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Scotswomen walking (fulling) woollen cloth, singing a waulking song, 1772 (engraving made by Thomas Pennant on one of his tours)

Fulling, also known as tucking or walking (Scots: waukin, hence often spelt waulking in Scottish English), is a step in woollen clothmaking which involves the cleansing of woven cloth (particularly wool) to eliminate (lanolin) oils, dirt, and other impurities, and to make it shrink by friction and pressure. The work delivers a smooth, tightly finished fabric that is insulating and water-repellent. Well-known examples are duffel cloth, first produced in Flanders in the 14th century, and loden, produced in Austria from the 16th century on.

Waulking could be done with the hands and feet. In medieval Europe, it was done in water-powered fulling mills. After the Industrial Revolution, coal and electric power were used.

Felting refers more generally to the interlocking of loose wool fibers; they need not be spun and woven first.

Process

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Fulling involves two processes: scouring (cleaning) and milling (thickening). Removing the oils encourages felting, and the cloth is pounded to clean it and to encourage the fibers to felt, so in practice the processes overlap.

Scouring

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Main article: scouring (textiles)

Urine was so important to the fulling business that it was taxed in Ancient Rome.[1] Stale urine, known as wash or lant, was a source of ammonium salts and assisted in cleansing and whitening the cloth and having its fibers intertwined.

By the medieval period, fuller's earth had been introduced for use in the process. This is a soft clay-like material occurring naturally as an impure hydrous aluminium silicate. Worked through the cloth, it absorbs oils and dirt. It was used in conjunction with wash. More recently, soap has been used.

Milling

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The second function of fulling was to thicken cloth by matting the fibres together to give it strength and increase waterproofing (felting). This was vital in the case of woollens, made from carded wool, but not for worsted materials made from combed wool. After this stage, water was used to rinse out the foul-smelling liquor used during cleansing. Felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation because the microscopic scales on the surface of wool fibres hook together, somewhat like hook and loop fixings.

Manual methods

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Manual trampling, drawing after an Ancient Roman fresco in the Fullonica of Stephanus, Pompeii. A fullonica is a fullery and laundry shop.

Originally, fulling was carried out by the pounding of the woollen cloth with a club, or the fuller's feet or hands.

In Roman times, fulling was conducted by slaves working the cloth while ankle deep in tubs of human urine.[citation needed]

There are several Biblical references to fulling (2 Kings 18:17; Isaiah 7:3 and 36:2; Malachi 3:2; Mark 9:3). In addition to this, at least one reference appears in the speeches of Lysias, written in Athens during the 5th century BC.[2]

Scotland, then a rather remote and un-industrialized region, retained manual methods into the 1700s. In Scottish Gaelic tradition, this process was accompanied by waulking songs, which women sang to set the pace.

Mills

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  • Fulling cloth by letting a waterfall agitate it
    Fulling cloth by letting a waterfall agitate it
  • A driving-stock fulling mill from Georg Andreas Böckler's Theatrum Machinarum Novum, 1661
    A driving-stock fulling mill from Georg Andreas Böckler's Theatrum Machinarum Novum, 1661
  • Model of a falling-stock machine, showing the set of hammers that drop in sequence to pound the cloth in the vats below
    Model of a falling-stock machine, showing the set of hammers that drop in sequence to pound the cloth in the vats below
  • 1891 illustration of a rotary fulling mill
    1891 illustration of a rotary fulling mill

From the medieval period, the fulling of cloth was often done in a water mill, known as a fulling mill, a walk mill, or a tuck mill, and in Wales, a pandy. They appear to have originated in the 9th or 10th century in Europe. The earliest known reference to a fulling mill in France, which dates from about 1086, was discovered in Normandy.[3] There was a fulling mill established at Temple Guiting, Gloucestershire which was documented in the Domesday Book (also 1086).[4] E. A. Lewis (possibly Welsh historian Edward Arthur Lewis)[5] observed:

'Fulling mills appear in Wales early in the reign of Edward II., just at the time when fulling mills were being introduced into Lancashire.'[6]

By the time of the Crusades in the late eleventh century, fulling mills were active throughout the medieval world.[2]

The mills beat the cloth with wooden hammers, known as fulling stocks or fulling hammers. Fulling stocks were of two kinds, falling stocks (operating vertically) that were used only for scouring, and driving or hanging stocks. In both cases the machinery was operated by cams on the shaft of a waterwheel or on a tappet wheel, which lifted the hammer.

Driving stocks were pivoted so that the foot (the head of the hammer) struck the cloth almost horizontally. The stock had a tub holding the liquor and cloth. This was somewhat rounded on the side away from the hammer, so that the cloth gradually turned, ensuring that all parts of it were milled evenly. However, the cloth was taken out about every two hours to undo plaits and wrinkles. The 'foot' was approximately triangular in shape, with notches to assist the turning of the cloth.

Post-processing

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Raising the nap, Roman fresco

After fulling, cloth was stretched on great frames known as tenters, to which it is attached by tenterhooks (whence the phrase being on tenterhooks). The area where the tenters were erected was known as a tenterground.

Cloth would also have the nap raised by napping or gigging. The surface would then be sheared smooth. The process might be repeated for a smoother finish.

Legacy

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The names for workers who performed these tasks (fuller, tucker, and walker[7]) have become common surnames.

The Welsh word for a fulling mill is pandy,[8] which appears in many place-names, for example Tonypandy ("fulling mill lea").

See also

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References

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Bibliography

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Fulling

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Fulling is a traditional finishing process in wool production that cleans, shrinks, and felts woven or knitted fabric by applying moisture, heat, friction, and pressure, thereby increasing its thickness, density, and compactness while making it more water-resistant and durable. Historically, fulling originated in ancient civilizations, with evidence from Roman times where it was known as "ars fullonica," involving trampling cloth in tubs with cleaning agents like urine or to remove grease and impurities before felting the fibers. The process was mechanized in medieval Europe starting around the , when water-powered fulling mills—introduced by religious orders such as the and —replaced labor-intensive foot-treading, revolutionizing cloth production and boosting economies in regions like and the . By the , these mills were widespread, shrinking cloth by 10-20% to create high-quality broadcloths essential for trade and apparel. The fulling process typically begins with degreasing the fabric using agents like or in water, followed by agitation—historically via wooden hammers in mills or human feet—to interlock the fibers' scales, causing shrinkage and felting. After felting, the cloth is washed to remove residues, then stretched on tenter frames for drying and finishing, which could include raising the nap with teasels and shearing for smoothness. This sequence not only purifies the material but also enhances its strength, insulation, and resistance to wear, distinguishing fulling from felting, which starts with loose fibers rather than pre-woven fabric. In modern textile production, fulling persists in artisanal and industrial settings, often using washing machines or computerized machinery for controlled shrinkage of knitted items like sweaters, producing "boiled wool" without harsh chemicals for applications in apparel, crafts, and insulation. While large-scale mechanization during the largely supplanted traditional mills by the , the technique remains valued for creating sustainable, high-performance fabrics in niche markets.

History and Etymology

Etymology

The term "fulling" derives from the word fullere, meaning a person who fulls cloth, which originates from the Latin fullo, referring to a fuller or cloth . This reflects the process's ancient roots in and compacting textiles through or pounding.

Origins in Ancient Textile Practices

Fulling-like processes emerged in ancient and as early as the third millennium BCE, with evidence of specialized fullers employing clay-like earth to cleanse and treat textiles. In during the Old Babylonian period around 2000 BCE, texts such as UET 6/2, 414 describe fullers engaging clients for garment treatment, involving soaking, beating, and treading to remove impurities and compact fibers. Egyptian practices paralleled these, utilizing similar absorbent earths from the region to scour , as indicated by references to the fuller profession in hieroglyphs and depictions of fulling vessels on pyramid walls. By the Roman period, fulling had become a formalized integral to production and urban economies. details the role of fullones, who scoured using stale for its content to break down grease and dirt, often combined with alkaline nitrum (soda) solutions to enhance cleansing. These workers also employed saponaceous like soapwort for milder washing, particularly on finer garments, reflecting a sophisticated understanding of natural detergents. The economic significance of fulling grew with expanding trade networks across the , where processed supported clothing, military supplies, and exports. Fulling guilds, known as collegia fullonum, emerged by the 1st century CE, organizing laborers and regulating practices in key cities like and Pompeii, as evidenced by inscriptions and legal references. At its core, ancient fulling relied on combining water, heat, and mechanical friction—achieved through foot-treading in vats or beating with clubs—to dissolve (wool grease) and embedded dirt while promoting entanglement for denser fabric. This manual agitation not only cleaned but also shrank and strengthened the cloth, laying the groundwork for later mechanized innovations in medieval .

Medieval Development and Industrialization

Water-powered fulling mills emerged in medieval as a significant technological advancement in textile processing, with the earliest documented evidence dating to the 11th century. The first known reference to a fulling mill in France appears around 1086 in Normandy. In , records indicate fulling mills from the late 12th century, such as the one at Temple Newsham in in 1185, though the Domesday Book of 1086 primarily lists grain mills and does not record numerous fulling mills. These mills utilized water wheels to drive trip-hammers that automated the labor-intensive task of hammering cloth, replacing manual trampling and substantially increasing efficiency. The mechanism typically involved a waterwheel driving a shaft fitted with cams, which lifted and dropped heavy wooden hammers (“stocks”) into a trough of wet cloth. Cistercian monks played a key role in their dissemination in and as part of broader industrial developments in monastic estates. By the 13th century, fulling mills had spread widely across wool-producing regions of Europe, including France, the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and Iberia, and were one of the most common types of non-grain industrial watermills during the High Middle Ages. They remained in use into the early modern and early industrial periods. Historical records also indicate early mills in at Stanley Abbey from 1189, and in by the late 12th century, contributing to regional woolen industries. In the medieval Islamic world, fulling practices were established, and water power was applied to various industries during the Islamic Golden Age, though specific evidence for water-powered fulling mills is limited and may suggest later adoption or independent development. The adoption of fulling mills profoundly impacted the , enhancing production capacity and driving in key regions. In , mills converted from grain processing after the (1348–1350) boosted wool cloth output, supporting rural employment and trade networks that exported finished goods to continental markets. Similarly, in , mechanized fulling enabled larger-scale cloth manufacturing, integrating with Mediterranean trade routes and fostering urban development. Overall, these innovations increased output by up to 20–50 times compared to manual methods, transforming fulling from a bottleneck to a scalable process and laying foundations for in wool-dependent economies. Regulatory frameworks emerged to standardize fulling and protect industry interests, particularly through guilds and royal ordinances in 14th-century . Craft , such as those of fullers in major cloth towns, enforced monopolies on milling operations, controlling access and quality to prevent fraud and maintain export standards. The Assize of Cloth (c. 1197, reaffirmed in the ) mandated uniform cloth dimensions and finishing, with aulnagers inspecting fullered goods and imposing fines for substandard work, as seen in where rays were regulated in 1412. These measures, combined with apprenticeships and price controls, ensured consistent quality amid rising production, bolstering England's position in international .

The Fulling Process

Preparation and Scouring

The preparation and scouring stage in the fulling process aims to remove natural oils such as , along with dirt and residues from , from raw woolen cloth to prepare it for felting. This initial cleaning prevents interference with fiber interlocking during later stages and ensures the cloth's durability and uniformity. Alkaline solutions and moderate heat are employed to dissolve and emulsify these impurities without degrading the wool's structure. In historical practices, scouring involved immersing the woven cloth in large vats or stalls containing alkaline agents like stale (which becomes ammoniacal upon aging), potash-based soaps, or mixed with water. The cloth was soaked for several hours or up to 12-16 hours in hot water (around 50-60°C in some practices) to facilitate grease removal while minimizing premature felting. In manual or early mill settings, the process sometimes included periodic or stirring to enhance penetration of the cleaning solution. In modern industrial settings, the primary chemical mechanism is , where alkalis react with the ester bonds in and other wool fats to produce water-soluble soaps and , effectively breaking down the grease into an emulsifiable form. This reaction occurs under the mild alkaline conditions ( around 9-10) and temperatures used, preserving the wool fibers' integrity as the process avoids excessive heat or strong acids that could hydrolyze proteins. After scouring, the cloth undergoes quality assessment via to verify uniform cleanliness and absence of residual grease spots before transfer to milling. These checks ensure the fabric is adequately prepared, as any lingering impurities could affect subsequent felting.

Milling and Felting

Milling, also known as the felting phase of fulling, involves the repeated mechanical agitation of cleaned cloth in a moist environment to interlock the scales, resulting in controlled shrinkage and increased fabric . This transforms the loose woven structure into a compact, thickened material by exploiting the directional of 's scales, which hook together under applied pressure and moisture. Shrinkage typically ranges from 10% to 30% in both length and width, depending on the fabric's initial and milling duration, increasing the fabric's weight per unit area by 20-70%. In historical practices, the process begins with the pre-scoured cloth, still containing residual soaps or lubricants from earlier , being folded into multiple layers to facilitate even agitation. These layers are then immersed in warm soapy water, typically at 50-70°C, and subjected to hours of rubbing or beating, often lasting 12-14 hours in traditional settings. Periodic manual stretching is applied during intervals to direct shrinkage primarily in the warp direction and prevent uneven felting, ensuring the fabric maintains its intended dimensions while achieving a denser structure, with increasing significantly, often by 20-70% depending on the initial fabric weight. The heat softens the fibers, enhancing scale mobility, while the alkaline reduces inter-fiber friction, allowing scales to migrate and entangle more effectively. Physically, felting relies on the ratchet-like structure of scales, which permit movement in one direction but resist reversal under , leading to irreversible compaction when combined with and . This unidirectional interlocking increases the fabric's thickness and resistance, as the entangled fibers reduce air permeability and obscure the weave pattern. Variations in milling intensity are tailored to fabric types: heavier ens, such as , undergo prolonged agitation for deeper felting to achieve a smooth, dense finish, whereas lighter fabrics like serges require shorter durations to preserve drape and avoid excessive stiffening.

Equipment and Techniques

Manual Fulling Methods

Manual fulling relied on physical labor to clean, shrink, and felt woolen cloth through repetitive friction and pressure, primarily using human feet or handheld tools before the advent of mechanized mills. One primary technique was foot-treading, where workers stood ankle-deep in large wooden troughs or pits filled with water and cleansing agents, folding the woven cloth into layers and it rhythmically to interlock the fibers. This process began gently for about one hour to soften the fabric, followed by more vigorous for 2-3 hours, with the cloth periodically stretched, refolded, and readjusted to ensure even shrinkage of 10-15%; a single batch typically required 12-14 hours of continuous effort. Historical evidence from Roman and medieval indicates this method was widespread, often performed in communal settings near water sources to facilitate rinsing. An alternative manual approach involved beating the cloth with wooden clubs or mallets, particularly for smaller pieces or in regions without access to large troughs. Workers laid the soaked fabric over a flat or slightly inclined surface and struck it repeatedly with heavy wooden tools to simulate the pounding action, driving impurities out and matting the fibers together; this was common in rural households or small-scale workshops where space was limited. Such beating mimicked the later mechanical hammers but demanded precise control to avoid damaging the cloth, often taking several hours depending on the piece's size. Labor in manual fulling was highly organized to sustain the demanding physical work, typically involving teams of 2-4 fullers who rotated tasks to prevent fatigue during extended sessions. In Scottish traditions, particularly among Gaelic-speaking communities, groups of women—often 6-8 or more—gathered for waulking, passing the cloth around a table while beating and folding it in unison; they sang rhythmic waulking songs (òrain luaidh) to coordinate movements, maintain pace, and foster social cohesion during the process. These chants, led by one singer with responses from the group, ensured synchronized effort and could last for hours, turning the labor into a communal event. Despite its effectiveness for producing dense, durable fabric, manual fulling had notable limitations: it was extremely labor-intensive, requiring skilled workers for optimal results and consuming significant time per batch, making it impractical for large-scale production. Its primary advantages included low , as no specialized machinery was needed, and suitability for custom or small-batch work in domestic or rural settings, where quantities of up to 10-20 yards could be processed affordably. In contrast to emerging automated alternatives, these methods preserved artisanal control over fabric quality.

Mechanical Fulling Mills

Mechanical fulling mills marked a pivotal shift in production by harnessing or power to automate the pounding of cloth, dramatically enhancing efficiency over manual techniques. The core components included an overshot connected to a horizontal , which featured eccentrically shaped cams to lift and release heavy wooden hammers called . These , often paired and pivoted on wooden frames, featured rounded striking surfaces and notches to ensure even beating without tearing the fabric, while the cloth was submerged in a sturdy wooden trough beneath them. The wooden construction of the hammers and frames was essential to avoid contaminating or damaging the fibers with metal residues. During operation, the woven cloth was laid in the trough with and fulling agents, where the were raised by the cams and dropped rhythmically to beat it, compressing and felting the fibers over 2-6 hours per batch. This cycle incorporated automatic rinsing as continuously flowed through the trough, cleaning impurities while shrinking the cloth by 10-20% in length and width to create a denser, more durable material. The process repeated in stages—initial pounding for cleansing, followed by further milling for felting—allowing operators to monitor progress and adjust as needed, a vast improvement over the slower, labor-intensive manual fulling that preceded it. The evolution of mechanical fulling mills began in the 12th century with water-powered designs using overshot wheels, which became widespread in medieval Europe by the 14th century, often adapting existing grain mill structures for textile use. These mills typically used a waterwheel driving a shaft fitted with cams, which lifted and dropped heavy wooden hammers (“stocks”) into a trough of wet cloth. This mechanization dramatically reduced labor by automating the pounding process, replacing teams of manual workers with mechanical efficiency, and integrated easily into existing watermill landscapes, leveraging the same waterfeed and drive mechanisms as grain mills to support regional specialization in wool production. Safety and maintenance were critical in these mills due to their reliance on heavy, moving machinery. The all-wooden components required periodic of cams and pivots with animal fats or oils to reduce and prevent binding, alongside regular inspections to replace worn parts. Common hazards included sudden flooding from mill races that could damage equipment or endanger workers, as well as mechanical failures where loose might catch in the , leading to severe injuries from the hammers' momentum; operators thus wore protective attire and maintained clear access around the troughs.

Materials and Agents

Fuller's Earth and Its Role

is a naturally occurring clay primarily composed of , a hydrated aluminum that also incorporates ions such as magnesium, sodium, and calcium within its layered structure. This composition imparts exceptional absorbency, particularly for oils and greases, making it ideal for removing natural waxes from raw . The clay typically exhibits a neutral to slightly alkaline of 7.5 to 8.5, which supports its compatibility with fibers during processing without causing damage. Historically, fuller's earth was sourced through mining operations in key European regions, including Nutfield in , , where extraction dates back to at least the early under agreements regulating removal and site restoration, and deposits in such as those in Saxonia, the , and . The mined clay was processed by drying and grinding it into a fine powder, which was then incorporated into water-based scouring baths during the fulling of woolen textiles to cleanse fibers of impurities. The mechanism of fuller's earth in fulling relies on its adsorptive properties, where the clay's expansive layered structure binds to —a greasy mixture from sheep's —and other organic impurities through physical and ion-exchange interactions. This adsorption is facilitated by the material's high , ranging from 200 to 350 m²/g, which enables efficient capture of contaminants during or milling without chemical alteration of the wool. Following absorption, the earth-laden impurities are easily rinsed away in subsequent washes, leaving no significant residues on the fabric. As a natural clay, fuller's earth poses limited long-term environmental persistence due to its inert composition, but extraction through opencast or underground has historically caused soil degradation, habitat disruption, and potential contamination of and from disposal. These impacts, combined with depleting high-quality deposits, contributed to its decline in applications by the , as synthetic detergents and offered more consistent performance and reduced reliance on resource-intensive . In contemporary practices, alternatives such as chemical have largely supplanted fuller's earth for scouring.

Alternative Cleaning and Felting Agents

In historical textile practices, particularly in resource-poor areas, served as a primary source for alkaline cleaning during wool scouring, breaking down grease and impurities through its content that decomposes into . Soapwort plants (), containing natural , were employed as a mild alternative to remove oils from fibers without harsh abrasion, often in fulling processes near mills. lye, produced by leaching hardwood ashes with water to create a solution, provided an accessible alkaline agent for degreasing and bleaching raw in pre-industrial settings. In modern wool processing, non-ionic detergents such as alkyl polyglycosides—derived from renewable sugars and fatty alcohols—offer eco-friendly scouring by effectively emulsifying and dirt at neutral levels, minimizing damage compared to traditional soaps. Enzymes, particularly proteases, have become key alternatives for grease removal, enabling scouring at lower temperatures of 30-50°C to preserve integrity while reducing energy demands and environmental impact. These bio-based agents target protein-based impurities selectively, promoting sustainable practices in mills. Selection of these agents depends on wool type, alongside environmental regulations favoring biodegradable options like alkyl polyglycosides over persistent surfactants. Cost considerations prioritize synthetics for their efficiency.

Post-Processing and Finishing

Drying and Initial Finishing

After the milling and felting stages, the fulled wool cloth is typically damp and contracted, requiring careful drying to stabilize its structure and prevent further uneven shrinkage. Traditional drying methods involved air-drying the cloth on wooden frames or through tentering, where the fabric was stretched at room temperature to maintain even tension and avoid distortions. This process allowed natural evaporation while preserving the felted texture, often conducted outdoors in dedicated fields to leverage ambient airflow. The initial tentering process entails securing the cloth to a frame using —small metal pins inserted along the edges—to stretch it back to the desired dimensions, compensating for the shrinkage incurred during fulling, which can reduce width by 20-45% and by up to 50%. The cloth is then dried for several days to weeks in open air, depending on weather conditions, to set the compacted fibers and ensure dimensional stability. In historical contexts, such as medieval , this was done in open "fulling fields" or yards near mills, where sunlight also aided in natural bleaching. Quality control during this phase focuses on verifying uniformity in thickness and assessing the weight increase from fulling. Fulled wool cloth typically achieves a thickness of 1-3 mm, with inspectors checking for evenness to ensure consistent across the fabric. The process also results in a notable weight gain per unit area due to fiber compaction and reduced surface area, measured against pre-fulling benchmarks to confirm the felting has enhanced compactness without defects. Historical variations highlight the evolution from labor-intensive open-air methods to more controlled modern techniques. In medieval yards, drying relied entirely on natural elements, exposing cloth to variable conditions that could extend times to weeks. By the mid-19th century, enclosed indoor tenters with heating reduced drying to 4-5 hours, while contemporary processes use stenters—mechanized frames with hot air circulation at around 110°C—for faster, uniform results in industrial settings. These advancements minimize weather dependency and support higher throughput. This stabilization prepares the cloth for subsequent shearing to refine the surface, as detailed in later finishing steps.

Shearing and Final Treatments

After the drying and initial finishing stages, the fulled wool fabric undergoes surface-level refinements to achieve the desired texture and appearance. Shearing involves trimming and excess fibers from the surface using specialized tools, resulting in a smoother, more even finish. Historically, this was accomplished with large, heavy hand shears made of , which fullers used to crop protruding fibers after the cloth had been raised. In larger operations, such as those in 19th-century mills, automated rotary shears were introduced to enhance , allowing for precise removal of surface irregularities. To create a raised nap for added warmth and insulation, the fabric is subjected to gigging or brushing treatments. Gigging employs a gig mill fitted with teasels—the prickly seed heads of the Dipsacus fullonum plant—mounted on frames or rotating cylinders to gently tease up short fibers from the surface. These medieval-era tools, used in hand-operated gig mills, evolved in the 19th century to incorporate metal-wire cylinders or cards, which proved more durable than natural teasels that required frequent replacement. Brushing, a related manual technique, uses wire brushes to achieve a similar napped effect, particularly on coarser wools. Alternatively, for a flat, glossy finish, the fabric may be pressed using hot irons or screw presses that apply heat and pressure to flatten the surface and set the weave. These treatments culminate in fabrics prized for their enhanced properties, such as the dense, water-repellent loden cloth, which typically avoids extensive shearing to retain its characteristic , and the thick material, known for its insulating qualities and durability due to thorough fulling and finishing. The resulting textiles exhibit improved resistance to wear and moisture, making them suitable for outerwear and harsh environments.

Modern Applications and Legacy

Contemporary Uses in Textiles

In contemporary textile production, fulling remains integral to industrial wool processing, particularly for high-end suiting and outerwear, where automated systems enable precise control over shrinkage and felting. Modern mills employ programmed machines, such as milling drums and continuous processing lines, to apply controlled agitation, , and , achieving consistent fabric and texture while minimizing defects. For instance, shrinkage is typically limited to 20% in width and 10% in for woollen suiting, ensuring durability and fit without excessive material loss. Handcrafting applications of fulling, often termed felting or boiled wool production, are popular among artisans for creating durable, insulating items like hats, bags, and . Knitted garments or panels are subjected to agitation in hot soapy water, either manually or using household washing machines on gentle cycles, to shrink and interlock fibers into a dense, non-fraying fabric. This method transforms lightweight knits into sturdy, water-resistant products, with shrinkage rates varying by type and agitation intensity to achieve desired thickness. Innovations in fulling emphasize through eco-friendly agents and resource-efficient systems, adapting traditional techniques for reduced environmental impact. Biodegradable enzymatic treatments, such as proteases and lipases, replace harsh chemicals for controlled felting and shrink-proofing, operating at lower temperatures to cut energy use compared to conventional hot-water methods. Low-water approaches, including supercritical CO2 scouring, eliminate aqueous waste while preserving quality, supporting greener production cycles. Market examples highlight fulling's role in luxury and . utilizes shrinking and felting in its finishing processes for extra-fine fabrics, enhancing softness and strength in premium suiting and outerwear produced at its Italian mills. In sustainable lines, brands like repurpose textile waste into felted garments via , compressing recycled into versatile, eco-conscious apparel that extends material lifecycles.

Historical and Cultural Impact

Fulling played a pivotal role in the medieval English economy as an essential process in cloth production, which formed the backbone of from the late 13th to the . The expansion of fulling mills, particularly after the when many watermills were repurposed for industrial use, facilitated the shift from raw exports to finished cloth, driving a boom in and exports that accounted for up to 80% of England's overseas value during this period. In regions like and the , the cloth industry, reliant on fulling for cleaning and felting, contributed substantially to local economies and formed a major part of economic activity in specialized areas by the mid-14th century. Socially, fullers constituted a specialized organized into guilds that regulated practices and provided mutual support, yet the profession carried low status due to the labor-intensive and malodorous work involving stale , soapwort, and in troughs. In , guilds like the Incorporation of , Fullers, and Shearmen, chartered in 1620, underscored fullers' importance in urban textile centers, though their role often placed them below weavers in the hierarchy. Similarly, in 16th-century , fullers operated under the influential , one of the city's seven major guilds, which oversaw processing and ensured quality amid the textile boom, making them vital to community prosperity despite the grueling conditions. Culturally, fulling inspired traditions such as waulking songs (òrain luaidh), performed by women in the during manual cloth fulling to maintain rhythm and rhythmically shrink the fabric, preserving oral histories and social bonding in rural communities into the early . These songs, often improvisational and , reflect fulling's communal significance in Highland life. The profession's decline accelerated in the with industrialization, as chemical scouring agents like and alkalis replaced traditional and , while mechanical rotary fulling machines supplanted water-powered mills, rendering manual and early mechanical methods obsolete by the mid-century. This shift marked the end of fulling as a distinct , though its legacy endures in preserved heritage sites, such as the , where reconstructed medieval structures demonstrate rural textile processes.

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  26. https://blog.historicenvironment.scot/2017/05/scottish-work-songs/
  27. http://www.witheridge-historical-archive.com/fulling.htm
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  29. https://revolutionarynj.org/sites/glover-fulling-mill-park/
  30. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/fullers-earth
  31. https://www.britannica.com/science/fullers-earth
  32. https://mountainroseherbs.com/fullers-earth-clay
  33. https://www.exploringsurreyspast.org.uk/collections/getrecord/SHCOL_8211
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  45. https://www.tenters.org/manufacture.html
  46. https://bushcraftuk.com/community/threads/fulled-loden.151265/
  47. https://www.woolwise.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/06.2-Wool-Finishing-Dry-Finishing-Presentation.pdf
  48. https://mainestatemuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Wool-Production-In-Depth.pdf
  49. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/EMHO/COM-029112.xml?language=en
  50. https://www.britannica.com/technology/fulling
  51. https://www.leichtfried-loden.com/en/from-fibre-to-fabric/
  52. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/16/11/4661
  53. https://www.highsnobiety.com/p/loro-piana-factory-tour/
  54. https://www.eileenfisher.com/shop/accessories/waste-no-more
  55. https://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofEngland/Wool-Trade/
  56. https://tuckershall.org.uk/the-incorporation/
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  58. https://www.academia.edu/41243782/Singing_While_You_Waulk_Waulking_and_milling_songs_why_they_changed_and_what_they_still_have_in_common
  59. https://www.wealddown.co.uk/
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