4600–4200 BCE) exemplifies peak , with over 3,000 artifacts in elite burials, including scepters and ornaments symbolizing , alongside evidence of interregional in metals and shells. Early metallurgy is apparent in artifacts and use from ca. 5000 BCE, transitioning toward by 4500 BCE. These developments reflect intensified networks across the Aegean and , fostering cultural hybridization and setting the stage for the .

Central and Northern Europe

In Central and Northern Europe, the Late Neolithic (ca. 4500–2500 BCE) involved the consolidation and northward expansion of farming societies from post-LBK foundations, adapting to diverse temperate landscapes through diverse cultural expressions. Transitional groups like the Rössen culture (ca. 4600–4300 BCE) in western Central Europe introduced palisaded enclosures, signaling growing defensiveness and resource management. The (ca. 4400–3500 BCE) dominated , particularly in the and regions, with hilltop settlements and large ditched enclosures up to 100 hectares, such as at , indicating communal labor and possible ceremonial functions. These sites featured undecorated pottery, polished stone tools, and economies reliant on slash-and-burn agriculture for einkorn, , and , alongside cattle herding and . Pollen evidence shows continued and anthrosol formation, supporting population densities of 5–15 individuals per square kilometer. Further north, the (TRB, ca. 4300–2800 BCE) marked the Late Neolithic's reach into and , blending farming with traditions from the . Characterized by funnel-necked beakers and battle-axes, TRB communities constructed megalithic tombs—dolmens and passage graves—from ca. 4000 BCE, serving as collective burials for kin groups and ritual sites, as seen in Denmark's passage graves. Settlements included longhouses and pit enclosures for storage, with mixed subsistence emphasizing dairy production and wild resources in forested zones. Social tensions during this period are suggested by skeletal evidence of violence in enclosures and isolated incidents, potentially linked to resource competition amid climatic shifts like the 4.2 ka event. Craft specialization in and flint axes points to expanding , bridging Central and Northern regions.

Spread to Asia

South Asia

The Late Neolithic in , centered in the northwest regions including the Indus Valley and , occurred roughly from c. 5250 to 2600 BCE, according to recent 2025 radiocarbon studies revising earlier chronologies; this phase represents a period of intensified agricultural settlement and cultural elaboration that bridged early farming communities to the subsequent era. This period saw the consolidation of sedentary villages with advanced subsistence strategies, influenced by interactions across the and western networks. Key developments included the refinement of cultivation and , alongside emerging architectural and artisanal practices that hinted at growing . The primary site exemplifying Late Neolithic culture in South Asia is Mehrgarh, located in Balochistan, Pakistan, which flourished from approximately 5250 to 2600 BCE across multiple phases, with recent dating placing the aceramic early phase at 5250–4650 BCE and pottery-bearing levels thereafter. The site's early aceramic phase transitioned into pottery-bearing levels, featuring mud-brick villages with rectangular houses clustered around courtyards. Agricultural practices centered on barley and wheat farming, supplemented by the domestication of humped zebu cattle (Bos indicus), which provided milk, meat, and draft power essential for plowing fields. Evidence of () cultivation appears in mineralized fibers from this period, marking the earliest known use of the crop in the region for textiles. Architectural innovations included the production of baked bricks for durable structures and large granaries for storing surplus grain, indicating organized food management. Trade networks linked to distant regions, with artifacts such as beads sourced from and early stamp seals suggesting exchanges that extended toward . These connections facilitated the flow of semi-precious stones and possibly ideas, as seen in the adoption of sealing technologies. Cultural practices reflected increasing , evidenced by diverse customs ranging from simple pit graves to those with like ornaments and , implying status differentiation. Terracotta female figurines, often depicting stylized figures with elaborate headdresses, likely symbolized or roles within the community. Additionally, dental remains from reveal early evidence of , including drilled molars treated with plant fibers, demonstrating advanced health practices among inhabitants. By around 2600 BCE, these traits at laid foundational elements for urban developments in the broader Indus region.

East Asia

The Late Neolithic in , particularly in , spanned approximately 5000–2000 BCE and featured independent cultural developments centered on river valleys, distinct from contemporaneous Near Eastern influences. This period is exemplified by the (c. 5000–3000 BCE) in the middle region, characterized by painted pottery, millet-based agriculture, and clustered villages, followed by the (c. 3000–2000 BCE), which saw advancements in black pottery, fortified settlements, and proto-urban centers. These cultures reflect internal intensification driven by agricultural surplus and , with limited evidence of external interactions beyond . Key sites illustrate these transitions. The site near in Province, a prominent Yangshao settlement dated to around 4800–3600 BCE, reveals a planned village layout with rectangular houses, storage pits, and evidence of communal organization, including possible matrilineal structures inferred from burial patterns. In the Longshan phase, the site in southern Province (c. 2300–1900 BCE) represents an early urban center with rammed-earth walls enclosing over 280 hectares, elite burials, and astronomical observatories, indicating centralized authority and ritual practices. Further south, the (c. 3300–2300 BCE) in the region featured sophisticated jade artifacts and , as seen in sites like Fanshan and Yaoshan, where ritual jades were buried or ritually burned. Agricultural developments underpinned societal growth, with millet (foxtail and broomcorn) domesticated in the basin by the early Neolithic and intensified during Yangshao and Longshan phases to support denser populations. cultivation, originating in the region around 9000 years ago, became prominent in southern Late Neolithic sites like Liangzhu, enabling systems that fostered settlement expansion. specialization advanced notably in working, where Liangzhu artisans produced cong tubes and bi discs from , often used in burials to signify status and significance, reflecting beliefs in ancestral veneration. evolved from Yangshao's colorful, incised wares to Longshan's thin, black eggshell ceramics, achieved through high-temperature firing techniques evident at . Environmental challenges, such as flooding, prompted innovations like flood control measures in the floodplain during the late Longshan period, with evidence of a major around 1920 BCE potentially influencing and migration. Hints of appear in Longshan marks and precursors, though these remain interpretive and tied to administrative needs in emerging centers. Overall, these developments highlight East Asia's parallel trajectory toward complexity, emphasizing ritual, , and localized adaptations.

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