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Swing
Stylistic origins
Cultural origins1930s, United States
Derivative forms
Subgenres
Swing revival
Fusion genres
Electro swing
Regional scenes
Western swing

Swing music is a style of jazz that developed in the United States during the late 1920s and early 1930s. It became nationally popular from the mid-1930s. Swing bands usually featured soloists who would improvise on the melody over the arrangement. The danceable swing style of big bands and bandleaders such as Fletcher Henderson and Benny Goodman was the dominant form of American popular music from 1935 to 1946, known as the swing era, when people were dancing the Lindy Hop. The verb "to swing" is also used as a term of praise for playing that has a strong groove or drive. Big band leaders of the swing era include Benny Goodman, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, Jimmie Lunceford, Cab Calloway, Benny Carter, Jimmy Dorsey, Tommy Dorsey, Earl Hines, Bunny Berigan, Harry James, Lionel Hampton, Glenn Miller, and Artie Shaw.

Overview

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Swing has its roots in 1920s dance music ensembles, which began using new styles of written arrangements, incorporating rhythmic innovations pioneered by Louis Armstrong, Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter and other jazzmen.[1] During the World War II era, swing began to decline in popularity, and after the war, bebop and jump blues gained popularity.[2]

Swing blended with other genres to create new musical styles. In country music, artists such as Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Milton Brown and Bob Wills introduced elements of swing along with blues to create a genre called "western swing".[3] Famous roma guitarist Django Reinhardt created gypsy swing music[4] and composed the gypsy swing standard "Minor Swing".[5] In the late 1980s to early 1990s, new urban-styled swing-beat emerged called new jack swing (New York go-go), created by young producer Teddy Riley.[6][relevant?] In the late 1990s and into the 2000s, there was a swing revival, led by Squirrel Nut Zippers,[7] Brian Setzer orchestra and Big Bad Voodoo Daddy.[8]

1920s: Roots

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Fletcher Henderson (middle) with his orchestra in 1925. Coleman Hawkins is sitting on the floor to the extreme left with Louis Armstrong above him to the right.

Developments in dance orchestra and jazz music during the 1920s both contributed to the development of the 1930s swing style. Starting in 1923, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra featured innovative arrangements by Don Redman that featured call-response interplay between brass and reed sections, and interludes arranged to back up soloists. The arrangements also had a smoother rhythmic sense than the ragtime-influenced arrangements that were the more typical "hot" dance music of the day.[9] In 1924 Louis Armstrong joined the Henderson band, lending impetus to an even greater emphasis on soloists. The Henderson band also featured Coleman Hawkins, Benny Carter, and Buster Bailey as soloists, who all were influential in the development of swing era instrumental styles. During the Henderson band's extended residency at the Roseland Ballroom in New York, it became influential on other big bands. Duke Ellington credited the Henderson band with being an early influence when he was developing the sound for his own band.[9] In 1925 Armstrong left the Henderson band and would add his innovations to New Orleans style jazz to develop Chicago style jazz, another step towards swing.

Traditional New Orleans style jazz was based on a two-beat meter and contrapuntal improvisation led by a trumpet or cornet, typically followed by a clarinet and trombone in a call-response pattern. The rhythm section consisted of a sousaphone and drums, and sometimes a banjo. By the early 1920s guitars and pianos sometimes substituted for the banjo and a string bass sometimes substituted for the sousaphone. Use of the string bass opened possibilities for 4/4 instead of 2/4 time at faster tempos, which increased rhythmic freedom. The Chicago style released the soloist from the constraints of contrapuntal improvisation with other front-line instruments, lending greater freedom in creating melodic lines. Louis Armstrong used the additional freedom of the new format with 4/4 time, accenting the second and fourth beats and anticipating the main beats with lead-in notes in his solos to create a sense of rhythmic pulse that happened between the beats as well as on them, i.e. swing.[10]

In 1927 Armstrong worked with pianist Earl Hines, who had a similar impact on his instrument as Armstrong had on trumpet. Hines' melodic, horn-like conception of playing deviated from the contemporary conventions in jazz piano centered on building rhythmic patterns around "pivot notes". His approaches to rhythm and phrasing were also free and daring, exploring ideas that would define swing playing. His approach to rhythm often used accents on the lead-in instead of the main beat, and mixed meters, to build a sense of anticipation to the rhythm and make his playing swing. He also used "stops" or musical silences to build tension in his phrasing.[11][12] Hines' style was a seminal influence on the styles of swing-era pianists Teddy Wilson, Art Tatum, Jess Stacy, Nat "King" Cole, Erroll Garner, Mary Lou Williams, and Jay McShann.

Black territory dance bands in the southwest were developing dynamic styles that often went in the direction of blues-based simplicity, using riffs in a call-response pattern to build a strong, danceable rhythm and provide a musical platform for extended solos.[13] The rhythm-heavy tunes for dancing were called "stomps". The requirement for volume led to continued use of the sousaphone over the string bass with the larger ensembles, which dictated a more conservative approach to rhythm based on 2/4 time signatures. Meanwhile, string bass players such as Walter Page were developing their technique to the point where they could hold down the bottom end of a full-sized dance orchestra.[14]

The growth of radio broadcasting and the recording industry in the 1920s allowed some of the more popular dance bands to gain national exposure. The most popular style of dance orchestra was the "sweet" style, often with strings. Paul Whiteman developed a style he called "symphonic jazz", grafting a classical approach over his interpretation of jazz rhythms in an approach he hoped would be the future of jazz.[15][16] Whiteman's Orchestra enjoyed great commercial success and was a major influence on the sweet bands. Jean Goldkette's Victor Recording Orchestra featured many of the top white jazz musicians of the day including Bix Beiderbecke, Jimmy Dorsey, Frank Trumbauer, Pee Wee Russell, Eddie Lang, and Joe Venuti. The Victor Recording Orchestra won the respect of the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra in a Battle of the Bands; Henderson's cornetist Rex Stewart credited the Goldkette band with being the most influential white band in the development of swing music before Benny Goodman's.[17][18] As a dance music promoter and agent, Goldkette also helped organize and promote McKinney's Cotton Pickers and Glen Gray's Orange Blossoms (later the Casa Loma Orchestra), two other Detroit-area bands that were influential in the early swing era.

Early swing

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As the 1920s turned to the 1930s, the new concepts in rhythm and ensemble playing that comprised the swing style were transforming the sounds of large and small bands. Starting in 1928, the Earl Hines Orchestra was broadcast throughout much of the Midwest from the Grand Terrace Cafe in Chicago, where Hines had the opportunity to expound upon his new approaches to rhythm and phrasing with a big band. Hines' arranger Jimmy Mundy would later contribute to the catalog of the Benny Goodman Orchestra. The Duke Ellington Orchestra had its new sounds broadcast nationally from New York's Cotton Club, followed by the Cab Calloway Orchestra and the Jimmie Lunceford Orchestra. Also in New York, the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra featured the new style at the Roseland Ballroom and the swing powerhouse Chick Webb Orchestra started its extended stay at the Savoy Ballroom in 1931.[19] Bennie Moten and the Kansas City Orchestra showcased the riff-propelled, solo-oriented form of swing that had been developing in the hothouse of Kansas City.[20][21] Emblematic of the evolving music was the change in the name of Moten's signature tune, from "Moten Stomp" to "Moten Swing". Moten's orchestra had a highly successful tour in late 1932. Audiences raved about the new music, and at the Pearl Theatre in Philadelphia in December 1932, the doors were let open to the public who crammed into the theatre to hear the new sound, demanding seven encores from Moten's orchestra.[14]

With the early 1930s came the financial difficulties of the Great Depression that curtailed recording of the new music and drove some bands out of business, including the Fletcher Henderson Orchestra and McKinney's Cotton Pickers in 1934. Henderson's next business was selling arrangements to up-and-coming bandleader Benny Goodman.

At this time, "sweet" dance music remained most popular with white audiences and was successfully showcased by bandleaders such as Guy Lombardo[22][23] and Shep Fields,[24] but the Casa Loma Orchestra and the Benny Goodman Orchestra went against that grain, targeting the new swing style to younger audiences. Despite Benny Goodman's claim that "sweet" music was a "weak sister" as compared to the "real music" of America, Lombardo's band enjoyed widespread popularity for decades while crossing over racial divides and was even praised by Louis Armstrong as one of his favorites.[23][25]

1935–1946: The swing era

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Main article: Swing era
Benny Goodman, one of the first swing bandleaders to achieve widespread fame

In 1935 the Benny Goodman Orchestra had won a spot on the radio show Let's Dance and started showcasing an updated repertoire featuring Fletcher Henderson arrangements. Goodman's slot was after midnight in the East, and few people heard it. It was on earlier on the West Coast and developed the audience that later led to Goodman's Palomar Ballroom triumph. At the Palomar engagement starting on 21 August 1935, audiences of young white dancers favored Goodman's rhythm and daring arrangements. The sudden success of the Goodman orchestra transformed the landscape of popular music in America. Goodman's success with "hot" swing brought forth imitators and enthusiasts of the new style throughout the world of dance bands, which launched the "swing era" that lasted until 1946.[26]

A typical song played in swing style would feature a strong, anchoring rhythm section in support of more loosely-tied woodwind and brass sections playing call-response to each other. The level of improvisation that the audience might expect varied with the arrangement, song, band, and band-leader. Typically included in big band swing arrangements were an introductory chorus that stated the theme, choruses arranged for soloists, and climactic out-choruses. Some arrangements were built entirely around a featured soloist or vocalist. Some bands used string or vocal sections, or both. Swing-era repertoire included the Great American Songbook of Tin Pan Alley standards, band originals, traditional jazz tunes such as the "King Porter Stomp", with which the Goodman orchestra had a smash hit, and blues.

Hot swing music is strongly associated with the jitterbug dancing that became a national craze accompanying the swing craze. Swing dancing originated in the late 1920s as the "Lindy Hop", and would later incorporate other styles including The Suzie Q, Truckin', Peckin' Jive, The Big Apple, and The Shag in various combinations of moves. A subculture of jitterbuggers, sometimes growing quite competitive, congregated around ballrooms that featured hot swing music. A dance floor full of jitterbuggers had cinematic appeal; they were sometimes featured in newsreels and movies. Some of the top jitterbuggers gathered in professional dance troupes such as Whitey's Lindy Hoppers, featured in the films Everybody Dance (1936), A Day At the Races (1937), and Hellzapoppin' (1941). Swing dancing would outlive the swing era, becoming associated with R&B and early Rock&Roll.

As with many new popular musical styles, swing met with some resistance because of its improvisation, tempo, occasionally risqué lyrics, and frenetic dancing. Audiences used to traditional "sweet" arrangements, such as those offered by Guy Lombardo, Sammy Kaye, Kay Kyser and Shep Fields, were taken aback by the rambunctiousness of swing music. Swing was sometimes regarded as light entertainment, more of an industry to sell records to the masses than a form of art, among fans of both jazz and "serious" music. Some jazz critics such as Hugues Panassié held the polyphonic improvisation of New Orleans jazz to be the pure form of jazz, with swing a form corrupted by regimentation and commercialism. Panassié was also an advocate of the theory that jazz was a primal expression of the black American experience and that white musicians, or black musicians who became interested in more sophisticated musical ideas, were generally incapable of expressing its core values.[27] In his 1941 autobiography, W. C. Handy wrote that "prominent white orchestra leaders, concert singers and others are making commercial use of Negro music in its various phases. That's why they introduced 'swing' which is not a musical form" (no comment on Fletcher Henderson, Earl Hines, Duke Ellington, or Count Basie).[28] The Dixieland revival started in the late 1930s as a self-conscious re-creation of New Orleans jazz in reaction against the orchestrated style of big band swing. Some swing bandleaders saw opportunities in the Dixieland revival. Tommy Dorsey's Clambake Seven and Bob Crosby's Bobcats were examples of Dixieland ensembles within big swing bands.

Between the poles of hot and sweet, middlebrow interpretations of swing led to great commercial success for bands such as those led by Artie Shaw, Glenn Miller and Tommy Dorsey. Miller's trademark clarinet-led reed section was decidedly "sweet", but the Miller catalog had no shortage of bouncy, medium-tempo dance tunes and some up-tempo tunes such as "Mission to Moscow" and the Lionel Hampton composition "Flying Home". "The Sentimental Gentleman of Swing" Tommy Dorsey made a nod to the hot side by hiring jazz trumpeter and Goodman alumnus Bunny Berigan, then hiring Jimmie Lunceford's arranger Sy Oliver to spice up his catalog in 1939.

New York became a touchstone for national success of big bands, with nationally broadcast engagements at the Roseland and Savoy ballrooms a sign that a swing band had arrived on the national scene. With its Savoy engagement in 1937, the Count Basie Orchestra brought the riff-and-solo oriented Kansas City style of swing to national attention. The Basie orchestra collectively and individually would influence later styles that would give rise to the smaller "jump" bands and bebop. The Chick Webb Orchestra remained closely identified with the Savoy Ballroom, having originated the tune "Stompin' at the Savoy", and became feared in the Savoy's Battles of the Bands. It humiliated Goodman's band,[19] and had memorable encounters with the Ellington and Basie bands. The Goodman band's 1938 Carnegie Hall Concert turned into a summit of swing, with guests from the Basie and Ellington bands invited for a jam session after the Goodman band's performance. Coleman Hawkins arrived back from an extended stay in Europe to New York in 1939, recorded his famous version of "Body and Soul", and fronted his own big band. 1940 saw top-flight musicians such as Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Don Byas, Charlie Christian, and Gene Ramey, whose careers in swing had brought them to New York, beginning to coalesce and develop the ideas that would become bebop.

1940s: Decline

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The early 1940s saw emerging trends in popular music and jazz that would, once they had run their course, result in the end of the swing era. Vocalists were becoming the star attractions of the big bands. Vocalist Ella Fitzgerald, after joining the Chick Webb Orchestra in 1936, propelled the band to great popularity and the band continued under her name after Webb's death in 1939. In 1940 vocalist Vaughn Monroe was leading his own big band and Frank Sinatra was becoming the star attraction of the Tommy Dorsey Orchestra, inciting mass hysteria among bobby-soxers. Vocalist Peggy Lee joined the Goodman Orchestra in 1941 for a two-year stint, quickly becoming its star attraction on its biggest hits. Some big bands were moving away from the swing styles that dominated the late 1930s, for both commercial and creative reasons. Some of the more commercial big bands catered to more "sweet" sensibilities with string sections. Some bandleaders such as John Kirby, Raymond Scott, and Claude Thornhill were fusing swing with classical repertoire. Lower manpower requirements and simplicity favored the rise of small band swing. The Savoy Sultans and other smaller bands led by Louis Jordan, Lucky Millinder, Louis Prima, and Tony Pastor were showcasing an exuberant "jump swing" style that would lead to the postwar rise of R&B. In a 1939 DownBeat article, Duke Ellington expressed dissatisfaction with the creative state of swing music;[29] within a few years he and other bandleaders would be delving into more ambitious, and less danceable, forms of orchestral jazz and the creative forefront for soloists would be moving into smaller ensembles and bebop. The Earl Hines Orchestra in 1943 featured a collection of young, forward-looking musicians who were at the core of the bebop movement and would in the following year be in the Billy Eckstine Orchestra, the first big band to showcase bebop. As the swing era went into decline, it secured legacies in vocalist-centered popular music, "progressive" big band jazz, R&B, and bebop.

The trend away from big-band swing was accelerated by wartime conditions and royalty conflicts.[30] In 1941 the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) demanded bigger royalties from broadcasters and the broadcasters refused. Consequently, ASCAP banned the large repertoire they controlled from airplay, severely restricting what the radio audience could hear. ASCAP also demanded pre-approval of set lists and even written solos for live broadcasts, to assure that not even a quoted fragment of ASCAP repertoire was broadcast. Those restrictions made broadcast swing much less appealing for the year in which the ban was in place. Big band swing remained popular during the war years, but the resources required to support it became problematic. Wartime restriction on travel, coupled with rising expenses, curtailed road touring. The manpower requirements for big swing bands placed a burden on the scarce resources available for touring and were impacted by the military draft. In July 1942 the American Federation of Musicians called a ban on recording until record labels agreed to pay royalties to musicians. That stopped recording of instrumental music for major labels for over a year, with the last labels agreeing to new contract terms in November 1944. In the meantime, vocalists continued to record backed by vocal groups and the recording industry released earlier swing recordings from their vaults, increasingly reflecting the popularity of big band vocalists. In 1943 Columbia Records re-released the 1939 recording of "All or Nothing at All" by the Harry James Orchestra with Frank Sinatra, giving Sinatra top billing ("Acc. Harry James and his Orchestra"). The recording found the commercial success that had eluded its original release. Small band swing was recorded for small specialty labels not affected by the ban. These labels had limited distribution centered in large urban markets, which tended to limit the size of the ensembles with which recording could be a money-making proposition. Another blow fell on the market for dance-oriented swing in 1944 when the federal government levied a 30% excise tax on "dancing" nightclubs, undercutting the market for dance music in smaller venues.[31]

1950s–1960s

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Swingin' pop

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Frank Sinatra

Swing bands and sales continued to decline from 1953 to 1954. In 1955, a list of top recording artists from the previous year was publicly released. The list revealed that big band sales had decreased since the early 1950s.[32] However, big band music saw a revival in the 1950s and 1960s. One impetus was the demand for studio and stage orchestras as backups for popular vocalists, and in radio and television broadcasts. Ability to adapt performing styles to various situations was an essential skill among these bands-for-hire, with a somewhat sedated version of swing in common use for backing up vocalists. The resurgent commercial success of Frank Sinatra with a mildly swinging backup during the mid-1950s solidified the trend. It became a sound associated with pop vocalists such as Bobby Darin, Dean Martin, Judy Garland, and Nat King Cole, as well as jazz-oriented vocalists such as Ella Fitzgerald and Keely Smith. Many of these singers were also involved in the "less swinging" vocal pop music of this period. The bands in these contexts performed in relative anonymity, receiving secondary credit beneath the top billing. Some, such as the Nelson Riddle and Gordon Jenkins Orchestras, became well known in their own right, with Riddle particularly associated with the success of Sinatra and Cole. Swingin' pop remained popular into the mid-1960s, becoming one current of the "easy listening" genre.

Big band jazz

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Big band jazz made a comeback as well. The Stan Kenton and Woody Herman bands maintained their popularity during lean years of the late 1940s and beyond, making their mark with innovative arrangements and high-level jazz soloists (Shorty Rogers, Art Pepper, Kai Winding, Stan Getz, Al Cohn, Zoot Sims, Serge Chaloff, Gene Ammons, Sal Nistico). Lionel Hampton was a leader in the R&B genre during the late 1940s then re-entered big band jazz in the early 1950s, remaining a popular attraction through the 1960s. Count Basie and Duke Ellington had both downsized their big bands during the first half of the 1950s, then reconstituted them by 1956. Ellington's venture back into big band jazz was encouraged by its reception at the 1956 Newport Jazz Festival. The Basie and Ellington bands flourished creatively and commercially through the 1960s and beyond, with both veteran leaders receiving high acclaim for their contemporary work and performing until they were physically unable. Drummer Buddy Rich, after briefly leading one big band during the late 1940s and performing in various jazz and big band gigs, formed his definitive big band in 1966. His name became synonymous with the dynamic, exuberant style of his big band. Other big jazz bands that drove the 1950s–1960s revival include those led by Thad Jones, Mel Lewis, Quincy Jones, and Oliver Nelson. Big band jazz remains a major component of college jazz instruction curricula.

Cross-genre swing

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In country music Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, and Bob Wills combined elements of swing and blues to create a Western swing. Mullican left the Cliff Bruner band to pursue solo career that included many songs that maintained a swing structure. Artists like Willie Nelson and Asleep at the Wheel have continued the swing elements of country music. Asleep at the Wheel has also recorded the Count Basie tunes "One O'Clock Jump", "Jumpin' at the Woodside", and "Song of the Wanderer" using a steel guitar as a stand-in for a horn section. Nat King Cole followed Sinatra into pop music, bringing with him a similar combination of swing and ballads. Like Mullican, he was important in bringing piano to the fore of popular music.

Gypsy swing is an outgrowth of the jazz violin swing of Joe Venuti and Eddie Lang. In Europe it was heard in the music of guitarist Django Reinhardt and violinist Stéphane Grappelli. Their repertoire overlaps 1930s swing, including French popular music, gypsy songs, and compositions by Reinhardt, but gypsy swing bands are formulated differently. There is no brass or percussion; guitars and bass form the backbone, with violin, accordion, clarinet or guitar taking the lead. Gypsy swing groups generally have no more than five players. Although they originated in different continents, similarities have often been noted between gypsy swing and Western swing, leading to various fusions.

Rock music hitmakers like Fats Domino and Elvis Presley included swing-era standards in their repertoire, making crooning ballads "Are You Lonesome Tonight" and "My Blue Heaven" into rock and roll-era hits. The doo-wop vocal group the Marcels had a big hit with their lively version of the swing-era ballad "Blue Moon".

Multi-genre mandolinist Jethro Burns is known for playing swing, jazz, and other forms of the genre on the mandolin. He produced albums that feature jazz rhythms and swing chord progressions. He is often considered "The Father of Jazz Mandolin".

1960s–2000: Big band nostalgia and swing revival

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Main article: Swing revival

Though swing music was no longer mainstream, fans could attend "Big Band Nostalgia" tours from the 1970s into the 1980s. The tours featured bandleaders and vocalists of the swing era who were semi-retired, such as Harry James and vocalist Dick Haymes. Historically-themed radio broadcasts featuring period comedy, melodrama, and music also played a role in sustaining interest in the music of the swing era.

Dan Hicks and His Hot Licks, and later David Grisman, presented adaptations of gypsy swing, rekindling interest in the musical form. Other swing revivals occurred during the 1970s. The jazz, R&B, and swing revival vocal group the Manhattan Transfer and Bette Midler included swing era hits on their albums during the early 1970s. In Seattle the New Deal Rhythm Band revived 1930s swing with a dose of comedy behind vocalists Phil "De Basket" Shallat and Cheryl "Benzene" Bentyne. Bentyne would leave the New Deal Rhythm Band in 1978 for her long career with Manhattan Transfer. Founding leader of the New Deal Rhythm Band John Holte led swing revival bands in the Seattle area until 2003.

A swing revival occurred during the 1990s and 2000s led by Royal Crown Revue, Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, the Cherry Poppin' Daddies, Squirrel Nut Zippers, Lavay Smith, and Brian Setzer. Many of the bands played neo-swing which combined swing with rockabilly, ska, and rock. The music brought a revival in swing dancing.

In 2001 Robbie Williams's album Swing When You're Winning consisted mainly of popular swing covers. The album sold more than 7 million copies worldwide. In November 2013, Robbie Williams released Swings Both Ways.

1990s–present: Swing house, electro swing, and swing pop

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Another modern development consists of fusing swing (original, or remixes of classics) with hip hop and house techniques. "Swing house" is a sub genre of swing that has been influenced by the likes of Louis Jordan and Louis Prima. Electro swing is mainly popular in Europe, and electro swing artists incorporate influences such as tango and Django Reinhardt's gypsy swing. Leading artists include Caravan Palace and Parov Stelar, who became popular in the late 2010s. Musically, electro swing is a misnomer as it usually samples music from the earlier Charleston era of the 1920s and doesn't actually swing. Both genres of swing house and electro swing have been connected with the revival of swing dances, such as the Lindy Hop.[citation needed]

See also

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Notes

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Swing music

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from Grokipedia
Swing music, also known as swing jazz or the big band sound, is a style of that originated in the late and achieved widespread popularity from the mid-1930s through the mid-1940s. It is defined by its energetic, danceable rhythms featuring a distinctive "swing" feel—where eighth notes are played unevenly, with the second note longer than the first—along with structured arrangements that incorporate and call-and-response interactions between instrumental sections. Performed primarily by large ensembles of 10 to 25 musicians, known as s, swing emphasized a driving beat suitable for social dancing, such as the , and blended elements of earlier New Orleans jazz with more sophisticated orchestration. The historical roots of swing trace back to the evolution of in the 1920s, when bandleaders like began standardizing instrumentation, including sections of saxophones, trumpets, trombones, and a of , bass, guitar, and drums. This style gained momentum through radio broadcasts, notably Duke Ellington's performances at Harlem's , and fully emerged amid the as an escapist form of entertainment that crossed racial lines despite originating in African American communities in places like Kansas City and New York. Benny Goodman's 1935 performance at the Palomar Ballroom in is often credited with launching the nationally, propelling the genre into mainstream culture and making it the dominant of the time. Key characteristics of swing include its orchestral style, where composed riffs and harmonies provide a framework for individual solos, creating a conversational dynamic between the ensemble and featured players. The music's rhythmic drive, maintained by , supported lively tempos and a sense of propulsion that encouraged dancing, while vocalists and instrumentalists like trumpeters and saxophonists added expressive . Unlike the collective of earlier , swing prioritized arranged compositions with designated solo spots, allowing for greater complexity and appeal to broader audiences. Swing's cultural impact extended beyond music, influencing , , and during , when big bands entertained troops and civilians alike. Prominent figures such as Count Basie, with his blues-infused Kansas City style; , known for smooth, sentimental hits; and , celebrated for and showmanship, helped define the era's sound and legacy. Although its commercial peak waned in the late 1940s with the rise of smaller combos and , swing's emphasis on groove and ensemble interplay continues to influence modern , pop, and dance music.

Definition and Characteristics

Musical Elements

Swing music is a subgenre of that emphasizes a propulsive rhythm, individual by soloists within arranged sections, and large , emerging from African American musical traditions in the United States during the early 20th century. It is characterized by its energetic, danceable quality, achieved through a distinctive "swing feel" that distinguishes it from earlier hot jazz or later styles. The term “swing”, as applied to this rhythmic feel, derives from the ordinary English sense of a swaying or oscillating motion, which has always carried connotations of rhythmic movement. By the late 19th century (as early as 1888), musicians and critics already used “swing” to describe a lively rhythmic vitality or the subtle “lag or rush” in timing that gives music a propulsive feel, and it appeared in some late-1800s song titles or descriptions of rhythmic “swing songs.” By the late 1920s, it was already jazz-musician slang among African-American players for the propulsive, lilting groove that makes music feel buoyant and danceable—essentially an extension of these earlier uses of “swing” for rhythmic vitality. The word entered everyday language with Duke Ellington’s 1931–32 composition “It Don’t Mean a Thing (If It Ain’t Got That Swing),” whose title phrase (credited to his trumpeter Bubber Miley) captured a common credo of the era: without that essential swing, “it don’t mean a thing.” The defining rhythmic element of swing music is the "swing rhythm," where pairs of eighth notes are performed unevenly, with the first note elongated and the second shortened, typically in a 2:1 (the long note twice the duration of the short one). This creates a lilting, propulsive groove often notated as straight eighths but played with a quasi-triplet swing feel. Accompanying this are call-and-response patterns between instrumental sections, such as and reeds exchanging riffs, which build antiphonal energy rooted in African American musical practices. Melodies frequently incorporate scales, featuring flattened third, fifth, and seventh degrees for expressive inflections, while the bass provides a steady walking line of quarter notes that outlines the progression and drives the momentum. Instrumentation in swing music centers on the format, typically comprising a (piano, , drums, and guitar) for foundational pulse and comping, a section (four or five trumpets and three or four trombones) for bold, punchy statements, and a reed section (four or five saxophones doubling on clarinets) for lyrical and harmonic support. Arrangements are sectional, dividing the into these groups for interplay: the "head" presents the main theme in (full ) or soli (sectional ), followed by improvised solos over chord changes, and concluding with shout choruses for climactic density. Harmonically, swing music relies on chord structures—triads and seventh chords stacked in thirds—with occasional chromatic passing tones for color, supporting a melodic framework often based on 32-bar forms like AABA, where two 8-bar antecedent phrases (A) lead to an 8-bar bridge (B) and a return (A). Compositions frequently employ riff-based melodies, short, repetitive motifs passed between sections, which contribute to the genre's infectious, communal drive. A seminal example is Duke Ellington's 1932 recording of "It Don't Mean a Thing (If It Ain't Got That Swing)," where the title phrase encapsulates the genre's rhythmic essence through its insistent riff melody, call-and-response brass-reed exchanges, and buoyant swing eighths that propel the AABA form.

Rhythm, Dance, and Performance Style

Swing music's distinctive "swing feel" arises from its rhythmic foundation, where beats are subdivided into , transforming straight eighth notes into a long-short pattern that infuses the music with propulsion and elasticity. This subdivision, often described as a shuffle rhythm, emphasizes off-beat accents to create a lilting, forward-leaning groove that distinguishes swing from earlier styles and enhances its inherent danceability. Drummers play a pivotal role in sustaining this feel, typically striking the hi-hat on beats 2 and 4 to underscore the backbeat while maintaining a light, riding pulse on the , ensuring the ensemble's rhythmic cohesion. Closely intertwined with this rhythm is the exuberant dance culture it inspired, particularly the , which emerged in the late 1920s within African American communities in , New York. Drawing influences from the Charleston—such as its syncopated footwork—and incorporating daring aerial lifts and flips, the Lindy Hop embodied the era's energetic spirit and was performed in partnered formations that allowed for improvisation and athleticism. The dance proliferated through endurance contests and marathons during the , where couples competed for hours, adapting steps to the music's swing pulse and popularizing variants like the , a simplified, faster-paced adaptation suited to mainstream s. These dances, originating as expressions in Black social spaces, gradually influenced ballroom standards, blending acrobatic flair with structured partnering. In live performances, swing emphasized showmanship and communal engagement, with bands arranged on elevated bandstands to project energy toward dancing crowds, fostering call-and-response interactions between musicians and audiences. Soloists and sectional ensembles often engaged in "trading fours" or eights—brief improvisational exchanges where phrases were passed back and forth to build excitement and highlight rhythmic interplay. Vocalists amplified this dynamism through , a wordless vocal mimicking instrumental lines with nonsense syllables, as exemplified by Cab Calloway's high-energy routines that incorporated hepster from jive culture to entertain and connect with listeners. Such practices turned performances into theatrical events, blending musical precision with visual spectacle. Socially, swing's performance venues like Harlem's epitomized its vibrant, inclusive ethos, operating from 1926 as one of the earliest racially integrated spaces where Black and white patrons danced side by side to live big bands, defying the era's widespread segregation in other U.S. music scenes. Prior to the , while many Southern and Midwestern ballrooms enforced Jim Crow policies that barred interracial mixing, Northern urban hubs like the Savoy cultivated a model of cross-cultural exchange through dance floors alive with enthusiasts, underscoring swing's role in fostering temporary social harmony amid broader racial divides.

Historical Development

Origins in Early Jazz (1910s–1920s)

The roots of swing music trace back to the early jazz developments in the 1910s and 1920s, heavily influenced by the Great Migration of African American musicians from New Orleans to northern cities like and New York. This mass movement, spanning 1910 to 1970, carried the vibrant sounds of New Orleans jazz northward, where they blended with urban environments and evolving musical traditions. In these new settings, early jazz fused syncopated rhythms from —pioneered by composers like , whose works such as "" emphasized offbeat accents—with the emotive, twelve-bar structures of forms, laying the rhythmic and harmonic groundwork for swing's characteristic propulsion. This synthesis created a more flexible, dance-oriented style that prioritized groove over strict notation. Key early advancements emerged through recordings and performances that introduced elements of collective improvisation and rhythmic phrasing akin to swing. The Original Dixieland Jazz Band's 1917 release of "Livery Stable Blues" on Victor Records marked the first commercial jazz recording, featuring polyphonic ensemble playing where instruments wove together in spontaneous interplay, influencing the improvisational freedom central to later swing. In the 1920s, "hot jazz" ensembles led by figures like and further emphasized swinging eighth-note phrasing and melodic embellishment; Oliver's Creole Jazz Band, with Armstrong on second cornet, recorded tracks like "Dippermouth Blues" in 1923 for , showcasing call-and-response patterns and -inflected solos that prefigured swing's elastic rhythm. Armstrong's own Hot Five and Hot Seven sessions for from 1925 to 1928, including pieces like "" and "Potato Head Blues," highlighted virtuoso trumpet solos with a relaxed, behind-the-beat feel that embodied proto-swing expression. Transitional figures bridged these informal jazz roots toward more structured ensembles. Paul Whiteman's orchestra in the 1920s popularized "symphonic jazz," a polished fusion of with classical , as heard in his 1924 Aeolian Hall concert featuring George Gershwin's "," which introduced larger-scale arrangements to broader audiences. Meanwhile, formed his orchestra in 1923, pioneering sectional arrangements through collaborator ; their recordings for labels like Columbia, such as "" in 1924, organized brass and reed sections into call-and-response dynamics that anticipated swing's format. These musical evolutions occurred amid socio-economic shifts that fueled jazz's growth. The Great Migration not only dispersed talent but also created demand in northern urban centers, while from 1920 to 1933 spurred underground speakeasies as key venues for live jazz performances. The recording industry's expansion, driven by labels like OKeh and Victor, captured and commercialized these sounds—OKeh's "race records" series, for instance, targeted African American audiences and amplified early jazz's reach through electrical recording advancements by the mid-1920s.

Emergence and Early Swing (Late 1920s–Early 1930s)

During the late , jazz ensembles evolved from intimate small groups of 6 to 8 musicians toward expansive s of 12 to 16 members, enabling more complex through dedicated sections for , reeds, and . This shift emphasized arranged compositions over spontaneous collective improvisation, with call-and-response patterns between sections creating a polished, unified sound that laid the groundwork for swing's rhythmic drive. Publishers like Robbins Music Corporation played a pivotal role by distributing stock arrangements—pre-written scores for popular tunes—that allowed regional bands to adopt sophisticated charts without original composition, standardizing the format across the U.S. Pioneering leaders drove this transformation, notably , whose Harlem-based , formed in 1923, became a model for organization in the 1920s and early 1930s. Henderson's band, featuring innovative arrangements by starting that year, integrated jazz improvisation within structured frameworks, influencing countless ensembles. In the Midwest, Jean Goldkette managed high-caliber groups, including McKinney's Cotton Pickers, a Detroit-based founded in 1926 by drummer and expanded under Goldkette's guidance at the Graystone Ballroom, where they blended tight ensemble work with emerging swing elements. Key innovations in these early swing bands included riff-based head arrangements—short, repeating melodic phrases played by the full —as intros and outros, alongside written solos that highlighted individual while maintaining sectional precision. Redman's charts for Henderson exemplified this, introducing the reed section's antiphonal interplay with brass, which enhanced rhythmic propulsion and clarity. Amid the , these bands sustained operations through radio broadcasts from ballrooms and extensive theater tours, providing affordable entertainment that reached wide audiences via live remotes and one-nighters. Regional variations emerged, contrasting the East Coast's refined, fully notated polish—as in Henderson's New York operation—with the blues-inflected Kansas City style developed by Bennie Moten's orchestra in the late 1920s. Moten's group, a precursor to Count Basie's, favored looser head arrangements built on simple three-chord progressions, allowing greater improvisational freedom and a swinging, riff-driven groove rooted in local riffing traditions. This approach differed from the scripted elegance of bands, fostering a more spontaneous ensemble feel. Milestones underscored this emergence, such as Henderson's 1927 recording of "I'm Coming, Virginia," which showcased Redman's sectional writing and Tommy Ladnier's trumpet solo within a cohesive texture. In 1932, Basie, then pianist with Moten's orchestra, participated in recording sessions that captured Kansas City's bluesy swing, marking an early bridge to national exposure. Concurrently, territory bands proliferated in the and Midwest, operating as itinerant ensembles that toured rural circuits and small towns, refining swing techniques through constant performance and contributing to the style's grassroots spread.

The Swing Era (1935–1946)

The Swing Era reached its commercial zenith beginning with clarinetist Benny Goodman's electrifying performance at the Palomar Ballroom in on August 21, 1935, an event widely regarded as the spark that ignited nationwide enthusiasm for swing and earned Goodman the moniker "King of Swing." This triumph was amplified by radio broadcasts, particularly Goodman's appearances on NBC's Let's Dance program starting in late 1934, which exposed swing's infectious rhythms to a broad audience and helped propel the genre from regional novelty to national phenomenon. Swing's popularity further surged through Hollywood films, such as the 1937 musical , where Goodman's orchestra performed live, blending with cinematic spectacle to captivate moviegoers and solidify the era's cultural dominance. At the forefront of this boom stood iconic big bands led by figures like Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, Artie Shaw, Duke Ellington, Count Basie, and the Dorsey brothers (Jimmy and Tommy), whose ensembles defined swing's polished yet propulsive sound through intricate arrangements and star soloists. Complementing these leaders were legendary vocalists such as Billie Holiday, whose emotive phrasing with Basie's band added raw emotional depth to swing standards, and Ella Fitzgerald, who rose to prominence with Chick Webb's orchestra before launching her solo career, showcasing scat singing and impeccable timing that became hallmarks of the style. These artists produced enduring hits, including Miller's exuberant "In the Mood" (1939), which captured the era's dance-floor energy, and Ellington's "Take the 'A' Train" (1941), a signature tune that highlighted sophisticated composition within the swing framework. The 1942–1944 American Federation of Musicians recording ban, initiated by union leader James Petrillo to secure royalties, disrupted new releases but inadvertently boosted lesser-known Broadcast Music Incorporated (BMI) songs by shifting radio airplay toward them, sustaining swing's momentum amid scarcity. World War II profoundly shaped swing's trajectory, with the U.S. military's program producing over 900 special 12-inch records from 1943 to 1949, featuring tracks mailed to troops overseas as morale boosters and exposing soldiers to hits like those from Miller's Army Air Forces band. The draft depleted male musicians, causing widespread band shortages and forcing leaders to downsize ensembles or rely on substitutes, while fueling an economic surge in record sales that exceeded 50 million units annually by the mid-1940s, driven by wartime prosperity and dance crazes. Women stepped into this void, with all-female groups like the —an integrated swing band formed in 1937—touring extensively and performing for troops, challenging gender norms in a male-dominated field. Racial dynamics remained tense, with segregation limiting opportunities for Black bandleaders like Ellington and Basie, who often performed in racially divided venues and faced discriminatory booking practices despite their artistic excellence. A pivotal moment came on January 16, 1938, when Goodman hosted the first jazz concert at , integrating his band with Black musicians like pianist and vibraphonist —longtime collaborators—and featuring guest appearances by Ellington and Basie, which helped advance in swing and broader American music.

Decline and Post-War Evolution (1940s–1950s)

The decline of swing music in the post-World War II era was driven primarily by mounting economic pressures on big bands, exacerbated by union regulations and recording restrictions. The (AFM) imposed a recording ban from 1942 to 1944, preventing union members from participating in commercial recordings, which severely limited bands' ability to generate revenue and maintain visibility during wartime shortages. This ban contributed to the financial strain on large ensembles, as leaders faced rising costs for union scale wages, travel, and logistics in an era of fuel rationing and inflation. A second AFM strike in 1948 further disrupted the industry, compounding the challenges for bandleaders already struggling to cover expenses without steady recording income. These factors led to widespread disbandments, including Glenn Miller's orchestra in 1942, when he enlisted in the U.S. Army Air Forces to form a service band, marking the end of his civilian swing ensemble at its commercial peak. The AFM strike in 1948 intensified the crisis, halting live performances and recordings for months and accelerating the collapse of many big bands, as audiences and venues shifted away from large-scale dance events. attendance plummeted in the late 1940s, with urban dance halls closing due to decreased demand and competition from smaller, more affordable entertainment options. Social changes, including the end of wartime and , fragmented the urban communities that had sustained swing's dance culture, as returning veterans and families prioritized home life over nightly outings. By 1950, even resilient leaders like Count Basie had scaled down to an octet or smaller combos to reduce overhead, transitioning from full tours to more intimate club performances and recordings. Stylistic innovations also eroded swing's dominance, as the rise of in the mid-1940s emphasized small-group improvisation, harmonic complexity, and virtuosic solos over the rhythmic drive and danceability central to swing. Pioneers like and favored compact ensembles that prioritized artistic expression, appealing to musicians and intellectuals rather than mass dance audiences and hastening the shift away from formats. In the , the emergence of rock 'n' roll further marginalized swing by captivating youth with its energetic, guitar-driven sound and rebellious energy, drawing crowds from ballrooms to jukeboxes and smaller rock-oriented venues. Despite these challenges, some s adapted by incorporating modern elements, sustaining swing's legacy through hybrid forms. Woody Herman's First Herd, formed in 1944, blended swing's propulsion with influences, featuring arrangements by and showcasing a dynamic mix of danceable rhythms and advanced improvisation that kept the band viable into the late 1940s. Similarly, Stan Kenton's progressive jazz orchestras in the late 1940s experimented with larger ensembles, complex compositions, and modernist harmonies, evolving swing into a more style while retaining energy. Television appearances on shows like provided remaining bands with national exposure, helping outfits like Herman's and Kenton's endure amid the industry's contraction. A brief wave of "swingin' pop" hybrids emerged in the late 1940s and early 1950s, merging swing's brass and rhythm sections with vocal-driven pop melodies to appeal to broader audiences. Les Brown's Band of Renown exemplified this approach, achieving hits like "Sentimental Journey" in 1945 with vocalist , which topped charts by combining smooth swing backing with accessible, sentimental lyrics. These adaptations offered a transitional bridge, allowing select big bands to navigate the post-war landscape before fully yielding to smaller jazz combos and emerging genres.

Revivals and Modern Forms

Mid-Century Revivals (1950s–1960s)

The mid-century revival of swing music during the 1950s and 1960s was catalyzed by cultural and technological factors that rekindled interest in the genre amid post-war economic recovery. The 1956 biographical film The Benny Goodman Story, starring Steve Allen as the clarinetist, played a pivotal role by introducing younger audiences to Goodman's Swing Era hits and dramatizing the music's rise to popularity, thereby sparking renewed appreciation for big band swing. College jazz societies, emerging on U.S. campuses in the 1950s, further fueled this resurgence as students organized ensembles to perform and study classic swing arrangements, bridging generational gaps and preserving the style's rhythmic vitality. Additionally, the advent of high-fidelity (hi-fi) recording technology prompted record labels to reissue vintage swing albums in superior audio quality, such as compilations featuring Benny Goodman and Duke Ellington, which appealed to audiophiles and broadened access to the music's swinging grooves. Prominent ensembles exemplified the revival's vitality through innovative takes on swing traditions. Maynard Ferguson's , active in the , revitalized the form with its emphasis on high-register trumpet solos and exuberant swing rhythms, drawing from Stan Kenton's progressive style while honoring classic big band energy. Similarly, the Thad Jones/ Orchestra, established in 1965, became a cornerstone of modern swing by integrating sophisticated arrangements with propulsive rhythms, performing weekly at New York's and serving as a training ground for leading jazz musicians. Hybrid forms known as "swingin' pop" blended swing's infectious pulse with emerging jazz idioms, expanding its reach into popular culture. The Dave Brubeck Quartet, prominent in the 1950s and 1960s, fused swing grooves with cool jazz harmonies and unconventional time signatures, as heard in albums like Time Out (1959), which maintained the genre's danceable swing while appealing to broader audiences. Vocal trio Lambert, Hendricks & Ross advanced this hybrid through scat-singing reinterpretations of instrumental swing classics, such as their 1959 album Sing Me a Swing Song, where they added lyrics to big band charts by Count Basie and others, revitalizing the style for vocal jazz enthusiasts. The revival extended internationally, with U.S. bands undertaking European tours that disseminated swing's rhythms to enthusiastic local scenes. Groups like those led by and performed across the continent in the 1950s and 1960s, inspiring European ensembles and fostering transatlantic exchanges. In Japan, a burgeoning scene took shape in the 1950s, influenced by American swing imports and radio broadcasts, leading to groups like the Union Jazz Orchestra that adapted the style with local flair. Culturally, events like the in the 1960s highlighted swing through dedicated sets by revivalists such as and Count Basie, blending nostalgic performances with contemporary to affirm the genre's enduring appeal. Swing's rhythmic foundation also subtly influenced crossovers, where artists like incorporated swinging bass lines into Brazilian samba- fusions, evident in the 1960s hit .

Late 20th-Century Nostalgia (1960s–1990s)

During the late and , nostalgia for swing music gained momentum through reissues of classic recordings, which introduced younger audiences to the sound via affordable vinyl collections. Time-Life's "The Swing Era" series, launched in the early , compiled a series of 15 box sets of remastered tracks from artists like and , emphasizing the era's rhythmic vitality and cultural significance. These efforts were complemented by educational initiatives in universities, where programs in studies began incorporating arranging techniques; for instance, institutions like the developed curricula in the 1980s that trained students in swing-era orchestration, preserving compositional methods through structured coursework. Active swing scenes persisted through dedicated ensembles and international tribute groups, maintaining live performance traditions amid declining mainstream interest. The Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra, established in 1965 and renamed the Vanguard Jazz Orchestra in 1990 after 's death, upheld its Monday-night residency at New York's into the 1990s, blending original compositions with swing standards under leaders like Bob Brookmeyer. In the UK, tribute bands such as the Pasadena Roof Orchestra, active since the but peaking in popularity during the 1980s, recreated swing arrangements for audiences seeking authentic experiences. Similarly, Australian groups like the Swing City Big Band emerged in the 1980s, performing swing-infused sets that drew on local jazz heritage. The Lindy Hop revival, fueled by dance workshops in the 1980s and 1990s, reinvigorated partner dancing; events organized by instructors like those at the New York Swing Dance Society extended to international locales, teaching aerials and Charleston variations rooted in 1930s styles. Media portrayals amplified swing's retro allure, embedding it in films, advertisements, and theater during the and . The 1974 film , with its soundtrack arranged by , featured swing-inflected adaptations of 1920s jazz standards like "What'll I Do?" performed by , evoking the era's exuberance through orchestral swells and rhythmic drive. In the , television commercials harnessed swing for nostalgic appeal, such as the 1982 "Hooked on Swing" ads promoting Larry Elgart's Manhattan Swing Orchestra albums, which sold briskly on cassette and positioned big band sounds as timeless escapism. Broadway revues like Ain't Misbehavin' (1978), a Tony-winning celebration of jazz including works associated with Duke Ellington's contemporaries, showcased stride piano and ensemble swing in intimate settings, running for over 1,500 performances. Subcultural growth in the 1980s laid groundwork for broader revivals, with neo-swing bands experimenting in underground scenes and global festivals fostering community. Precursors to 1990s acts like the , formed in 1989 as a ska-swing hybrid from , included rockabilly revival artists in the 1970s and 1980s who contributed to rediscovering swing and jump blues elements, as well as West Coast groups such as the Lavay Smith & Her Red Hot , active in San Francisco's 1980s clubs with their raw, revivalist takes on swing vocals and horns. In , events like the festivals organized by the Hot Club de France affiliates in the 1980s and 1990s, including tributes at the Festival, attracted enthusiasts for workshops and performances honoring Gypsy swing and big band traditions. These gatherings emphasized and ensemble interplay, bridging European roots with American swing. Challenges arose from an aging cohort of swing musicians, whose numbers dwindled due to health issues and reduced venues, yet programs ensured continuity through oral transmission of techniques. By the 1990s, initiatives like the Smithsonian Institution's Oral History Program, launched in 1992, interviewed over 100 elder jazz figures, capturing nuances of swing phrasing and bandleading passed down verbally to younger players. Such efforts countered the loss of originals like , promoting intergenerational bands that adapted swing for contemporary contexts while honoring its improvisational core.

Contemporary Interpretations (1990s–Present)

The 1990s marked a significant revival of swing music, often termed neo-swing, driven by bands that blended traditional big band sounds with punk and rock influences to appeal to younger audiences. Groups like Big Bad Voodoo Daddy and the Squirrel Nut Zippers gained prominence, with Big Bad Voodoo Daddy's energetic performances and hits such as "You & Me & the Bottle Makes Three Tonight (Baby)" capturing the era's retro enthusiasm. This revival was amplified by mainstream media, including the 1996 film Swingers, which featured swing dancing scenes set to tracks by Big Bad Voodoo Daddy, inspiring a cultural fascination with the genre among Gen X listeners. Additionally, the Gap's 1998 "Khakis Swing" commercial, featuring Lindy Hop choreography to Louis Prima's "Jump, Jive an' Wail," sparked a nationwide surge in swing dance classes and club scenes, transforming neo-swing into a pop culture phenomenon. Entering the 2000s, electro swing emerged as a fusion genre, originating in European scenes particularly in the UK and France, where producers sampled vintage swing recordings and layered them with electronic dance music (EDM) elements like house beats and hip-hop rhythms. Austrian artist Parov Stelar pioneered this sound with tracks like "Booty Swing" in 2005, which combined jazzy brass samples with pulsating synths, achieving mainstream breakthrough by 2013 through viral remixes and festival play. French band Caravan Palace further popularized the style with their 2008 debut album Panic, blending swing-era vocals and instrumentation with French house influences, drawing from artists like Daft Punk to create danceable tracks such as "Lone Digger." Subgenres like swing house evolved from these roots, incorporating Daft Punk's filtered house techniques and vocoder effects to modernize swing's groove, as seen in Caravan Palace's self-described inspirations. Swing pop hybrids gained traction in the through digital platforms, with Scott Bradlee's reinterpreting contemporary hits in vintage swing and jazz styles via covers that amassed millions of views. For instance, their 1930s-speakeasy rendition of ’s "Royals" in 2014 showcased and piano, appealing to a global audience seeking nostalgic reinterpretations of pop songs. Globally, fusions adapted swing to local traditions; in , artists integrated swing rhythms with in projects like the works of pianist Yuko Mabuchi, who performed bossa nova-infused swing sets drawing on heritage. In , swing influenced scenes, with venues like Tokyo's Swing bar hosting performances that merged American swing with local improvisational styles since 2014. From the 2010s to 2025, swing's contemporary interpretations have leveraged digital tools for revival and accessibility, particularly through and virtual formats. videos of routines to swing tracks surged during the , providing an escape and reintroducing the to younger demographics via short-form challenges that echoed 1990s enthusiasm. Pandemic restrictions prompted innovative virtual events, such as Utah swing communities' online "End of the World" videos in 2020, which sustained practice through live-streamed classes and collaborations. Efforts toward inclusivity have grown, with diverse addressing historical underrepresentation; for example, Black dancers like LaTasha Barnes have advocated for equitable spaces at international events, highlighting issues of cultural ownership in predominantly white European scenes. Apps and platforms have supported this evolution, enabling event planning and building to foster broader participation. In 2025, ongoing events such as the Rock That Swing Festival in and performances by bands like the continued to sustain the revival through live music and workshops. Challenges persist in electro swing's reliance on sampling, where copyright restrictions on vintage recordings complicate production; creators often navigate by recreating sounds or obtaining clearances, as older works from the provide a but limit options for protected material. Despite this, festivals like Sweden's Herräng Dance Camp have bolstered the genre's growth since the , attracting thousands annually for workshops, live music, and social dancing that blend traditional and modern swing, serving as a global hub for innovation and . By 2025, these events continue to thrive, incorporating electro swing sets and virtual tie-ins to ensure swing's adaptability amid digital shifts.

Influences and Legacy

Cross-Genre and Global Adaptations

Swing music's rhythmic drive and improvisational flair extended beyond into various American genres during the mid-20th century. In , Bill Haley's 1950s recordings, such as those by His Comets, incorporated swing's propulsive backbeat and horn sections, blending it with twang to pioneer the rock 'n' roll sound. , developed by and the Texas Playboys in the 1930s, fused swing arrangements with fiddles, pedal steel guitars, and vocals, creating a hybrid style popular in the Southwest. Similarly, Louis Jordan's in the 1940s bridged swing and R&B, featuring compact ensembles with jumping rhythms and witty lyrics that influenced early rock pioneers like . Globally, swing spread through migration, recordings, and performances, adapting to local traditions starting in the 1930s. In Europe, Belgian guitarist Django Reinhardt and violinist Stéphane Grappelli formed the Quintette du Hot Club de France in 1934, pioneering gypsy jazz by merging swing's hot improvisation with Romani folk melodies and rapid guitar techniques. Post-World War II in Latin America, Cuban mambo artists like Pérez Prado integrated swing's brass-heavy orchestration and call-and-response patterns with Afro-Cuban rhythms, popularizing the genre internationally through hits like "Mambo No. 5" in the 1950s. In 21st-century Asia, K-pop groups such as BTS have sampled swing grooves in tracks like "Dynamite" (2020), evoking retro energy, while urban Lindy hop scenes thrive in Chinese cities like Shanghai, drawing thousands to swing dance festivals annually. Further adaptations highlight swing's versatility in non-Western contexts. Swedish jazz orchestras, such as the since the , have reinterpreted swing classics with Nordic harmonies and modern arrangements, maintaining the genre's ensemble precision. In hip-hop, artists have sampled swing-era jazz tracks, layering horns over beats to connect genres. Swing's reach extends to non-musical realms, underscoring its cultural permeation. The 2017 video game features an original soundtrack by Kristofer Maddigan, composed entirely in a 1930s cartoon swing style with instrumentation to match the game's aesthetic. Advertisers have employed swing for nostalgic appeal, as in Levi's 1990s "Quality Never Goes Out of Style" campaign, which used period swing tracks to evoke mid-century Americana. Academically, ethnomusicologists like Steven Feld have studied swing's "off-beat" accentuation as a rhythmic universal, appearing in African and Southeast Asian musics, suggesting cross-cultural cognitive parallels in groove perception. Unique regional examples illustrate swing's wartime and contemporary migrations. During , Australian bands adapted American swing for troop entertainment, performing for Allied forces in the Pacific theater. In the 2010s, Balkan ensembles such as Goran Bregović's Wedding and Funeral Band blended brass-heavy and Roma traditions, producing albums like Three Letters from Sarajevo (2017) that fuse with Eastern European folk.

Cultural and Social Impact

Swing music, originating as an African American innovation in the early 20th century, emerged amid the pervasive enforced by , which restricted Black musicians' access to mainstream venues and opportunities. Despite these barriers, swing bands led by artists like and Count Basie developed the genre in urban centers such as and Kansas City, blending , , and into a danceable style that initially thrived in Black communities. However, as swing gained national popularity in the mid-1930s, white bandleaders like appropriated and commercialized the sound, often overshadowing its Black origins while benefiting from broader audiences and radio airplay unavailable to Black ensembles. A pivotal moment in addressing these racial divides occurred at Benny Goodman's 1938 concert, where integrated performances by Black musicians such as and alongside white players challenged segregation norms and symbolized swing's role in early civil efforts by demonstrating interracial collaboration on a prestigious stage. This event highlighted swing's potential to bridge racial boundaries, though systemic appropriation persisted, with white-led bands dominating record sales and tours, contributing to economic disparities for Black innovators. In terms of gender, women in swing primarily excelled as vocalists, with figures like rising to prominence through and phrasing that defined the era's expressive style, while rare female instrumentalists navigated limited opportunities in male-dominated big bands. Black women singers like Fitzgerald often achieved peer status with male instrumentalists, defying stereotypes through versatile performances in ensembles led by and Count Basie. Post-World War II, however, women faced exclusion from bands as returning male veterans reclaimed positions, relegating many to domestic roles or secondary gigs amid shifting cultural expectations. The 1990s swing revival reinvigorated women's participation, particularly through dance scenes where and other partner styles empowered female dancers in social and performative contexts, fostering community and physical agency in a post-feminist landscape. Swing profoundly shaped during and 1940s, serving as a form of teen rebellion against the hardships of the by offering escapism through energetic dances like the and communal events that defied economic despair. Groups such as the "bobby-soxers"—energetic teenage girls idolizing and attending concerts—embodied this , turning swing into a symbol of youthful exuberance and social mixing. In the , neo-swing revived as an ironic hipster fashion statement, with bands like the blending swing rhythms with punk attitudes, attracting young audiences through zoot suits, fedoras, and retro that mocked mainstream while celebrating vintage cool. Swing's influence extended to mid-century subcultures, informing the mod scene's sharp-suited affinity for jazz-derived sounds and the beatniks' appreciation for improvisational energy, though later overshadowed it. Economically, swing's commercialization accelerated through performing rights organizations like ASCAP and BMI, whose 1941 ""—a by radio stations against ASCAP's high fees—elevated BMI's role in licensing swing and other genres, standardizing royalties and expanding broadcast reach. This rivalry boosted the record industry by diversifying repertoires and increasing airplay for big band hits, helping recover from Depression-era slumps where sales dropped from 104 million units in 1927 to 6 million in 1932. Media amplified swing's reach, with films like 42nd Street (1933) introducing proto-swing tap routines and upbeat numbers that presaged the genre's dance craze, while television's (1950–1959) featured live swing performances, adapting radio's top tunes for visual audiences and sustaining popularity into the postwar years. These platforms provided economic uplift, employing thousands in bands, recordings, and broadcasts during a time of scarcity. Swing's enduring legacy includes preservation efforts by institutions like the Smithsonian, which archives recordings, , and artifacts from the era, such as Benny Goodman's 1938 concert materials, ensuring access for researchers and public education. It features in educational curricula, with programs like Carnegie Hall's Link Up series teaching swing rhythms, , and history to students, integrating it into music classes to highlight American cultural evolution. Post-2000 research underscores benefits of structured partner dances like swing for , with studies showing improvements in cognitive function, reduced depression symptoms, and enhanced social well-being more effectively than other exercises like walking.

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