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City state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE
Simurrum (Akkadian: 𒋛𒈬𒌨𒊑𒅎: Si-mu-ur-ri-im)[1] was an important city state of the Mesopotamian area from around 2000 BCE to 1500 BCE, during the period of the Akkadian Empire down to Ur III. The Simurrum Kingdom disappears from records after the Old Babylonian period.[2] It has been
proposed that in Old Babylonian times its name was Zabban, a notable cult center of Adad.[3][4][5] It was neighbor and sometimes ally with the Lullubi kingdom.[6][7] Zabban is noted as a
cult center of Adad into the Neo-Babylonian period.[8]
Iddin-Sin, King of Simurrum, armed with a bow and an axe, trampling a foe (c. 2000 BCE)
The Simurrum Kingdom seems to have been part of a belt of Hurrian city states in the northeastern portion of Mesopotamian area.[9][2] They were often in conflict with the rulers of Ur III.[2][10] Mesopotamian sources refer to them as
"highlanders".[11]
Several Kings (𒈗, pronounced Šàr, "Shar", in Akkadian)[12] of Simurrum are known, such as Iddin-Sin and his son Zabazuna.[13][2] Various inscriptions suggest that they were contemporary with king Ishbi-Erra (c. 1953 – c. 1920 BCE).[10] Another king, mentioned in The Great Revolt against Narām-Sîn, was mPu-ut-ti-ma-da-al.[14]
Several inscriptions suggest that Simurrum was quite powerful, and shed some light on the conflicts around the Zagros area, another such example being the Anubanini rock relief of the nearby Lullubi Kingdom.[2] Four inscriptions and a relief (now in the Israel Museum) of the Simurrum have been identified at Bitwata near Ranya in Iraq, and one from Sarpol-e Zahab in Iran.[10][15][16]
The Simurrun were regularly in conflict with the Akkadian Empire. The names of four years of the reign of Sargon of Akkad describe his campaigns against Elam, Mari, Simurrum, and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state):[17][18]
One unknown year during the reign of Akkadian Empire king Naram-Sin of Akkad was recorded as "the Year when Naram-Sin was victorious against Simurrum in Kirasheniwe and took prisoner Baba the governor of Simurrum, and Dubul the ensi (ruler) of Arame".[21][22] Arame is known to be associated with Eshnunna. An Old Babylonian letter also associates Simurrum with Eshnunna. This suggests Simurrum was in the area of that city.[23]
Ka-Nisba, king of Simurrum, instigated the people of Simurrum and Lullubi to revolt. Amnili, general of [the enemy Lullubi]... made the land [rebel]... Erridu-pizir, the mighty, king of Gutium and of the four quarters hastened [to confront] him... In a single day he captured the pass of Urbillum at Mount Mummum. Further, he captured Nirishuha.
The Ur III empire was frequently in conflict with the city. The 44th year name of the second ruler, Shulgi (c. 2094–2046 BC), was "Year Simurrum and Lullubum were destroyed for the ninth time". In one of these conflicts Shulgi captured the ruler of Sumurrum, Tabban-darah, and sent him to exile in Drehem. Sillus-Dagan is known to have been a governor of Simurrum under Ur III at the time of ruler Amar-Sin.[24][25] It has been suggested that he was an Amorite.[26] Four texts from Drehem with seals mentioning him have been found, including:
"Sillus-Dagan, governor of Simurrum: Ilak-süqir, son of Alu, the chief administrator,(is) your servant."[27]
For a time, Simurrum was in alliance with Ur and a diplomat from Simurrum, Kirib-ulme, is recorded as active during Amar-Sin (c. 2046–2037 BC) years 8 and 9 into Shu-Sin (c. 2037–2028 BC) years 1 and 2.[28] During the rule of Su-Sin in the waning years of the Ur III Empire an administrator assigned to build the Mardu Wall reported "When I sent for word (to the area) between the two mountains it was brought to my attention that the Mardu were camped in the mountains. Simurrum had come to their aid. (Therefore) I proceeded to (the area) "between" the mountain range(s) of Ebih in order to do battle".[27]
Military struggles continues up to the time of the final ruler of Ur III, Ibbi-Sin (c. 2028–2004 BC) with his third year name reporting destroying Simurrum.[29]
Simurrum seems to have become independent after the collapse of Ur III.[10]
In order to make peace with a fellow ruler Turukki leader Zaziya (Ur III period) handed over a ruler of Simurrum:
"Zaziya took his children ["grandchildren"] and led them to Zazum of Qutu as hostages (ana yaltiti ... usn). He transported tribute [there]. Zaziya turned him over (ittadinsu) to Zazum of Qutu the king of Simurrum who (once) attended Zazum but had escaped to Zaziya."[30]
Simmurum is known from writings found at Eshnunna dated to the reign of Isin ruler
Ishbi-Erra (c. 2017-1986 BC). Three officials from Simurrum are mentioned, Teheš-atal, Zili-ewri, and Ili-dannu. The ruler of Simurrum at that time was Iddi(n)-Sin, followed by
his son Anzabazuna.[31][32]
Accepting the equivalence of Simurrum and Simurru, certainly the later was
in the same area, a letter from Shamshi-Adad I of Ekallatum states,
in a letter found at Tell Shemshara:
"... About the hostility of Yašub-Addu of Aḫazû. Previously, he followed the leader of Šimurru. He abandoned him to follow the Tirruku leader. He abandoned that ruler to follow the Ya-ilanum tribe. When he abandoned this tribe, he followed me. Me, too, he has abandoned now, and he is ready to follow the ruler of Kakmu ..."[33]
An early Assyriologist suggested Simurrum was near "Tell 'Ali" which is not far from mouth of the Lower Zab on its left bank and is on the direct line from Assur to Arrapha (Kirkuk), which it is 42 kilometres (26 mi) west of, saying "The region south of Tell 'Ali has never been examined by archaeologists, but seems to contain numerous ruined towns and canals".[39] Twenty five cuneiform tablets from the Middle Assyrian period were found at the site.[40][41]
The site of Qala Shirwana, a large mound 30 metres (98 ft) tall with an additional 10-metre (33 ft) citadel at the top in the southern basin of the Diyala river, on its west bank, near the modern town of Kalar, has been suggested as the site of Simurrum.[42] The upper mound has an area of 5.5 hectares. While the site is completely built over now, early satellite photographs indicate that there was a 100 hectare lower town. Second millennium BC pottery is often found during construction.[43]
Altun Kupri, on the Little Zab river, has also been suggested.[44]
A complication is that when a city-state captured large numbers of soldiers etc. they were sometimes placed in rural settlements named after their origin, a practice that continued into Neo-Babylonian times. There were settlements near Girsu/Lagash named Lullubu(na) and Šimurrum for example.[45]
The as yet unlocated city of Karaḫar (also Qarahar and Harahar) is known mainly from the Ur III period. A number of texts closely link Karaḫar and Simurrum and they are thought to be in the same area. Karaḫar is thought to be between Simurrum and Eshnunna and near Hamazi and Pašime, possibly on the Alwand River, a tributary of the Diyala river, in the Zagros mountain foothills.[46][47] It is known to have been a major producer of sesame.[48]
The second Ur III ruler, Sulgi (c. 2094–2046 BC) reports defeating/destroying Karaḫar in his year names S24 "Year: Karahar was destroyed", S31 "Year: Karaḫar was defeated for the second time", and in S45 "Year: Šulgi, the strong man, the king of Ur, the king of the four-quarters, smashed the heads of Urbilum, Simurrum, Lullubum and Karahar in a single campaign".[49][50][51] Two ensis (governors) of Karaḫar under the Ur III empire are known, Ea-rabi and Arad-Nanna.[52] During the reign the fourth ruler of the Ur III dynasty Shu-Sin (c. 2037–2028 BC) it is known that the military governor of the nearby city of Pašime was a Arad-Nanna though it is not known if that was the same person.[53] Also in the Ur III period a Arad-Nanna was a ruler of Hamazi.[54] Also during the reign of Shu-Sin, a Ir-Nanna is recorded as being "... military governor of Usar-Garsana, general of Basime, governor of Sabum and the land of Gutebum, general of Dimat-Enlila, governor of Al-Sü-Sîn, general of Urbillum, governor of Ham(a)zi and Karahar, general of NI.HI, general of Simaski and the land of Karda ...", showing those polities were in the same area.[47]
A Tiš-atal (also Tish-atal/Tehes-atal/Diš-atal/Ankiš-atal) is recorded as ruling Karaḫar toward the end of the Ur III empire.[55][56] A Tish-atal also ruled Urkish in that period but is not known if it was the same person.[57]
A lapis lazuli seal of Zardamu, king of Karaḫar from the Ur III period, reads "dZardamu, sun-god of his land; beloved of the god Nergal, his (personal) deity; Annunïtum (is) his mother ... mighty king, king of Karaḫar, and king of the four quarters, spouse of the goddess Estar". Note that this identifies him as being deified and is in the style of major rulers such as Naram-Sin of Akkad.[58][47][59] The seals iconography shows Zardamu with "double-axe, a multiple mace, and treading on an enemy before Ištar, who offers him the same regalia".[60]
A carnelian cylinder seal appeared on the antiquities market reading "Keleš-atal, king of Karaḫar: Balalatum (is your) wife."[61]
In the Old Babylonian period texts linked Karaḫar administratively with Me-Turan which lies in the area thought to hold Karaḫar.[62][46]
King Iddin-Sin of the Kingdom of Simurrum, holding an axe and a bow, trampling a foe (c. 2000 BCE). Israel Museum.
Stela of Iddi-Sin, King of Simurrum. It dates back to the Old-Babylonian Period. From Qarachatan Village, Sulaymaniyah Governorate, Iraqi Kurdistan. The Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq
Sarpol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read. He is usually considered as a ruler of the Lullubi,[63][64] but he could be a ruler of the Kingdom of Simurrum, son of Iddin-Sin.[10]
Outline of relief I (extracted). Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read.[63]
^[2]Schwemer, Daniel, "The Storm-Gods of the Ancient Near East: Summary, Synthesis, Recent Studies Part I", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions 7.2, pp. 121-168, 2007
^[3]Hallo W.W., Simurrum and the Hurrian Frontier, Revue Hittite et Asianique, pp. 71-81, 1978
^ abcdefDouglas Frayne, "Simurrum", Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 B.C.): Early Periods, Volume 4, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 707-716, 1990 ISBN9780802058737
^Sallaberger, W., "Ur III-Zeit", in W. Sallaberger and A. Westenholz (eds.), Mesopotamien: Akkade und Ur III-Zeit, Orbus Biblicus et Oriemtalis 160/3. Fribourg: Universitätsverlag / Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, pp. 121–390, 1999
^Seidl, U., Das Relief, in A. Shaffer and N. Wasserman, Iddi(n)-Sin, King of Simurrum: A New Rock Relief Inscription and a Reverential Seal, ZA 93, 39-52, 2003
^J. G. Westenholz, "Legends of the Kings of Akkade", Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1997
^Cohen, Mark E., "A New Naram-Sin Date Formula.", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 227–32, 1986
^Finkelstein, J. J., "Subartu and Subarians in Old Babylonian Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–7, 1955
^Owen, David I., and S. Graziani, "The royal gift seal of Ṣilluš-Dagan, Governor of Simurrum." Studi sul Vicino Oriente antico dedicati alla memoria di Luigi Cagni 61, pp.815-846, 2000
^Collon, Dominique, "The Life and Times of TEḪEŠ-ATAL", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 84, no. 2, pp. 129–36, 1990
^Meijer, Diederik J. W., "Marginal and Steppic Areas as Sources for Archaeological Debate: A Case for “Active Symbiosis” of Town and Country", Constituent, Confederate, and Conquered Space: The Emergence of the Mittani State, edited by Eva Cancik-Kirschbaum, Nicole Brisch and Jesper Eidem, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 163-178, 2014
^ abFrayne, Douglas, "Šū-Sîn", in Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 285-360, 1997
^Sharlach, T. M., "Diplomacy and the rituals of politics at the Ur III court", Journal of Cuneiform Studies
57, pp. 17–29, 2005
^Jacobsen, Thorkild., "The Reign of Ibbī-Suen.". Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 7, no. 2, 1953
^Sasson, Jack M., "Scruples: Extradition in the Mari Archives", Wiener Zeitschrift Für Die Kunde Des Morgenlandes, vol. 97, pp. 453–73, 2007
^[4] R. M. Whiting Jr., "Old Babylonian Letters from Tell Asmar", Assyriological Studies 22, Oriental Institute, 1987 ISBN0-918986-47-8
^[5]Altaweel, Mark, et al., "New investigations in the environment, history, and archaeology of the Iraqi hilly flanks: Shahrizor Survey Project 2009–2011", Iraq 74, pp. 1-35, 2012
^Sasson, Jack M., "Kingship", in From the Mari Archives: An Anthology of Old Babylonian Letters, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 21-118, 2015
^Whiting, Robert M., "Four Seal Impressions From Tell Asmar", Archiv Für Orientforschung, vol. 34, pp. 30–35, 1987
^Wasserman, Natha, "An Inscribed Metal Bowl of Iddin-Sîn King of.", The IOS Annual Volume 25, Memories Near and Far, 25, pp. 56-64, 2025
^Forrer, Emilio O., "Die Provinzeinteilung Des Assyrischen Reiches", Leipzig: J. C.Hinrichs, 1920
^Gelb, Ignace Jay, "Hurrians and Subarians", Chicago, Ill.: The University of Chicago Press, 1944
^Frayne, D.R., "Simurrum", in Reallexikon Der Assyriologie 12/7–8, pp. 508–11, 2011
^[6]Albright, W. F., "Notes on the Topography of Ancient Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 46, pp. 220–30, 1926
^Ismail, Bahijah Kh., and J. Nicholas Postgate, "A Middle Assyrian Flock-Master's Archive from Tell Ali", Iraq, vol. 70, pp. 147–78, 2008
^Ismail, Bahijah Kh., "Informationen iiber Tontafeln aus Tell-Ali", in H. Klengel (ed.), Gesellschaft und Kultu im alten Vorderasien, Schriften zur Geschichte und Kultur des alten Orients 15, Berlin, 1982
^[7]Casana, Jesse, and Claudia Glatz, "The land behind the land behind Baghdad: archaeological landscapes of the upper Diyala (Sirwan) river valley", Iraq, vol. 79, pp. 47–69, 2017
^[8]Glatz, Claudia, and Jesse Casana, "Of highland-lowland borderlands: Local societies and foreign power in the Zagros-Mesopotamian interface", Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 44, pp. 127-147, 2016
^Meek, Theophile James, "The Akkadian and Cappadocian Texts from Nuzi", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 48, 1932, pp. 2–5, 1932
^Steinkeller, Piotr, "Corvée labor in Ur III times", From the 21st Century BC to the 21st Century AD 10 (2013), pp. 327-424, 2018
^ abGhobadizadeh, Hamzeh and Sallaberger, Walther, "Šulgi in the Kuhdasht Plain: Bricks from a Battle Monument at the Crossroads of Western Pish-e Kuh and the Localisation of Kimaš and Ḫurti", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 113, no. 1, pp. 3-33, 2023
^ abcFrayne, Douglas, "Šulgi", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 91-234, 1997
^Maekawa, Kazuya, "Agricultural Production of the Girsu-Lagaš Institution at Susa During the Ur III Period", Susa and Elam II. Brill, pp. 48-80, 2023
^Al-Mutawalli, Nawala, Sallaberger, Walther and Shalkham, Ali Ubeid, "The Cuneiform Documents from the Iraqi Excavation at Drehem", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 107, no. 2, pp. 151-217, 2017
^[9]Hallo, William W., "Simurrum and the Hurrian frontier", Revue hittite et asianique 36.1, pp. 71-83, 1978
^[10]Lafont, Bertrand, "The Army of the Kings of Ur: The Textual Evidence", Cuneiform Digital Library Journal 2009 (5), 2009
^Owen, David I., "Transliterations, Translations, and Brief Comments", The Nesbit Tablets, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 13-110, 2016
^[11]Pitts, Audrey, "The Cult of the Deified King in Ur III Mesopotamia", Doctoral dissertation,
Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences, 2015
^[12]Khwshnaw, Ardalan, "A New Light on the Hamazi Kingdom", Twejer Journal 5.3, pp. 1315-1340, 2022
^Collon, Dominique, "The life and times of teḫeš-atal", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 84.2, pp. 129-136, 1990
^Lambert, W. G., "Near Eastern Seals in the Gulbenkian Museum of Oriental Art, University of Durham", Iraq, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 1–45, 1979
^Dalley, Stephanie, "Old Babylonian Tablets from Nineveh; And Possible Pieces of Early Gilgamesh Epic", Iraq, vol. 63, pp. 155–67, 2001
^Sollberger, Edmond, "Two New Seal-Inscriptions", Anatolian Studies 30, pp. 63-65, 1980
^Steinkeller, Piotr, "The Divine Rulers of Akkade and Ur: Toward a Definition of the Deification of Kings in Babylonia", History, Texts and Art in Early Babylonia: Three Essays, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 107-157, 2017
^Suter, Claudia E., "Ur III Kings in Images: A Reappraisal", in Your Praise is sweet: a memorial Volume for Jeremy Black from students, colleagues, and friends, edited by Heather D. Baker, London: British Institute for the Study of Iraq, pp. 319–49, 2010
^[13]Földi, Zsombor J., "Gleanings from the Antiquities Market: A Contribution to the Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Royal Inscriptions", Cuneiform Digital Library Bulletin 2013.3, 2013
^Guichard, M., "Guerre et diplomatie: lettres d’Iluni roi d’Ešnunna d’une collection privée", Semitica 58, pp. 17–59, 2016
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![Sarpol-e Zahab, relief I. Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read. He is usually considered as a ruler of the Lullubi,[63][64] but he could be a ruler of the Kingdom of Simurrum, son of Iddin-Sin.[10]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sar-e_Pol-e_Zahab,_relief_IV.jpg)
![Outline of relief I (extracted). Beardless warrior with axe, trampling a foe. Sundisk above. A name "Zaba(zuna), son of ..." can be read.[63]](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sar-e_Pol-e_Zahab,_relief_I_(extracted).jpg)
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