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Bhaktapur (Nepali and Sanskrit: भक्तपुर, pronounced [ˈbʱʌkt̪ʌpur] ⓘ; lit. "City of Devotees"), known locally as Khwopa[3] (Nepal Bhasa: 𑐏𑑂𑐰𑐥𑑅‎, Khvapa) and historically called Bhadgaon, is a city in the east corner of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal located about 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) from the capital city, Kathmandu.[3][5] Bhaktapur is the smallest city of Nepal as well as the most densely populated.[3][6] Along with Kathmandu and Lalitpur, Bhaktapur is one of the three main cities of the Kathmandu Valley and is a major Newar settlement of the country. The city is also known for its Newar tradition, cuisine and artisans.[7] Bhaktapur suffered heavy damage in the April 2015 earthquake.

Key Information

As part of the Kathmandu Valley, it shares its history, culture and language with the other cities of the valley. Although chronicles like the Gopal Raj Vamshavali put the foundation of Bhaktapur in the 12th century, it has been the site of numerous settlements since at least the Licchavi dynasty.[8] The capital place of Kasthamandu was Bhaktapur Nepal during the first half of Malla dynasty from the 12th century to 1482 when Nepal split into three independent kingdoms.[3][9] The Malla dynasty is considered a golden period for Bhaktapur and even after its division in 1428, Bhaktapur managed to stay as a wealthy and a powerful Newar kingdom, mostly due to its position in the ancient India-Tibet trade route.[8] In 1769, Bhaktapur was attacked and annexed into the expanding Gorkha Kingdom (which later became the Kingdom of Nepal).[10] After its annexation, Bhaktapur remained largely isolated from other parts of Nepal which led to stagnation in the development of its economy and arts and to allowed it to remain as a homogeneous Newar city.[11] Due to being isolated and overlooked by the central government in Kathmandu, its infrastructure and economy deteriorated and the 1934 earthquake further exacerbated the situation.[12] Bhaktapur's economy and infrastructure would only improve from the 1980s, largely due to tourism and aid provided by West Germany as part of the Bhaktapur Development Project.[12]

Compared to other Newar settlements, Bhaktapur is predominantly Hindu and speaks a distinct dialect of Nepal Bhasa.[11][2] Bhaktapur is one of the most visited tourist destination of Nepal with the city attracting 301,012 tourists in 2014.[13] The Nyatapola, a five roofed pagoda completed in 1702 is the most famous structure of Bhaktapur and along with the former royal palace, it forms the tourism center of Bhaktapur. The city is also famous for its numerous festivals and carnivals like the spring festival of Biskā jātrā and the carnival of Sāpāru (or Gai jatra) both of which are significant part of the local culture and contribute well to tourism.[14] Bhaktapur is also called the "Capital of Music and Dance" (Nepali: नाचगानको राजधानी) in Nepal due to presence of over 200 types of traditional dances, most of which are masked dances and expect for a few, are a part of the annual carnival of Sāpāru (or Gai jatra).[15] It is also famous for its cuisine with the jūjū dhau, a type of yogurt made from buffalo milk being the most popular. Bhaktapur's potters and handicraft industries are also known nationwide.[16][17] Due to its well preserved medieval nature, UNESCO inscribed Bhaktapur as a World Heritage Site since 1979.[16][13]

Etymology

[edit]

The earliest use of the name "Bhaktapur" is from an inscription from 928.[18] It is widely accepted that the name is a Sanskrit translation of the city's name in the native language, an early form of the Newar language, Khōpring. The earliest use of this name is from a Licchavi dynasty inscription from 594.[19] The name Khōpring is a combination of two words from an early form of the Newar language, "kho" and "pring" which translate to "cooked rice" and "village," respectively.[20] The city was also sometimes referred as Bhaktagrāma instead of Bhaktapura where grāma denoted a village as opposed to pura which denoted a town in Sanskrit.[20]

From Khopring also evolved, Khwopa , the name of the city in the classical and modern form of the native Newar language. Khwopa as the name for the city, appeared for the first time in a manuscript from 1004.[18] The term Khwopa was used to describe the city in almost all of the inscriptions, manuscripts and documents from the Malla dynasty.[17]

Another popular name for the city was "Bhatgaon", the Hindustani and Khas translation of "Bhaktagrama".[17][21] This name became particularly popular after the conquest of Bhaktapur by the Gorkhali armies of Prithivi Narayan Shah in 1769. It is believed that the official name was changed back to Bhaktapur in the 1930s by the decree of the Prime Minister Juddha Shumsher Rana, after witnessing the numerous temples in the city and the devotion of the locals towards it, decreed that the city should be referred as Bhaktapur as in "City of devotees" instead of Bhatgaon.[21] "Bhakta" in Bhaktapur also means cooked rice in Sanskrit.

History

[edit]

Antiquity

[edit]
See also: History of Kathmandu
Sanskrit language stone inscription dated 594 at Gomārhi, central Bhaktapur is the oldest one found in the city.[19]

The folklore of the Kathmandu Valley states that the entire valley and as such Bhaktapur itself was once an enormous lake.[22] Geological surveys conducted by Swiss geologist Toni Hagen proved that the Kathmandu Valley was in fact a lake which formed when the Lower Himalayan Range was being created due to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plate.[23] The lake water started eroding the limestone hills of Chobhar and starting from around thirty thousand years ago, the lake started to drain.[24] Plain lands appeared in the valley and between 30,000 and 15,000 years, most of the valley was drained.[24] In folklore, the credit of draining the valley is given to the Bodhisattva Manjushri .[22] Believed to be a saint from Greater China, Manjushri is said to have cut a gorge from his sword in order to drain the valley so that he could worship and gain wisdom from Swayambhunath Buddha who resided in the lake.[22] Manjushri is believed to have entered the Katmandu Valley from the east and his resting place has been made into a shrine where the people of Bhaktapur make a pilgrimage to every year during late winter and before the festival of Shree Panchami.

Apart from above, much of the early history of Bhaktapur is largely unknown.[19] It is clear that people started to settle in the Kathmandu Valley after it was drained due to its fertile soil owing to it being a lakebed.[22] The Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a 14th-century Newar language manuscript states that a clan known as Gopāla first settled the Kathmandu Valley.[25] The manuscript further says that Gopāla, who were cow herders, were overthrown by the Mahispāla, who were buffalo herders.[25] Soon, the Kirata King Yalambar conquered the valley and established his own Kirānta dynasty. Although no direct proof of the existence of the first three ruling dynasties as mentioned in the Gopal Raj Vamshavali has been found, indirect proof such as place names and mentions in the inscriptions of the Licchavi period has been used to support the existence of at least the Kirānta dynasty.[25] For Bhaktapur as well, the existence of a non-Sanskrit name, Khopring, in the Sanskrit language stone inscriptions of the Licchavi dynasty supports the existence of a settlement before the arrival of the Licchavi clan from Vaishali.[19] The modern day Jyāpu community of the Newars is believed to be the descendants of the Kirānta clan and the modern day Newar language is believed to derived from the language that he Kirānta clan spoke.[19]

Licchavi dynasty

[edit]
See also: Licchavi (kingdom)

Three stone inscriptions from the Licchavi dynasty has been recovered so far in Bhaktapur.[19] One of them dated to 594 was recovered in Gomārhi district in the eastern part of Bhaktapur was made during the reign of Amshuverma.[19] Another similar inscription from 594, recovered from Tulāche district in the central part of Bhaktapur was also made during the reign of Amshuverma.[19] The Gomārhi inscription contains a decree from Amshuverma that "people from Mākhopring draṅga should be given more rights for a self rule."[26] Similarly, the Tulāche inscription contains a similar message but the settlement has been referred as "khōpring grāma".[19] During the Licchavi dynasty, settlements with a minimum of 100 houses and a maximum of 500 houses were classified as "grāma" and wealthy settlements were classified as "draṅga".[19] So, the settlements around the present day Gomārhi district were wealthier than the settlements around the present day Tulāche district.[19] In Nepal Bhasa, Mā is a prefix meaning "main or principal", meaning Mākhopring was a sub-division of Khopring, most likely the main part of Khopring.[26] Finally, a third inscription recovered at Tālako district in the southwestern part of Bhaktapur mention the place name as "mākhoduluṃ" which was probably a separate village from Khōpring.[26]

Bhaktapur's oldest hiti is also dated from the Licchavi dynasty.[27] It is said that the Rajkulo canals, which supplies water in hitis were built and managed by Tulā Rāni, a mythical queen who is believed to have lived in Bhaktapur during the Licchavi dynasty.[27] In folklore, Tulā Rāni made and repaired the Rajkulo canals as she is said to only weigh a single tola or 11 grams and hence float on water.[28]

Foundation

[edit]
Statue of Ananda Deva, the founder of Bhaktapur recovered at the courtyard of Sulamā Māhādeo temple, Bhaktapur.[29]

In the 14th century Gopal Raj Vamshavali, Ananda Deva, who ruled Nepal Mandala from 1146 to 1167 is credited to have established the city of Bhaktapur.[8] Since there were already settlements in Bhaktapur like Mākhopring and Mākhoduluṃ during the Licchavi dynasty, it was more likely that Ananda Deva unified these smaller settlements into a single unit.[8] It is traditionally believed that Bhaktapur contained 12,000 houses at the time of its foundation.[30][31] Ananda Deva also established a royal court named Tripura Rājkula in the central part of Bhaktapur and declared it as the new capital of Nepal.[17] The Gopal Raj Vamsavali also state the foundation of shrines of eight Matrikas surrounding the city and a ninth and the most important shrine, that of Tripura Sundari, at the centre of the town.[32] This arrangement of the shrines of mother goddess is used to conceptualize the entire town as a sacred Mandala.[32] Within the city itself, there are also ten minor shrines of the Mahavidya established by Ananda Deva as well.[33] The later 19th century chronicles state that Ananda Deva was directed to establish Bhaktapur by the Goddess Annapurna.[34]

Capital city of Nepal

[edit]

As Bhaktapur became the seat of the government, it also became the target for numerous foreign invasions. The main reasons for these attacks was the internal division among the royal family of Nepal.[35] Soon after Ananda Deva's death, a new royal house emerged from within. Believed to have been started by Ari Malla, they used Malla as their surname replacing their ancestral surname, Deva.[35] When the conflictions between both houses worsened, the House of Tripura sought help from Tirhut while the House of Yuthunimam sought help from Khasa Kingdom.[35] Thus, both of these kingdoms started interfering in the internal politics of Nepal. In the 1310s, the monarch Rudra Malla in order to improve Nepal Mandal's relation with Tirhut married off his sister Devaladevi to the Tirhut king, Harisimhadeva.[36] After the marriage, the relation between the two kingdoms smoothed and Tirhut's attack on Nepal ceased.[36]

In the month of January 1326, Devaladevi along with son, Jagatsimhadeva and her court departed from Tirhut after it was invaded and captured by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[36] Her husband Harisimhadeva died on the way while Devaladevi and her family arrived at her birth kingdom of Nepal Mandala where she was welcomed by her brother Rudra Malla.[36][37] In July 1326, just six months after the arrival of Devaldevi, her brother Rudra Malla died.[38] Nayakdevi, Rudra Malla's daughter became the new ruler of Nepal Mandala under the regency of her grandmother Padma Lakshmi.[36] In 1326, Nayakdevi was married to Harishchandra, the prince of Kashi by her grandmother but the court rebelled against him after the death of Padma Lakshmi at the age of sixty seven in July 1332 and was eventually assassinated in May 1335.[38] After Harischandra's death, Devaladevi in a bid to gain political power married her son Jagatsimhadeva to her niece Nayakdevi.[36][37] In January 1347, Nayakdevi gave birth to a daughter who was named Rajya Laksmhi Devi (Rajaldevi in short).[38] Nayakdevi died ten days after giving birth to Rajaldevi. Her death triggered a chain of unrests in the palace during which Jagatsimha was imprisoned and he died in custody.[38] Devaldevi established her own rule in Nepal Mandala as regent for her granddaughter/grandniece, Rajaldevi.[38]

Jayasthiti Malla was introduced to Nepal as a prince consort for Rajalldevi and established absolute rule in 1382.

In 1349, Nepal suffered one of the most devastating attack in its history.[39] Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, the Sultan of Bengal and his armies plundered the Nepal Valley for a week in the winter of 1349.[40] Bhaktapur suffered the most from this attack as not only it was the capital at that time, the city was also in the eastern part of the valley, the same direction the 20,000 forces came from.[39] According to the Gopal Raj Vamshavali, Bhaktapur was ransacked and set on fire by the invaders which lasted for seven days and the populace were either killed or escaped in the mountains.[39][41] Some historians cite this invasion as the reason for the disappearance of monuments from the Licchavi and the early Malla dynasty.[40] After the invasion, which destroyed much of the city, Bhaktapur was entirely rebuilt under Devaldevi, who like Ananda Deva, did so on the basis of Sanskrit treatises in architecture.[42] The layout of the old part of the city has remained mostly the same since then.[43]

In September 1354, a nine year old Jayasthiti, a Danwar noble from Mithila was brought into Bhaktapur and was eventually married to Rajalladevi Malla in January 1355.[44] After Devaladevi died in 1366, Rajalladevi and her king consort Jayasthiti Malla took control of Nepal Mandala and under their reign Nepal experienced a period of stability and cultural as well as economic growth.[44] Jayasthiti Malla defeated warring nobles and unified Nepal Mandala under a singular monarch.[44] It is said that Jayasthiti Malla brought Brahmins from Mithila and South India and under their recommendation, revived and improved the already present Hindu caste system based on occupation.[44] Jayasthiti Malla is also credited for making the Newar language as the language of administration, literature and religion.[44] The influential Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a Newar language manuscript about the history of Nepal, was commissioned by Jayasthiti Malla.[25] Jayasthiti Malla was also the first monarch of Nepal to claim a divine heritage as the Gopal Raj Vamshavali states him as the one blessed by Swayambhunath and the incarnation of the Buddha, a claim inherited by all future monarchs.[45]

Ruins of the medieval city gate in eastern Bhaktapur built originally under Yaksha Malla in the 15th century was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake.[46]

His grandson, Yakshya Malla was the last king of a unified Nepal Mandala who ruled from Bhaktapur from 1428 to 1481.[47] Yaksha Malla had numerous wives and concubines including Sarupādevī, Karpuradevī, Udayādevī, Jīvalakṣmī, Jayatanā, Kṛtilakṣmī, Sarasvatidevī (among which Sarupādevī and Karpuradevī were the most influential) and therefore numerous issue.[48] He is also known to have fortified his capital, Bhaktapur with moats, defensive walls and eight city gates which correspond with the shrines of the Eight Matrikas.[46] He also made it mandatory for all citizens of Bhaktapur regardless of caste or wealth, to repair and maintain the defensive walls and moats during the annual festival of Sithi Nakha.[46] Yaksha Malla's numerous children caused a huge issue in the kingdom after his death in 1481. His eldest son was Raya Malla and because of his age, he was crowned as the new king of the country. But his two step-brothers Ratna and Ari Malla and his step-sister Ratnādevī, all three of whom shared the same biological mother protested against the coronation and as a result broke off from the capital and established a new one in Kathmandu where Ratna Malla declared himself the king.[48] Similarly, Raṇa Malla shared a same biological mother Rana Malla broke off from the capital to Banepa where he declared himself as its new king.[48] In this way, the kingdom of Yaksha Malla was divided among his sons among which Raya Malla, the eldest became the king of the former capital city, Bhaktapur.[49]

Kingdom of Bhaktapur

[edit]
See also: Kingdom of Bhaktapur

Raya Malla is considered a weak figure in the History of Nepal.[49] Many historians blame Raya Malla's reluctancy to give up the throne for the division of Nepal Mandala.[48] The newly formed Kantipur kingdom and its king barred him from taking any oaths and Diksha from their tutelary goddess, Taleju whose shrine was located in the palace of Bhaktapur while at the same Ratna Malla would repeatedly take oaths from the Taleju shrine of the Bhaktapur palace.[49] Yaksha Malla's large number of descendants meant that even during his great-grandson – Praṇa Malla's reign there were several other members of the Malla family were still in Bhaktapur. Two such Mallas, Vira and Gosain Malla, both of whom were older than the monarch sought help from Kantipur and the king of Kantipur, Narendra Malla in a bid to weaken Bhaktapur, claimed Vira Malla to be the legitimate ruler.[48] Likely fueled by Narendra Malla, both Vira and Gosain Malla divided the city of Bhaktapur between themselves and Prana Malla and established a border at Inācho, Bhaktapur.[50] Ganga Devi, the queen consort of Vishva Malla seized control of the kingdom and started a joint rule with her two sons Trailokya and Tribhuvan Malla.[49] Ganga Devi, who was also popularly called as "Ganga Maharani", was the only queen regnant who ruled the kingdom.[50] During her reign, Bhaktapur would reach its territorial zenith. She is regarded as the first strong ruler of Bhaktapur Kingdom and is widely known for her military conquest and construction works.[49] She is also credited with unifying the city by appointing many of Yaksha Malla's descendants who were living in the palace as fort captains, chiefs of other cities and villages within the kingdom which effectively ended their claims to the throne.[50] She was the first ruler of Bhaktapur to take Diksha from Taleju along with her two sons, the tutelary goddess of the Mallas in 9 April 1567 as previous rulers were barred to do so by Kantipur, which provoked Kantipur and launched an attack Bhaktapur in retaliation.[49] Her reign saw numerous cultural changes in the form of festivals as she is credited to have improved the numerous festivals celebrated within the kingdom. The locals of Bhaktapur credit her as the builder of many of the hitis and public rest houses within Bhaktapur as well as numerous Narayana temples of the city but no any inscriptional evidence of it has been found.[51][52]

Detail of a mural at the royal palace which depicts Bhupatindra Malla and his queen Vishva Lakshmi as a divine couple. Bhupatindra Malla reigned from 1696 to 1722 and his reign is considered the cultural highpoint of Bhaktapur.[53]

Ganga Devi's death has not been properly studied yet. It is possible that she died in 1602 as after 1602, her eldest son Trailokya Malla is the only one addressed as the king in inscriptions and legal documents.[48] Her youngest son, Tribhvana Malla who arguably was more powerful under her disappeared from historical records since 1602. Trailokya Malla ruled alone till his death in 1613 after which his son, Jagajjyoti Malla became the ruler.[54] Jagajjyoti Malla is especially remembered for his contributions in Maithili literature.[17] His work, Haragaurīvivāha, a play about the wedding of Shiva to Parvati, is considered one of the greatest works in the Maithili language.[54] After Jagajjyoti Malla died in 1642, Naresha Malla's short rule began.[55] Naresha Malla proved to be a weak king and it was during his reign that Pratap Malla, the king of Kantipur, in his attempt to unify the Kathmandu Valley, attacked Bhaktapur.[55] Naresha Malla died at an early age, leaving behind a four year old Jagat Prakasha Malla as the successor to the throne.[55] His aunt, Annapurṇalaksmi served as regent for him till he turned 16.[55] Meanwhile, Pratap Malla made an alliance with Srinivasa Malla, the king of Patan and both joined forces to start a siege of Bhaktapur.[56] By 1660, the coalition conquered all the hamlets and villages, north of Bhaktapur and managed to reach the northern city gate.[46] The coalition tried to break the gate open for months before being forced to retreat.[46] During their siege, Pratap Malla installed a stone inscription on a hiti in the shrine of Mahakali near the northern gate.[46] During April 1662, Pratap Malla had gathered a massive army in the eastern part of Bhaktapur, in the site outside the city proper where the annual Biska Jatra festival was held demanding the festival will only be held if the kingdom surrendered.[57] Jagat Prakasha Malla released decree cancelling the festival that year, a first time where the festival was cancelled.[57] Eventually, the sieges proved unsuccessful and the coalition were forced to retreat.[56]

Jagat Prakasha Malla died on 8 December 1672 because of smallpox after which the reign of Jitamitra Malla began.[58] He is fondly remembered for the construction of a canal which brought water to the city from the hills of Nagarkot.[48] His son, Bhupatindra Malla, who succeeded him in 1696 is likely the most popular ruler from Bhaktapur because of the numerous construction works that took place during his reign. The Nyatapola, today a symbol and landmark of the city was commissioned by him.[59] His son Ranajit Malla was the last ruler of the Kingdom of Bhaktapur and is remembered today for his musical contributions and talents. The Newar language devotional songs he wrote are still sung in Bhaktapur today.[60]

In November 1769, Bhaktapur was attacked and after suffering a heavy loss, the state eventually surrendered to the expanding Gorkha kingdom, which would become the future Kingdom of Nepal.[48]

Rana Regime

[edit]

After its defeat in 1769, Bhaktapur lost most of its political and cultural importance to Kathmandu and Lalitpur, the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Nepal.[61][62] Bhaktapur was visited by Colonel Kirkpatrick of East India Company in 1792 and in his book described the city as being in a better state than Kathmandu or Lalitpur.[63] Bhaktapur played a small role during the rise of Jung Bahadur Rana as its former palace was where King Rajendra Bikram Shah was imprisoned in 1847. After the establishment of the Rana dynasty in 1846, Rana's brother Dhir Shumsher Rana was appointed as the mayor of the city.[64] Dhir Shumsher oversaw the demolition of many of the old palaces of Bhaktapur and its replacement with British style inspired buildings.[64]

A general view of Bhaktapur Durbar Square before the 1934 earthquake which destroyed almost all the buildings in the square.[65][66][67]

The great earthquake of 1833 and 1934 devastated most of the city including the palace and temples.[64][68][69] In the earthquake of 1833 especially, Bhaktapur suffered the most damage in the Kathmandu Valley. Out of 500 total casualties of the earthquake, at least 200 of them were in Bhaktapur.[70][71] Around 25% to 70% of the town suffered major destruction, including at least 2,000 homes and six to eight temples.[70]

When the 8.0 magnitude earthquake struck in 1934, Bhaktapur was one of the most affected towns of Nepal.[72][73] Around 40-100% of residential buildings were directly affected while 6224 buildings were completely destroyed by the earthquake.[73] Many of the old palaces and temples which were already weakened by the earthquake of 1833 were also completely destroyed. Almost all the buildings in Bhaktapur Durbar Square were heavily damaged.[74] Around 177 heritages were completely destroyed during the earthquake.[73]

Many of the Malla era temples and palaces of the city like the Basantapur Lyākū, Chaukot Lyākū and Thanthu Lyākū were completely destroyed in the earthquakes and many of them were never restored and the few that were, were reconstructed in a Mughal style stucco dome by the Ranas.[74][75]

The economy of Bhaktapur, which had already been struggling after losing the flow of Tibetan traders, was acceleratedly aggravated by the earthquakes of 1833 and 1934.[76] The 1934 earthquake also damaged the physical infrastructure of the town and most of the inhabitants were unable to rebuild their houses properly.[76] The earthquake permanently damaged the Rajkulo canals that had been providing fresh water to the city since the time of the Mallas.[77] Due to the malaise economy and cash-strapped budget, Bhaktapur was unable to revamp these broken canals, as a result, fresh water became scarce in the city.. The sanitation level of Bhaktapur became severely low and poverty and diseases became rampant.[76]

20th century

[edit]
Aerial view of Bhaktapur in 1962 with the Nyatapola Temple on the far right and the Langtang mountains in the background.

In the 1950s, when the tyrannical Rana dynasty ended and Nepal was open up to the outside world, Kathmandu and the other cities around it like Patan saw a considerable rise in urbanization and population. However, Bhaktapur was farther away from the capital and was left out from the development that occurred in the other cities of the Kathmandu Valley.[68][78] Bhaktapur was also greatly isolated and ignored by the central powers. When a new highway was built, it completely bypassed the city and instead ran through the outskirts.[68][79] Consequently, Bhaktapur was the poorest city of Nepal in the 20th century.[68] The Rajkulo canals that provided fresh water was never repaired and sanitation level was very low.[78] Due to extremely high population density and low sanitation, the city became extremely unhygienic as feces and litter filled the roads.[76] Diseases and pandemics were rampant and greatly affected the farmers composing the majority population of Bhaktapur, who couldn't afford necessary modern medicine.[80] Just like its inhabitants, the heritages of Bhaktapur also suffered greatly during this period as many arts and artifacts were stolen.[5]

Under the Bhaktapur Development Project which was funded by West Germany, the city's physical infrastructure and heritage sites were all revitalized and renovated.[30] Tourism started to became a major source for Bhaktapur's economy. A political party named Nepal Workers Peasants Party was started in the city and it gained the support of majority farmer population of the city.

2015 earthquake

[edit]
Bhaktapur Durbar Square under reconstruction after 25 April 2015 earthquake

A magnitude of 7.8 Richter earthquake 2015 Nepal earthquake that struck on 25 April 2015 (12 Baisakh 2072 B.S., Saturday, at local time 11:56 am) damaged 116 heritages in the city. 67 of those heritages were completely damaged while 49 suffered from partial damages. The earthquake badly damaged the Bhaktapur Durbar square, a significant historial heritage site included in the UNESCO world heritage list. The main premises of Taleju Temple also witnessed damages in the disaster.

The Nepal-Bihar earthquake in 1934 demolished several buildings that were never rebuilt. Chyasilin Mandap has been rebuilt in 1990 using contemporary earthquake proof technology. The building survived the 2015 earthquake unharmed.[81]

Demographics

[edit]

A song composed by Ranajit Malla in 1769 mention Bhaktapur as a city with 12,000 households.[82] Henry Ambrose Oldfield who visited Nepal during the 1850s wrote that there were fifty thousand inhabitants in Bhaktapur.[83]

At the time of the 2001 Nepal census, it had a population of 72,543.[84] The 2011 Nepal census reports the population of Bhaktapur as 81,748 with 41,081 men and 40,667 women.[85] The results of the 2021 Nepal census put the population of Bhaktapur at 79,136 with the population of men at 39,755 and of women at 39,381, respectively, and the total number of households at 18,987.[4] Around 90% of the population of Bhaktapur belong to the Newar ethnic group.[85]

Culture

[edit]

Architecture and art

[edit]
Mhekhājhya or the Peacock window.

Bhaktapur, being a former capital of a Newar kingdom, contains one of the most elaborate art pieces of Nepal.[3] Only a few artworks from the Lichhavi dynasty survive in Bhaktapur and so most art pieces date from the Malla dynasty. Most of Bhaktapur's art were religious in nature and were made by anonymous artists coming from a caste of artisans.[86] A few artisans however are known. For instance, the painter who made the murals on the walls of the palace of fifty windows has signed his name on one of the murals.[87] However, many of the murals in the palace were damaged when it used as a post office and a police station in the 20th century and the painter's signature has unfortunately been rubbed off, with only his address remaining readable today.[87]

Luṁ dhvākā or the Golden gate commissioned by Ranajit Malla and made by Subhākara, Karuṇākara and Ratikara.[88]

Woodcarving is a major artwork of the Kathmandu Valley. Most of the wooden work from the Lichhavi dynasty that survives today are wooden struts or posts which mostly depicted Salabhanjikas, the forest fairies or deities in a similar pose.[89] Four armed deities began appearing since the 16th century and by the end of the Malla dynasty, wooden struts depicted multi armed Hindu deities. This transformation was not viewed fondly by all scholars citing the loss of elegance in later wooden struts.[89] Toraṇa or tympanums are in most cases wooden as well and can be found on most temples, monasteries or palaces. The wooden toraṇa on the entrance to the Taleju temple in Bhaktapur Durbar Square is considered one of the best examples of the kind.[90] Similarly, Newar window are an important aspect of Nepalese architecture. The Mhekhājhya, or more popularly the Peacock window from 1750 is the most popular traditional window from Bhaktapur.[91] The Malla dynasty was, for Bhaktapur a golden age for woodcarving, sculpture and the arts in general.

Similar to woodcarving, very few stone or metal sculptures from the Licchavi dynasty survive in Bhaktapur and so almost all surviving works are from the Malla dynasty. Most stone sculptures are of deities housed in various temples of the city and their leonine guardians. The most celebrated sculptors from Bhaktapur lived during the late 17th to early 18th centuries.[92] These artisans, whose identity has no been properly known yet, carved some of the most popular stone works of the city including the Narasimha, Hanuman, Devi and Bhairava sculptures near the entrance to former palaces, numerous sculptures in the restricted courtyards of the palace and the relief of Devi inside the Nyatapola.[92] The ledger work of the construction of the Nyatapola mention Tulasi Lohankami as the leader of thirty sculptors, so it is likely that his group may have been the one responsible for all aforementioned works.[92]

The Luṁ dhvākā or the Golden gate which serves as an entrance to the inner courtyards of the former royal palace was constructed between 1751 and 1754 by Subhākara, Karuṇākara and Ratikara.[93] It is considered one of the most important works of Nepalese art. Just as popular as the Golden Gate is the gold plated bronze statue of Bhupatindra Malla placed on a stone pillar in front of the gate, crafted by a smith from Kathmandu.[94]

Hiti

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Main article: Dhunge dhara
Layaku Hiti, Bhaktapur.

The entirety of Kathmandu Valley, including Bhaktapur is known for its hiti water supply system which once supplied water from the surroundings hills into the heart of the cities of the valley.[95] These fountains are carved in the form of a Hindu and Buddhist mythical creature known as a hitimanga.[96] The hiti water supply system was developed in the Licchavi dynasty and Bhaktapur's oldest hitis also date from the period.[97] Today, there is at least one hiti in each of Bhaktapur's neighborhood totaling to about 104.[a] The hitis were made not only by royals and nobles, but also by common people as well. There was a common belief that building hitis and rest houses grant the builder religious merit.[97] Hitis whose spouts face eastwards, of which there are 18, hold religious significance to the locals as it is considered pious to bathe in these spouts during Sa Paru.[97] This practice has gone extinct today as most of these spouts do not work any longer as the canals that supplied them has been lost to time.[97] These aqueduct-like canal system were called Rajkulo, the earliest such canal in Bhaktapur was believed to be built by a mythical queen Tulā Rāni, who according to folklore floated on water owing to her light weight.[27] In 1379, Jayasthiti Malla repaired a damaged Rajkulo of Bhaktapur and in the same year a new one named Yaṭapāṭa was built in the city.[27] The most famous Rajkulo of Bhaktapur was commissioned by Jitamitra Malla in 1677 that brought water from the hills of Nagarkot to the city.[27] All of these Rajkulos in Bhaktapur have gone extinct today.[95] Jahru are a type of water tank made out of stone which can be found around wells and hitis of the city. These are usually carved with floral motifs and the image of Bhagiratha.

Ponds

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Siddha Pokhari (Newar: Taḥ pukhu)

There are 50 artificial ponds/lakes (Newar: 𑐥𑐸𑐏𑐸‎, pukhu), constructed in the Licchavi and the Malla dynasty, in the city.[98] Of them the largest four, SIddha Pokhari (Taḥ pukhu), Naḥ pukhu, Bhājyā pukhu and Rani Pokhari (nhu pukhu) are located in the western part of the city and among them the largest one, Siddha Pokhari (Taḥ pukhu) measures 574×249 ft.[99] The two oldest known ponds of the city are Taḥ pukhu and Naḥ pukhu built in 1118 and 1168 respectively.[99] Kamal Pokhari (bāhre pukhu), another large pond on the eastern part of town is believed to be from the Licchavi dynasty, though no definitive proof has been found of its antiquity.[100]

A lot of the smaller ponds in the dense settlements of city were built in the Malla dynasty as a sort of water supply during a fire.[99] These ponds also have cultural and religious significance, along with agricultural ones. For instance, Kamal Pokhari (bāhre pukhu), in the local folklore, is considered the residence of Tula Rani, a mythical queen weighing only one Tula.[100] Bhājyā pukhu, located in the western part of the city and directly south of Siddha Pokhari, is similar to Rani Pokhari of Kathmandu as both of them have an island in their centre with a temple in it.[99] It was commissioned by Bhāju Kasa, a late 17th century official of Bhaktapur and has many folklore associated with it.[99] Similarly, Nhu pukhu built in 1629 by Jagajjyoti Malla was popularly called Rani Pukhu, meaning queen of ponds, because of its beauty.[99] Naḥ pukhu was believed to have built in a single night by a wizard in 1168, hence it is also called Guhya pukhu, meaning secretive pond.

Phalcha

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A phalchā in Bhaktapur.

Phalchā is a Newar word for communal resting places which has been a part of Nepali culture since the Lichhavi dynasty.[101] Usually, they are attached to an existing building or free standing with their front façade colonnaded with widely spaced wooden posts.[101] These phalchā see extensive use by the locals as a communal gathering places.[102]

It was considered religiously pious to consecrate phalcas and today there are 364 phalcas in Bhaktapur consecrated with most dating from the Malla dynasty.[103] The two largest ones are located in Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the former royal palace square.[103] Mandapa and Sattal are another type of rest houses found in Nepal. Mandapa, like a phalchā, is a thatch-roofed platform but they are always free-standing and have sixteen colonnades, four on each side.[104] Many mandapa in Bhaktapur have a second storey like the Chyāsilim mandapa of Bhaktapur Durbar Square. Sattal are almost always multi-storied public buildings which serves as a shrine for a deity and in the past was used as a habitation for pilgrims and travelers.[104]

Language

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Main article: Newar language

Bhaktapur Newar (𑐏𑑂𑐰𑐥𑑅 𑐨𑐵𑐫𑑂‎, khvapaḥ bhāy) is a distinct dialect of Newar language spoken in Bhaktapur and its environs.[105] Generally, the vocabulary is similar to that of the standard dialect (standard refers to the Newar spoken in Kathmandu and Lalitpur) with some pronunciation changes but differences do exist.[106] The most widely known difference is for the word laḥ (𑐮𑑅‎, "water") which becomes nā (𑐣𑐵‎) in the Bhaktapur dialect.[106] This difference is often used humorously as nā in the standard dialect means "mud" and laḥ in the Bhaktapur dialect means "drool". Terminologies relating to traditional musical instruments are also different between the two dialects.[107] In a lot of words, the "ā" sound in the standard dialect is replaced with "a" sound and vice versa.[108] Similarly, Bhaktpaur Newar has a voiced velar nasal sound '𑐒‎', that is not present in the standard dialect.[109] For instance, the Nyatapola is called as "𑐒𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐥𑑀𑐮‎" (ṅātāpola) in Bhaktapur whereas in the standard dialect its name is "𑐣𑑂𑐫𑐵𑐟𑐵𑐥𑐿𑐵‎"(nyātāpau).[110]

Literature

[edit]
See also: Nepal bhasa literature
A section of Briddhi Lakshmi's ka kha yā mye (𑐎 𑐏 𑐫𑐵 𑐩𑑂𑐫𑐾‎), which is considered to be one of the greatest poems of the Newar language.[111]

Jagat Sundar Malla, born in 1882 is considered one of the Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa who headed a revival campaign of Nepal Bhasa after its supersession by the royal government.[112] Similarly, Ram Sekhar Nakarmi who was a major modern day Nepal Bhasa writer was also from Bhaktapur.[113] Narayan Man Bijukchhe is also a prominent author, mostly writing political books in the Nepali language.[114]

Before Nepal Bhasa became the official language in the Malla dynasty, most literature was written in Sanskrit and even during the Malla dynasty, Sanskrit was an important literary language.[105] Historical documents written in the Newar language first began appearing since the 14th century. Many literary pieces were written in the Newar language in Bhaktapur during the Malla dynasty. The influential Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a book about the history of Nepal was written in Bhaktapur by an anonymous writer from Panauti.[19] Like other artworks, most literature of Bhaktapur before the 20th century were written by anonymous authors and are generally attributed to the ruling monarch because it was a common practice to mention a monarch's name. However, the names of a few non royal writers from Bhaktapur are known. For instance, two poems written by Keshav Udās is still preserved in the National Archives of Nepal.[115] He was active from 1604 to 1611 and both of his remaining works are romantic narrative poems.[115] Among royal writers, Ranajit Malla and his queen consort Briddhi Lakshmi who are among the most popular historical authors, the former mostly remembered for his plays and the later for her poems.[111] Ranajit Malla's "hāya hāya rāma rāma" and Briddhi Lakshmi's "ka kha yā mye" are noted for their historical as well as literary importance.[b][111]

Main sights

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See also: Bhaktapur Durbar Square
The Nyatapola temple, built during the reign of King Bhupatindra Malla is the tallest temple of Nepal

Bhaktapur is one of the most visited sites of Nepal popular among both foreign and domestic visitors.[116][117] The most visited site of Bhaktapur are the city's four squares, which all except for one are concentrated on the middle part of Bhaktapur.[118] The first of them is the Durbar Square, the former royal palace complex of Bhaktapur, composed of houses of the former royal palace and various temples that were built in its vicinity.[69][119] Although, the Durbar Square of Bhaktapur received heavy damage from both the 1934 and 2015 earthquake, while many of the fallen monuments have been reconstructed.[17] The Durbar square houses various monuments like the palace of fifty five windows, the Simhādhwākhā Lyākū palace which houses the National Art Gallery, one of the first museum of Nepal, and the stone temples of Vatsala Devi and Siddhi Lakshmi.[119] The temple of Silu Māhādeo (meaning "the Shiva of Silu") located on the eastern part of Bhaktapur Durbar Square is the tallest Shikhara style building in Nepal.[65][120][121]

Taumadhi Square

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The Taumadhi Square (𑐟𑑅𑐩𑐵𑐬𑐷‎, Tamārhi) houses the Nyatapola temple, the five storeyed temple commissioned by King Bhupatindra Malla and shrines for the tantric goddess Siddhi Lakshmi, the personal deity of the royal couple.[122] Under the shadow of Nyatapola stands the three storey temple associated with Bhairava which was first built by Vishva Malla and then later remodeled by Jagajjyoti Malla in its present form.[123][124] The square also contains the courtyard of Til Mādhav Narayana, the Aesāmārhi satta (often called the Kasthamandap of Bhaktapur)[125], the Betala temple and a golden hiti.[126][127] The Shikhara temple of Jagannath and the roofed temple of Lakshmi Narasimha are also established near the square.[128]

Dattatraya Square

[edit]
Tachapāl square on the eastern part of Bhaktapur is also known as the Dattaterya square
The Dattatraya Temple

The Dattatraya Square located in the Tachapal tole is one of the oldest monument of the town. The Dattatraya Square consists of the three-story pagoda-style Dattatraya Temple, dedicated to Guru Dattatreya, which is the combined form and avatar of three principal Hindu deities, (Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Maheswora the destroyer, respectively), was built during the reign of King Yaksha Malla (1428 A.D. – 1482 A.D.) and was opened to the public around 1486 A.D., only after his demise. The exact date of construction of the Dattatraya temple is still obscure. This temple, according to popular belief, was constructed from a single piece of wood from one tree. At the entrance are two large sculptures of the Jaiput wrestlers(locally known as kutuwo), Jaimala and Pata (as in the Nyatapola Temple), a "Chakra", and a gilded metal statue of Garuda, a bird-like divinity. Around the temple are wood carved panels with erotic decorations. It was subsequently repaired and renovated by King Vishwa Malla in 1548 A.D.[129] The Dattatraya Square is also the home to the Pujari Math which was the former palace of the Malla Kings and court and later served as the settlement for the priests of the temple and Tibetan traders. Today, the Pujari Math has been converted into a Woodcraft and Bronze Museum. The Pujari Matha is mostly noted for its artistic windows including the popular Mhaykhā Jhyā (lit. Peacock Window). In front of the Dattatraya temple is the Bhimsena Temple, which is dedicated to Bhin:dyo, the Newari deity of commerce often confused with the Pandava brother Bhimsena.[130]

Changu Narayan

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Main article: Changu Narayan
Front face of Changu Narayan temple

Changu Narayan is an ancient Hindu temple located near the modern village of Changunarayan in the Kathmandu Valley on top of a hill at the eastern end of the valley. It is 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) to the north of Bhakathapur and 22 kilometres (14 mi) from Kathmandu. The temple is one of the oldest Hindu temples of the valley and is believed to have been constructed first in the 4th century. Changu Narayan is named after Vishnu, and the temple is dedicated to him. A stone slab discovered in the vicinity of the temple dates to the 5th century and is the oldest such stone inscription discovered in Nepal. It was rebuilt after the old temple was devastated. Many of the stone sculptures date to the Licchavi period. Changu Narayan Temple is listed by UNESCO[131] as a World Heritage Site.[132][133]

The temple is a double-roofed structure where the idol of Lord Vishnu in his incarnation as Narayana is enshrined. The temple has intricate roof struts showing multi-armed Tantric deities. A kneeling image of Garuda (dated to the 5th century), the vahana or vehicle of Vishnu with a snake around its neck, faces the temple. The gilded door depicts stone lions guarding the temple. Gilded windows also flank the door. A conch and a disc, symbols of Vishnu, are carved on the two pillars at the entrance. Non-Hindus are not allowed to enter the temple.[133][129]

[edit]

In 1974, Pier Paolo Pasolini used Bhaktapur, along with other places in Nepal, as locations for his film Il fiore delle Mille e una notte (Arabian Nights).[134]

Portions of the 1993 Hollywood film Little Buddha starring Keanu Reeves and Bridget Fonda were filmed in the Bhaktapur Durbar Square. Also, some portions of Indian films Hare Rama Hare Krishna and Baby were shot in Bhaktapur.[135]

Sister Cities

[edit]

On 13 December 2023, Bhaktapur and Leshan, China signed a Memorandum of understanding regarding establishing a sisterly relation between the two cities.[139]

Notable people

[edit]
Bhāju Kasa
Narayan Man Bijukchhe

See also

[edit]
[edit]
  • Street scene, Bhaktapur, Nepal. 1979
    Street scene, Bhaktapur, Nepal. 1979
  • Street of Bhaktapur at night
    Street of Bhaktapur at night
  • Bhaktapur Durbar Square
    Bhaktapur Durbar Square
  • Bhaktapur Taumadhi square.
    Bhaktapur Taumadhi square.
  • Statue of King Bhupatindra Malla at Bhaktapur Durbar Square
    Statue of King Bhupatindra Malla at Bhaktapur Durbar Square
  • Aerial view of Taumadhi square
    Aerial view of Taumadhi square
  • Peacock Window
    Peacock Window
  • Woman drying rice
    Woman drying rice
  • Newari king curd (Juju Dhau)
    Newari king curd (Juju Dhau)
  • Bhaktapur Durbar Square
    Bhaktapur Durbar Square
  • Nyatapola Temple
    Nyatapola Temple
  • Festival preparations
    Festival preparations

Notes

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Bhaktapur

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from Grokipedia

Bhaktapur is a historic city and municipality in the of central , situated 12 kilometers east of along the Arniko Highway at an elevation of 1,401 meters above , encompassing an area of 6.88 square kilometers and home to a population of 79,136 as recorded in the 2021 national census. Known locally in the Newari language as Khwopa and translating to "City of Devotees" in Nepali, it originated in the early and functioned as the capital of the Malla Kingdom from the 12th to 15th centuries, retaining sovereign protections including boundary walls until the early . The city stands as 's , distinguished by its meticulously preserved medieval Newari architecture featuring pagoda-style temples, intricately carved wooden windows, and brick-paved streets that evoke a living museum of traditional craftsmanship, particularly in and woodwork. , a core ensemble of palaces, temples, and monuments from the Malla era, contributes to the 's designation as a since 1979, underscoring its enduring religious harmony between and , vibrant festivals like , and artisanal specialties such as Juju Dhau yogurt.

Etymology and naming

Origin and historical names

The name Bhaktapur originates from , combining bhakta ("devotee" or "worshiper") and pura ("city" or "fortified settlement"), literally meaning "City of Devotees" or "Place of the Faithful," which underscores its foundational emphasis on religious devotion and temple-centric . This etymology aligns with the city's early development as a hub of Hindu and Buddhist , evidenced by its proliferation of shrines and ritual sites from antiquity. In local Nepal Bhasa (Newari), Bhaktapur is known as Khwopa, an indigenous term predating influences and used in traditional records and oral histories to denote the settlement. Early inscriptions from the Licchavi period (c. 400–750 CE) reference the site through variants such as Khrpun, Makhoprn, or Khupring, reflecting phonetic adaptations of the Newari name in script, with the first recorded Indic form Bhaktagrama ("Village of Devotees") appearing around the late CE. During the Malla era (12th–18th centuries), the standardized name Bhaktapur gained prominence in royal edicts and stone carvings, solidifying its usage as the kingdom's capital. An alternative designation, Bhadgaon or Bhatgaon, emerged in some Nepali and Maithili contexts, possibly as a regional phonetic rendering, but remained secondary to Bhaktapur.

Geography

Location and topography

Bhaktapur Municipality is located in the eastern sector of the in , at geographic coordinates approximately 27°40′N 85°25′E. The city sits at an elevation of about 1,400 meters above . It lies roughly 13 kilometers east of , the national capital. The of Bhaktapur features a relatively flat basin within the broader , which originated as an ancient lakebed formed over one million years ago due to tectonic uplift and river damming. This lacustrine sediment has resulted in fertile alluvial soils supporting , while the flat terrain facilitated urban development. Surrounding the valley are hill ranges, including Shivapuri to the north and Phulchowki to the south, which rise to elevations exceeding 2,700 meters and influence local by channeling runoff into the basin, historically contributing to vulnerabilities. Bhaktapur Municipality's boundaries adjoin those of to the west, Lalitpur District to the southwest, and to the east and north. Following Nepal's 2015 constitutional restructuring into federal provinces, Bhaktapur was incorporated into .

Climate and environment

Bhaktapur features a subtropical highland (Köppen Cwb), marked by moderate temperatures and pronounced seasonality. Annual average temperatures range from lows of about 10°C during winter months (December to February) to highs of 25°C in the pre- period ( to ), with a yearly mean around 18°C. averages approximately 1,400 millimeters annually, concentrated in the season from to , when monthly totals can exceed 400 millimeters, while the dry winter period sees negligible rainfall. High humidity during the , often reaching 80-90%, accelerates of traditional construction materials in Bhaktapur's heritage structures. , prevalent in the city's multi-story temples and palaces, suffers from moisture ingress, leading to , cracking, and erosion of over time, particularly where drainage is inadequate. Seasonal wetting and drying cycles exacerbate these effects, contributing to long-term structural vulnerabilities beyond seismic risks. Environmental pressures include depletion, with overextraction for municipal supply—accounting for 50-60% of Bhaktapur's water needs—resulting in declining aquifers, especially post-. Land-use intensification and reduced permeable surfaces have diminished natural recharge, as evidenced by water table mapping showing drops of up to 2-3 meters in recent decades across the municipality. from the adjacent urban sprawl, including PM2.5 from traffic and brick kilns, frequently surpasses WHO guidelines, with valley-wide episodes linked to stagnant inversions trapping emissions.

History

Antiquity and early settlements

Archaeological evidence from the , which encompasses Bhaktapur, reveals artifacts such as polished stone celts, indicative of early human activity and rudimentary resource exploitation, though precise dating for these tools remains approximate and prior to structured settlements. Systematic excavations at sites like Satya Narayan and Natesvara have uncovered material remains, including fragments and lithic tools, pointing to the earliest documented habitation activities around the first century BCE. These findings suggest a progression from scattered prehistoric occupations to proto-urban clusters, potentially influenced by the valley's post-glacial following the drainage of ancient lakes tens of thousands of years earlier, though direct settlement lags until the late prehistoric . Artifact distributions, including ground stone implements, imply subsistence economies based on and , with limited indications of inter-regional exchange via similar styles observed in adjacent Indian territories. The scarcity of pre-Licchavi monumental remains underscores a reliance on empirical digs over traditional narratives, with no verified urban structures predating the in Bhaktapur's vicinity; instead, tribal or village-like societies likely predominated, transitioning toward hierarchy as evidenced by the advent of inscriptions circa 464 CE at nearby Changu Narayan. This foundational phase laid causal groundwork for later economic networks, inferred from tool typologies linking valley crafts to broader Himalayan and Gangetic influences.

Licchavi and transitional periods

The Licchavi dynasty, ruling the from approximately 400 to 750 CE, extended its administrative influence over the region encompassing modern Bhaktapur, introducing governance structures influenced by , including as the language of inscriptions and official records. These rulers, originating from northern , established a centralized supported by an economy of agriculture, trade, and land grants documented in stone inscriptions, with over 170 such records from the fifth to ninth centuries evidencing donations to Hindu and Buddhist institutions. Coinage in gold and silver, bearing legends and royal images, facilitated commerce along trans-Himalayan routes, marking an early monetization of the valley's economy. In Bhaktapur specifically, Licchavi-era inscriptions, such as one from Samvat 516 (c. 594 CE) associated with King Amshuvarma installed near a temple, attest to local administrative acts and infrastructural patronage, including precursors to water systems like canals and reservoirs that underpinned and . These developments fostered the growth of nucleated communities through temple construction and ritual endowments, integrating Indic Brahmanical and Buddhist practices into valley society, as evidenced by deeds reporting religious donations predominant in the records. The dynasty's decline commenced in the late eighth century amid internal fragmentation, with the final dated inscription in 733 CE signaling weakened royal authority and succession disputes. This transitional phase, extending into the ninth century, featured decentralized power among local feudatories and rulers, with minimal territorial expansion or administrative innovation, paving the way for medieval kingdoms while external dynamics, including Tibetan imperial expansions and cultural exchanges under kings like Narendradeva, exerted periodic pressures on valley stability.

Malla dynasty foundation and rise

The Malla dynasty's establishment in the , encompassing Bhaktapur, commenced around 1200 CE with Ari Malla, who succeeded the transitional rulers following the Licchavi era's decline. Ari Malla formalized monarchical authority amid post-Licchavi fragmentation, adopting the "Malla" title—derived from ancient Indian connotations of strength and rule—to legitimize his lineage. This foundation unified valley polities initially under a single sovereign, laying the groundwork for Bhaktapur's later prominence as a distinct entity within the confederacy. Over the 13th to 15th centuries, Malla kings consolidated power through strategic expansions, alliances, and conflicts, particularly against regional rivals. Kings like Jayasthiti Malla (r. ca. 1382–1395) issued edicts reforming social structures, including caste codification via the Manab Nyaya Shastra, which stabilized governance and facilitated administrative centralization across valley territories. Yaksha Malla (r. 1428–1482) extended influence beyond the valley, incorporating areas like Dolakha through military campaigns and diplomatic ties, enhancing Bhaktapur's strategic position via its agricultural surplus and craft economies in pottery and textiles. Bhaktapur emerged as an independent polity following Yaksha Malla's death in 1482 CE, when his realm fragmented among heirs, assigning the northeastern valley—including Bhaktapur (ancient Khwopa)—to one son, marking the dynasty's rise as a tripartite confederacy. This division, while fostering rivalry with and Patan kingdoms through intermittent warfare over trade routes and resources, was underpinned by shared Newar cultural patronage, with royal inscriptions evidencing investments in religious institutions that bolstered economic productivity from fertile terraced fields and artisan guilds.

Independent kingdom and cultural peak

Bhaktapur functioned as an independent Malla kingdom following the partition of the greater realm after Yaksha Malla's death in 1482, with its rulers maintaining sovereignty until the late 18th century. The kingdom's cultural zenith occurred during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, marked by advancements in Newari artistic traditions under dedicated royal patronage. King Bhupatindra Malla, reigning from 1696 to 1722, exemplified this peak through his direct involvement in artistic commissions, including the erection of his own bronze statue in 1699 atop a column before the Vatsala Temple, symbolizing the era's emphasis on and . This period witnessed the height of Newari craftsmanship from the 14th to 18th centuries, with royal support elevating , , and painting to sophisticated levels integrated into palace expansions and public structures. The Tripura Layaku palace complex underwent iterative enlargements starting from its mid-12th-century foundations, incorporating ornate gateways and courtyards that showcased guild-produced intricate designs during Bhupatindra's time. Trade networks bolstered these endeavors, facilitating the influx of materials and exchange of techniques that sustained artisanal guilds' specialized roles in , textiles, and work. Royal governance under figures like Bhupatindra balanced absolutist rule with pragmatic deference to autonomy, allowing organizations to self-regulate production and , which underpinned and cultural output. Festivals were formalized through royal edicts, embedding communal rituals into the social fabric and reinforcing hierarchical yet cooperative order. Empirical records, such as inscriptions and surviving artifacts, attest to this equilibrium, where kings directed resources toward cultural projects amid a population estimated in the tens of thousands sustained by agrarian surplus and commerce. Despite these achievements, the kingdom faced latent strains from succession ambiguities within the Malla line and resource pressures from rivalries among the Valley's three principalities, which diverted funds and manpower without decisive resolution. Inter-kingdom conflicts, documented in chronicles, exacerbated fiscal burdens, limiting sustained military or infrastructural investments and exposing dependencies on internal cohesion. These factors, while not immediately disruptive during the cultural peak, contributed to gradual weakening by the mid-18th century.

Conquest by Gorkha and integration into Nepal

In 1768, following the conquests of and Patan, , king of the Gorkha Kingdom, turned his attention to Bhaktapur, the last independent Malla kingdom in the . Bhaktapur's forces, under King Ranajit Malla (r. 1722–1769), had initially benefited from the flight of Patan's King Tej Narasingh Malla to their territory after Patan's fall on October 6, 1768, but this provided only temporary respite. strategy emphasized encirclement and resource denial, leveraging Gorkhali hill warfare tactics and khukuri-armed infantry to isolate the valley states through prior captures of strategic passes like Nuwakot in 1743. The siege of Bhaktapur culminated in a decisive three-day battle from November 10 to 12, 1769 (Marga 1, 1826 B.S.), during which Gorkhali forces breached defenses after prolonged attrition. Bhaktapur suffered over 2,000 casualties, reflecting the intensity of resistance despite numerical disadvantages and internal exhaustion from the extended campaign. King Ranajit Malla, facing inevitable defeat, authorized a symbolic surrender signaled by the lowering of a white turban from the palace by his minister Hemnarayan Malla, avoiding further bloodshed but marking the end of Malla . Ranajit subsequently exiled himself to Banaras (Kashi), where he composed laments in Newari and Maithili expressing regret over alliances with Gorkha forces that had backfired. Post-conquest integration subordinated Bhaktapur to the expanding Gorkha Kingdom, renamed the with as its first monarch. Local Malla administrative structures persisted initially under Gorkhali oversight, including revenue collection via traditional systems, but autonomy evaporated as governors (subbas) enforced central directives from . Tribute obligations replaced independent fiscal control, channeling Bhaktapur's pottery, textile, and trade revenues to fuel further Gorkha expansions eastward and westward. Centralization eroded the power of Bhaktapur's hereditary elites, displacing Malla nobility and integrating Newar administrators into a Khas-dominated , which prioritized military over local networks. Economically, while artisanal production continued, trade autonomy diminished due to valley-wide monopolies and tariffs, shifting Bhaktapur from a self-sustaining kingdom to a peripheral contributor in 's unified , with long-term effects including cultural hybridization but reduced political agency for indigenous governance.

Rana regime and isolation

The Rana regime, initiated in 1846 after Jung Bahadur Rana's consolidation of power through the and subsequent establishment of hereditary premiership within his family, centralized Nepal's governance in , effectively marginalizing former Malla centers like Bhaktapur. This shift suppressed local agency in Bhaktapur, transforming the city from an independent kingdom into a peripheral ceremonial preserve of Newar heritage sites, with administrative decisions reserved for Rana appointees loyal to the court. Bhaktapur's and guilds lost influence as the regime dismantled decentralized feudal structures, confiscating lands and redirecting resources to bolster Rana palaces and infrastructure primarily in the capital. Infrastructure neglect compounded Bhaktapur's isolation, as Rana policies favored Kathmandu's modernization while peripheral valley towns received scant investment in roads, sanitation, or , perpetuating economic and developmental stagnation. The regime's broader from external influences extended internally, limiting inter-regional connectivity and exacerbating vulnerabilities, as seen in the devastating 1934 Bihar-Nepal (magnitude 8.0–8.4), which razed nearly all structures in Bhaktapur and the but prompted only minimal, Kathmandu-prioritized reconstruction. Amid political disenfranchisement, Bhaktapur's Newar communities demonstrated cultural resilience by sustaining traditions through informal guthi guilds—communal organizations managing rituals, festivals, and crafts—often operating semi-clandestinely to evade regime oversight. These institutions preserved architectural styles, religious practices, and artisanal knowledge, ensuring continuity of local identity despite autocratic controls that curtailed public expressions of .

20th-century political changes

The 1951 revolution ended the Rana regime's autocratic rule, restoring King Tribhuvan to power and ushering in a with initial democratic experiments, including the formation of local advisory councils in cities such as Bhaktapur. These bodies facilitated limited municipal governance, allowing Newar communities in Bhaktapur to address local infrastructure and administrative needs amid the country's opening to external influences and internal reforms. However, political instability persisted, with the 1959 constitution enabling parliamentary elections but yielding to factionalism that undermined effective local autonomy. In December 1960, King Mahendra dismissed the elected government, banned political parties, and imposed direct rule, culminating in the 1962 Panchayat system—a tiered, partyless structure of village, , and zonal panchayats designed to channel authority upward to the . Bhaktapur, as a settlement exceeding 10,000 residents, was reclassified as a under this framework from 1962 to 1988, with local executives selected through indirect elections and overseen by central appointees, effectively centralizing decision-making and curtailing traditional Newar guild-based . The 1964 act, enacted within the Panchayat era, redistributed tenancy rights and bolstered agricultural holdings for Bhaktapur's Jyapu farmers, mitigating some rural discontent but reinforcing state control over local economies. Throughout the Panchayat period, Bhaktapur faced accelerating from hill-to-valley migration, fueled by post-1951 and opportunities in and administration, which swelled populations and converted agricultural lands into settlements, exerting strain on heritage-dense traditional structures and water systems. This influx, peaking in the valley's urban growth from the onward, challenged the cohesion of caste-based guthi organizations central to Newar , prompting informal adaptations amid restricted political expression. Despite party bans, underground movements, including communist networks, organized non-partisan local initiatives like cleanliness drives and infrastructure pushes, subtly eroding Panchayat legitimacy by the 1980s.

Democratization and urbanization post-1990

The restoration of multi-party democracy in following the People's Movement enabled local governance shifts in Bhaktapur, where the Nepal Workers and Peasants Party (NWPP) assumed control of the municipality and has maintained it since, emphasizing preservation of Newar and architecture as core to local identity. This political continuity fostered policies prioritizing traditional urban form over rapid modernization, including initiatives to promote jyapu (farmer) castes and historical sites amid national integration pressures. Nepal's 2008 transition to a , culminating in the 2015 Constitution, restructured the country into seven provinces, with Bhaktapur incorporated into (formerly Province No. 3), granting municipalities enhanced in areas like heritage management, local taxation, and bylaw enactment. Local elections in 2017 further empowered Bhaktapur Municipality to address development independently, though implementation challenges persist, including fiscal reliance on central grants and jurisdictional overlaps with provincial authorities that limit full . These reforms positioned Bhaktapur as a heritage-centric entity, balancing gains with mandates to protect UNESCO-listed zones against broader national policies. Post-1990 urbanization accelerated in the , with Bhaktapur's built-up areas expanding due to and proximity to the capital, contributing to an annual urban rate of approximately 3.4% from 2001 to 2011. Infrastructure advancements, such as upgrades to the Kathmandu-Bhaktapur Road and expanded electricity distribution in the Valley, improved connectivity and access by the early , facilitating . However, unplanned sprawl—driven by informal settlements converting farmland into residential zones—has eroded traditional core areas, straining heritage preservation and exacerbating issues like without adequate enforcement. In response, Bhaktapur's community-led efforts under NWPP governance have reinforced through heritage-focused ordinances and resistance to homogenizing national trends, enabling localized preservation amid federal integration. These measures, including tourist levies since for conservation funding, have sustained Newar architectural integrity despite pressures.

2015 Gorkha earthquake and local-led reconstruction

The 7.8 magnitude Gorkha earthquake struck on April 25, 2015, epicentered approximately 80 kilometers northwest of , causing widespread devastation in Bhaktapur. The event led to over 300 deaths and 2,000 injuries in the municipality, with more than 30,000 houses damaged or destroyed. sites suffered extensively, with numerous monuments in and surrounding areas collapsing, affecting around 80% of the key historical structures. In response, Bhaktapur Municipality initiated a decentralized, community-driven reconstruction effort, prioritizing local expertise and traditional Malla-era architectural techniques over external interventions. The municipality rejected certain UNESCO-recommended designs, opting instead for authentic restorations that revived historical Newar styles to preserve cultural continuity. Funding was primarily sourced through community donations, municipal resources, and local consumer committees, minimizing reliance on international aid that characterized recoveries in neighboring districts. This approach enabled rapid progress, with close to 80% of heritage restoration completed by 2020, including key temples and squares in Bhaktapur Durbar. By the mid-2020s, major sites had been fully rebuilt, demonstrating the effectiveness of tradition-rooted, self-reliant strategies in achieving structural and communal resilience amid the earthquake's aftermath.

Government and administration

Municipal structure and governance

Bhaktapur Municipality functions as a sub-metropolitan city under Nepal's federal local governance system, established by the 2015, which delineates powers between federal, provincial, and local levels. The administrative structure comprises an elected as the executive head, a , and representatives from 10 wards, each managed by ward committees consisting of a ward chair and elected members responsible for local planning, service delivery, and community oversight. This ward-based division ensures decentralized decision-making, with ward offices handling , basic , and initial , subject to municipal council approval. Elections for municipal leadership occur every five years under the Local Government Operation Act 2017, with the most recent held on May 13, 2022, resulting in a sweep by the Workers and Peasants' Party; Sunil Prajapati was re-elected on May 16, 2025, reflecting sustained local support for policies emphasizing heritage preservation and . The municipal executive, including the , deputy, and ward chairs, forms the policy-making body, empowered to enact bylaws, allocate budgets, and enforce regulations, while checks on power include oversight by the municipal assembly of all elected ward representatives and accountability to provincial and federal authorities. Governance prioritizes heritage conservation through stringent building bylaws, such as the Physical Infrastructure and Construction Criteria Related Bylaws 2060 (2004, amended post-2015), which mandate traditional materials, height limits, and aesthetic compliance in the UNESCO-listed core areas to prevent unchecked modernization eroding historical fabric. These policies, enforced via permit systems and fines, have shaped post-2015 earthquake reconstruction by favoring retrofitting over demolition, though implementation faces challenges from resource constraints and informal encroachments. The municipality interacts with the central government primarily through fiscal transfers, technical support, and coordination; for instance, under the Local Government Operation Act, it accesses national disaster funds via the Central Natural Disaster Relief Committee, mobilizing local guidelines like the Bhaktapur Municipality Disaster Management Fund Mobilization Guidelines 2076 for equitable allocation in recovery efforts. This framework has enabled Bhaktapur to lead community-driven heritage rebuilding post-2015, blending central grants with municipal oversight to maintain structural integrity amid seismic vulnerabilities.

Recent fiscal policies and budgets

Bhaktapur Municipality presented a of Rs 2.473 billion for the 2025/26 (2082/83 BS), tabled by the deputy on June 23, 2025, with allocations prioritizing recurrent expenditures at Rs 1.52 billion (61.67 percent) and capital spending at Rs 804.8 million (32.54 percent). This represents a measured increase from prior years, reflecting fiscal restraint amid post-pandemic recovery and heritage-focused investments, including Rs 3.75 million specifically for enhancing local ghats to maintain the city's identity as a living heritage site, alongside Rs 30 million for broader cultural preservation initiatives. A key policy emphasis has been leveraging internal revenue streams for self-sustained development, particularly through entry fees, which yielded over Rs 290 million in FY 2024/25 from more than 240,000 foreign visitors. These funds have financed heritage conservation and without heavy reliance on central or foreign , continuing a post-2015 strategy where local revenues—exceeding $3 million historically—were reinvested into site restorations, enabling cost-effective reconstructions like the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple for Rs 48.3 million. This approach aligns with broader , rejecting certain external technical to prioritize community-led projects and avoid dependency. Despite these efforts, debates persist on expenditure transparency, as Nepal's local governments generally score low on budget disclosure despite compliance with accounting standards, though Bhaktapur has been recognized by as an "Island of Integrity" for its integrity in revenue handling and project execution. Critics, including local stakeholders, have called for enhanced public reporting on tourism fee utilization to ensure alignment with fiscal goals amid rising revenues.

Economy

Traditional industries and crafts

Bhaktapur's traditional industries have long been anchored in caste-specific handicrafts, where Newar artisan castes maintain hereditary specialization akin to systems, ensuring transmission of techniques across generations. , led by the sub-clan, centers on production using locally sourced clay and wheels, with roots tracing to the Malla period (12th–18th centuries) when Bhaktapur emerged as a key hub. Artisans in Pottery Square (Kumale Tole) craft items like water pots (pala) and vessels, firing them in traditional open clamps, though output has historically supplied valley markets. Woodcarving, practiced by the Shilpakar caste, produces ornate struts (tunala), windows, and doors featuring tantric motifs and deities, integral to Newar temple architecture since Licchavi times (c. 400–750 CE) but peaking under Malla rule. Metalwork by castes like the Kamar (blacksmiths) yields bronze ritual objects and bells, while Chitrakar painters create paubha scrolls—cotton-based depictions of Buddhist and Hindu deities using mineral pigments—distinct from Tibetan thangka in their flat perspective and iconography. These crafts fueled historical trade, with paubha paintings, textiles, and metal goods exported to and via Bhaktapur's position on trans-Himalayan routes, sustaining prosperity until the Gorkha conquest in 1769 curtailed external commerce. Empirical records indicate flourishing pre-19th-century exchanges, where Newar merchants bartered handicrafts for Tibetan wool and Indian spices. Post-1950 industrialization introduced synthetic alternatives, eroding demand—pottery production dropped amid clay shortages from , with containers displacing by the 1980s. Revival initiatives, such as the Bhaktapur Wood Carving Cooperative established between 1975 and 1979 with German development aid, have pooled resources for raw materials, training, and marketing to preserve skills among dwindling artisan numbers.

Tourism's economic role and impacts

Bhaktapur Municipality recorded 244,868 foreign tourist arrivals in fiscal year 2024/25, marking a key driver of local economic activity primarily through visits to its UNESCO-listed Durbar Square and surrounding heritage zones. Entry fees—Rs 1,800 for non-SAARC visitors and Rs 500 for SAARC and Chinese nationals—yielded over Rs 290 million in revenue for the municipality during this period, funding maintenance of historic structures and infrastructure upgrades that bolster long-term viability without relying on external aid. These earnings create direct and indirect employment in sectors like guesthouses, restaurants, and production, where potters, woodcarvers, and weavers supply souvenirs and authentic goods to visitors, sustaining guild-based traditions amid modernization pressures. The revenue stream promotes local self-sufficiency by channeling funds into community-led preservation projects post-2015 , reducing dependency on remittances and fostering skill retention among Newar artisans. While tourism volumes enable such positives, they also strain narrow medieval lanes with periodic congestion and encourage minor , such as standardized sales that occasionally dilute artisanal uniqueness; however, tiered entry fees and municipal oversight distribute impacts evenly and reinvest proceeds into site management, yielding a net economic uplift for residents.

Modern infrastructure and development initiatives

Bhaktapur Municipality has pursued infrastructure upgrades since the early 2000s, emphasizing integration with its World Heritage status to mitigate trade-offs between modernization and cultural preservation. Key efforts include the Thankot-Chapagaon-Bhaktapur 132 kV project, initiated under the Asian Development Bank's Rural , Distribution, and Transmission Project, which enhanced power reliability in the by completing a ring transmission network while routing lines to avoid core heritage zones. By 2025, the Electricity Authority constructed six 132/11 kV substations in Bhaktapur and adjacent areas to address load shedding and support urban growth, with underground cabling in sensitive historic districts to preserve aesthetic integrity. Water infrastructure developments blend traditional systems like hitis with contemporary solutions, as seen in the Bhaktapur Water Supply Improvement Project, which expanded distribution networks from sources such as the Bansbari Treatment Plant to reach underserved peri-urban areas, achieving higher coverage rates without extensive disruption to ancient water architecture. Complementary initiatives promote to combat scarcity, with studies estimating potential yields sufficient for municipal needs in rain-efficient models that retrofit traditional ponds like Siddha Pokhari for storage augmentation, reducing reliance on and minimizing pressures. These hybrids prioritize , though implementation faces challenges from inconsistent rainfall and maintenance demands. Road expansions, such as the ongoing Bhaktapur-Nagarkot highway widening to four lanes, aim to alleviate linking the city to eastern routes, but have sparked conflicts with heritage elements, including the 2020 demolition of a 251-year-old hiti for alignment adjustments, highlighting causal tensions where improved connectivity boosts economic access at the cost of irreplaceable artifacts. Bhaktapur addresses urban encroachment through stringent under municipal bylaws, designating core and buffer zones that restrict high-rise developments and enforce height limits aligned with traditional skylines, as in plans promoting clustered peri-urban growth to safeguard the historic core's spatial coherence. The "Bhaktapur 2.0" approach exemplifies this balance, integrating post-2000 innovations like eco-efficient utilities with community oversight to foster resilient development without eroding vernacular urban fabric.

Demographics

According to the 2021 National Population and Housing Census, Bhaktapur Municipality had a population of 79,136 residents. This figure reflects modest growth from 75,985 in the 2011 census, yielding an annual average growth rate of approximately 0.41% over the decade. Earlier censuses recorded 48,418 residents in 2001, indicating a sharper increase of about 4.7% annually from 2001 to 2011, primarily attributable to boundary expansions and influx from rural-to-urban migration within the Kathmandu Valley.
Census YearPopulationAnnual Growth Rate (from previous census)
200148,418-
201175,9854.7%
202179,1360.41%
Population density in Bhaktapur Municipality averages around 4,850 persons per square kilometer across its 16.3 km² area, with significantly higher concentrations in the historic core exceeding 10,000 persons per km² compared to lower densities in peri-urban fringes. This variation stems from concentrated traditional settlements in central wards versus expansion into surrounding areas, where growth rates have outpaced the core since the 2000s due to affordable housing and proximity to employment hubs. Demographic shifts include an emerging aging profile, with the proportion of residents aged 60 and above rising in line with national trends from 7.8% in to 9.5% in , exacerbated by outmigration for foreign and urban opportunities elsewhere. The working-age population (15-64 years) constitutes about 70% of the total, but sustained net outmigration of individuals aged 15-34—estimated at over 20% of Nepal's cohort annually—has contributed to elevated old-age dependency ratios in urban centers like Bhaktapur.

Ethnic groups, castes, and social stratification

Bhaktapur Municipality's population is overwhelmingly dominated by the Newar ethnic group, which forms the core indigenous inhabitants of the Kathmandu Valley and accounts for approximately 70-80% of residents in the municipality, with some historical core areas approaching 99% Newar composition according to ethnographic studies. Within the Newar community, key castes include the Shrestha (traditionally merchants and administrators, occupying the highest hierarchical positions) and Maharjan (also known as Jyapu, farmers and artisans forming the numerical majority among Newars in Bhaktapur). Minority groups comprise Tamang (a Tibeto-Burman ethnic minority often engaged in labor and trade), hill Brahmins (priestly castes), and smaller numbers of Chhetri and other Indo-Aryan groups, reflecting migration patterns into the urban periphery. Social stratification adheres to a hierarchical structure inherited from medieval Malla-era systems, dividing Newars into ritually pure occupational groups (e.g., Sat-Shudra artisans like carpenters and potters) and higher varna-like categories, with largely preserved despite legal prohibitions on . This structure is reinforced by guthi institutions—traditional trusts and associations tied to specific castes—that manage land endowments, ritual performances, and craft guilds, ensuring specialized roles in , woodwork, and persist for communal functions like temple maintenance and festivals. These linkages promote functional by allocating hereditary responsibilities, though they embed inequalities in resource access and ritual precedence, with lower artisan castes dependent on patronage from elite families. Inter-caste relations remain largely harmonious, facilitated by shared Newar identity and guthi-mediated cooperation, but subtle tensions surfaced in post-2015 Gorkha earthquake reconstruction, where access to and housing grants varied by and ethnic socioeconomic status, exacerbating disparities for lower-status groups despite community-led efforts emphasizing collective heritage recovery. Nationally, low-caste households faced higher vulnerability and slower rebuilding, a pattern echoed locally in Bhaktapur's peri-urban areas, though municipal policies prioritized equitable private reconstruction grants to mitigate overt conflicts. Overall, hierarchies continue to influence and participation without widespread disruption to Bhaktapur's cohesive urban fabric.

Languages, education, and literacy rates

In Bhaktapur, Bhasa (also known as Newari) serves as the primary language spoken by the predominant Newar population, featuring a distinct local that differs from other variants in the . Nepali functions as the and is used in administration, , and inter-ethnic communication. The municipal education system follows 's national framework, with spanning grades 1–8 and grades 9–12, delivered through public and private institutions. Local curricula for early grades incorporate elements of , including Nepal Bhasa instruction to preserve linguistic identity amid national emphasis on Nepali-medium schooling. Bhaktapur hosts facilities such as Khwopa Higher Secondary School, offering and streams, while higher education options include the constituent Bhaktapur Multiple Campus affiliated with . Proximity to facilitates access to advanced universities for residents pursuing tertiary studies. Literacy rates in Bhaktapur Municipality reached 86.95% in the 2021 National Population and Housing , exceeding the national average of 76.2%, with male at 93.3% and female at 80.59%. These figures reflect improved enrollment and retention in urban settings like Bhaktapur, where empirical data link higher to enhanced employability in heritage crafts and services, though disparities persist due to historical barriers in female schooling.

Culture and traditions

Newari festivals and rituals

Newari festivals in Bhaktapur play a central role in maintaining social cohesion among the indigenous Newar community, where collective rituals and processions encourage reciprocal participation across households and guilds, reinforcing communal ties through shared labor and observance. These events, often spanning several days, involve the mobilization of entire neighborhoods in hauling chariots, performing dances, and enacting symbolic dramas, which historically served to affirm social hierarchies and resolve inter-group tensions via structured competition. Participation is near-universal among Newars, with estimates suggesting thousands join processions annually, drawing on guthi organizations—traditional community trusts—that coordinate resources and roles. Bisket Jatra, the preeminent festival, occurs annually in mid-April, typically spanning nine days from around April 10 to 18, marking the Nepali New Year and the onset of spring. It features the erection of a towering wooden linga symbolizing and the slaying of serpents, followed by vigorous chariot processions of deities Bhairavnath and through Taumadhi Square, where rival neighborhoods engage in ritualistic tugging and wrestling of the raths to assert dominance, a practice that underscores hierarchical reciprocity among castes and localities. This communal exertion, involving hundreds pulling massive wooden vehicles, fosters solidarity while economically benefiting locals through heightened trade in crafts and during the event's peak attendance. Gai Jatra, observed in late July or early August for about seven days, commemorates the deceased through processions led by decorated cows or boys dressed as cows, a Newari blending agrarian reverence with rituals to ease grief via public and humor. In Bhaktapur, families of the recently deceased join masked parades with satirical floats mocking societal follies, promoting collective and social leveling by highlighting mortality's universality, with broad participation from Newar households reinforcing inter-family support networks. The festival's elements, including dances and jests, integrate Hindu commemorative aspects with Newar customs, drawing community-wide involvement that sustains emotional reciprocity. Indra Jatra, celebrated over eight days starting in early September, invokes rain and harvest prosperity through processions and masked performances in Bhaktapur, where Newar participants enact myths with rhythmic drumming and symbolic offerings. Distinct from Kathmandu's version, Bhaktapur's observance emphasizes local guthi-led rituals that blend invocatory chants with communal feasts, engaging thousands in street theater and pole-raising ceremonies to affirm agricultural interdependence and hierarchical roles in ritual execution. These gatherings enhance social bonds by distributing participatory duties, yielding indirect economic gains via seasonal market surges.

Religious practices and syncretism

Bhaktapur exhibits a predominantly Hindu religious landscape, with the 2021 Nepal census recording 87.9% of the municipal population identifying as Hindu and 9.5% as Buddhist, alongside minor adherents to other faiths. This distribution underscores Hinduism's dominance while highlighting significant Vajrayana Buddhist presence, integral to Newar traditions that foster syncretism through shared ritual frameworks rather than distinct sectarian boundaries. Religious practices in Bhaktapur integrate Hindu devotionalism with tantric elements derived from , evident in pujas at key sites like , dedicated to Siddhi Lakshmi—a tantric manifestation linked to Vaishnava worship of as Vishnu's consort. Priests from specialized castes, such as Hindu Brahmins for Shaiva and Vaishnava rites and Vajracarya Buddhists for tantric initiations, officiate these ceremonies, employing mantras, offerings, and visualizations that blur traditional divides. Lay participation remains central, with community members conducting household and public pujas involving , flowers, and invocations, sustaining a pragmatic coexistence shaped by centuries of mutual adaptation in the . This manifests in dual veneration of deities like Kumari, treated as living embodiments of Hindu goddesses by and tantric dakinis by Buddhists, without doctrinal reconciliation but through functional overlap in festivals and protections. Historical evidence from inscriptions and medieval texts indicates that such practices evolved from Lichchhavi-era interactions, prioritizing ritual efficacy over exclusivity, as seen in Bhaktapur's role as a Hindu stronghold incorporating Buddhist for esoteric potency.

Social norms, family structures, and guilds

Bhaktapur's Newar-dominated upholds patriarchal norms, with senior males exercising primary over household decisions, , and public representation, while women manage domestic spheres and dowries but are excluded from inheriting ancestral land. follows patrilineal descent, ensuring continuity of family lineages and guthi memberships through male heirs. These norms prioritize collective familial obligations over individual autonomy, embedding causal ties between social stability and ritual adherence. Extended joint family systems remain foundational, housing multiple generations in shared residences to coordinate inheritance divisions and perform essential lifecycle rituals, such as funerals managed collectively. Divorce rates in Nepal, reflective of Newar practices, hover at 4-5%, sustained by religious sanctions, social stigma, and traditional mechanisms like returning marriage gwe (areca nuts) to dissolve unions, rendering separations rare and culturally discouraged. Guthi guilds, as caste- and lineage-based organizations, provide mutual aid by pooling resources from endowed lands to fund rituals, festivals, and community welfare, enforcing endogamy and occupational roles while delivering economic efficiency through risk-sharing and labor coordination. Originating in the Lichchhavi era with records from 578 AD, these guilds underpin social hierarchy but rationally support members via structured reciprocity, as seen in Bhaktapur's 161 rajguthis overseeing jatras like Bisket Jatra. Urbanization and migration since the mid-20th century have fragmented some joint families into nuclear units, particularly among middle-class households adapting to , yet core Newar enclaves in Bhaktapur preserve these structures and guthi ties, resisting full erosion through embedded moral ethics of kinship duty.

Architecture and heritage

Urban planning and historical squares

Bhaktapur's urban form originated in the Malla era (circa 1200–1769 AD), when the city was reorganized into a hierarchical grid layout aligned with cosmological principles to integrate civic, religious, and residential functions. King Ananda Malla reconstructed Bhadgaon (ancient Bhaktapur) around 1260 AD as a geometric Astamatrika , superimposing orthogonal street grids over earlier settlements to facilitate controlled expansion, defense, and ritual processions. This design reflected causal priorities of spatial hierarchy, with wider arterial roads converging on central open spaces for social congregation and narrower alleys delineating guild-based neighborhoods, as evidenced by surviving stone inscriptions and cadastral records from Malla rulers. Taumadhi Square functioned as a key civic-religious nexus, designed at the intersection of major processional routes to accommodate festivals, markets, and communal assemblies, thereby reinforcing social cohesion and economic exchange under royal oversight. Similarly, Square emerged at a street junction as a secondary public node, promoting localized interactions through its open configuration amid residential clusters, which supported daily rituals and neighborhood . These squares embodied the Malla logic of embedding into urban fabric, using elevated plinths and aligned axes to symbolize cosmic order while enabling practical crowd management during events. Water infrastructure was integral to this planning, with hiti (stone spouts) and ponds strategically placed along grid edges for potable supply, wastewater drainage, and agricultural , mitigating risks in the valley's monsoon-prone terrain. During the Malla period, rulers like Jitamitra Malla expanded these systems; in 1679 AD, he diverted channels to feed urban hiti for dual domestic and farming use, sustaining a of thousands within fortified bounds. Ponds such as Siddha Pokhari, linked via conduits to central squares, stored rainwater and , ensuring year-round and bathing that aligned with Newar norms. Phalcha, open-roofed pavilions along streets and squares, served as communal rest stops reflecting stratified , where guilds and castes held deliberations, travelers sheltered, and festivals staged deities for public veneration. These structures, often funded by community collectives, enforced spatial discipline by designating shaded zones for elders and laborers, thus embedding economic hierarchies into the daily urban rhythm without disrupting the grid's flow.

Major monuments and artistic features

Bhaktapur's major monuments are concentrated in its historic Durbar Squares, showcasing the pinnacle of Newar architecture during the Malla period (12th–18th centuries), characterized by multi-tiered roofs, intricate wood carvings, and symbolic brickwork. The complex includes the 55-Window Palace, constructed in the 15th century and expanded by Jitamitra Malla in the 18th century, featuring elaborately carved wooden windows and struts depicting deities and mythical scenes. The , a gilded entrance to the palace built in the late 18th century, exemplifies repoussé metalwork with floral and tantric motifs. The , completed in 1702 by King Bhupatindra Malla, stands as the tallest in the city at five tiers, dedicated to the goddess Siddhi Lakshmi and symbolizing the five cosmic elements through its graduated roofs and pedestal guardians—progressively stronger mythical figures from elephants to the goddess herself. Its in just six to seven months highlights advanced Malla engineering, using load-bearing brick plinths and resistant to seismic activity. Nearby, the Vatsala Temple, originally a 17th-century shikhara-style structure rebuilt in form, featured detailed stone and wood ornamentation before partial collapse. Artistic features emphasize Malla-era wood carvings on temple struts (tunala), doors, and toranas, portraying tantric deities, apsaras, and narrative friezes from Hindu epics, often gilded or painted for vibrancy. Brickwork techniques involved molded bricks for bases and walls, fired for durability, evolving from earlier Licchavi simplicity to ornate Malla embellishments. The in Dattatreya Square, dating to the 15th century, exemplifies this with its three-faced deity iconography and surrounding carved pavilions. As an outlier, the , erected in the 5th century during the Licchavi era, predates Malla styles with its two-story form and ancient sculptures, marking the valley's early stone transition.

Preservation methods, hiti, ponds, and phalcha

Traditional preservation in Bhaktapur relies on lime mortar and timber-lacing techniques, which enhance structural integrity and seismic resilience. Lime mortar, historically used for about 200 years in Nepalese monuments, provides breathability and flexibility, outperforming cement in post-reconstruction performance by allowing moisture evaporation and reducing cracking. Timber lacing integrates horizontal wooden bands within brick or stone walls, dissipating seismic energy through friction and preventing total collapse, as evidenced by varying damage patterns in the 2015 Gorkha earthquake where laced structures fared better than unlaced ones. Community guthi organizations oversee routine maintenance, mobilizing local labor for repairs and ensuring adherence to these methods without external dependencies. Hiti, or stone water spouts, form a vital hydrological network dating to the Licchavi period (circa 400-750 CE), channeling spring water via underground conduits for daily use and . Preservation involves clearing from athal beds and repairing spouts with traditional stonework, maintaining their role as supplemental water sources amid ; in Bhaktapur, effective conservation has sustained higher functionality compared to neighboring districts. Ponds like Pokhari, constructed in the under King Yaksha Malla, regulate and act as natural reservoirs, with ongoing desilting and embankment reinforcement preventing encroachment and supporting ecological balance. These 33 ponds in Bhaktapur collectively function as air-conditioners, cooling urban microclimates through evaporation. Phalcha, open-roofed resting pavilions, are maintained using lime-based renders and timber frameworks to withstand , with post-2015 repairs prioritizing original over modern alternatives like tin roofing in select cases. Local training at institutions such as Khwopa Engineering College emphasizes these indigenous skills, training artisans in lime preparation and lacing over imported methods, which risk long-term degradation due to rigidity. Empirical from seismic events confirm that such techniques reduce , as Newari buildings with timber elements exhibited lower collapse rates in historical quakes like 1934 and 2015.

Controversies in preservation and development

Reconstruction debates post-earthquake

The 2015 Gorkha earthquake devastated Bhaktapur's heritage sites, prompting debates over reconstruction strategies that pitted local autonomy against international oversight. Bhaktapur Municipality rejected UNESCO's emphasis on exact replicas of pre-earthquake structures, instead adopting Malla-era designs to revive authentic Newar architectural traditions, a decision rooted in preservation. This approach facilitated community-led rebuilding, with the municipality overseeing designs and execution alongside the for technical support. Local efforts yielded verifiable self-reliance outcomes, completing approximately 80% of heritage restoration by April 2020—far ahead of national averages—through participatory processes that engaged residents in labor and decision-making. In contrast, UNESCO-influenced projects in nearby sites like and Patan lagged due to rigid guidelines and coordination delays with foreign experts. Bhaktapur's model minimized costs by leveraging traditional craftsmanship and municipal funds, including for high-profile elements like the , rebuilt without full reliance on external designs or prolonged aid negotiations. Funding debates highlighted Bhaktapur's divergence from national dependencies, where over $4 billion in international pledges post-2015 faced disbursement bottlenecks and concerns. The supplemented government allocations with local donations, revenue recovery, and contributions, enabling quicker without the bureaucratic overhead seen elsewhere. This self-funded agility underscored critiques of aid-heavy models, which often prioritized donor agendas over local timelines. Ethnic and dynamics complicated site claims during reconstruction, as Newar subgroups—spanning castes like Jyapu farmers and priestly Chathari elites—vied for influence over heritage interpretations and resource allocation. Tensions arose from historical hierarchies, with lower-status groups asserting roles in rebuilding traditionally elite-controlled monuments, reflecting broader power negotiations in post-disaster . These debates reinforced the municipality's push for inclusive local to mitigate external impositions that might overlook indigenous hierarchies.

Tensions between tradition and modernization

Bhaktapur's push for modern , including widening to accommodate vehicular , has generated conflicts with the preservation of its narrow, pedestrian-oriented medieval streets, which form the core of the city's UNESCO-recognized . Such expansions risk demolishing or compromising adjacent heritage structures like falchas—traditional open-air pavilions used for communal resting and rituals—prioritizing short-term accessibility over the spatial integrity that defines Bhaktapur's lived heritage. The Bhaktapur Development Project (BDP), launched in with German technical assistance, exemplified early modernization tensions by integrating contemporary sanitation systems and technical into historic zones, which critics argued introduced Western paradigms that subtly eroded the organic, building traditions of Newari . While the BDP conserved monuments and improved utilities, its emphasis on standardized modern interventions faced scrutiny for accelerating social changes that diluted caste-based guilds and ritualistic spatial uses, potentially fostering a hybridized urban form less authentic to pre-modern precedents. Tourism's has intensified cultural by transforming sacred into spectator events, as seen in the of traditional dances and festivals like those in Bhaktapur's ritual cycles, where authentic communal performances yield to , ticketed spectacles that prioritize over esoteric depth and participation. This shift, driven by economic incentives, has led to behavioral among locals, with younger generations favoring tourist-oriented adaptations that commodify and abbreviate rites, risking the causal breakdown of intergenerational transmission in Newari practices. Local policies counter these risks by enforcing restrictions and mandating traditional materials in new constructions, positing that uncompromised heritage sustains tourism's economic viability over transient modernization gains, as evidenced by Bhaktapur's sustained appeal as a "" despite infrastructural demands.

Cultural heritage politics and external influences

In the aftermath of the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, which severely damaged Bhaktapur's UNESCO-listed heritage sites, reconstruction efforts highlighted tensions between local authorities and foreign donors, particularly , which had pledged €10 million through bilateral agreements for heritage rebuilding. These initiatives built on decades of German involvement via the Bhaktapur Development Project initiated in the , but post-earthquake projects often prioritized international technical standards over indigenous knowledge, leading to disputes. A notable 2018 controversy arose over restoration work at specific sites, where foreign-led approaches were accused of sidelining local craftsmanship and expertise, prompting Bhaktapur Municipality to reject certain financial and technical aid from the German Development Bank. Local officials argued that such interventions imposed external methodologies incompatible with traditional Newar building practices, exacerbating frictions amid broader donor coordination challenges in Nepal's post-disaster landscape. This reflected a where international partners, including affiliates, advocated standardized guidelines that clashed with municipality preferences for authentic Malla-era replication using and vernacular techniques. Bhaktapur's municipal leadership responded by asserting a distinct "cultural city" identity, as articulated by Sunil in a 2017 post-election statement, emphasizing self-directed reconstruction to preserve Newar ethnic heritage against centralized national oversight and global norms. This branding served as a political tool to negotiate reconstruction priorities, prioritizing monuments tied to local guthi guilds and communal rituals over uniform heritage protocols, thereby reinforcing municipal devolved under Nepal's 2015 federal constitution. These dynamics also involved implicit negotiations over ethnic and caste-based claims, as reconstruction decisions favored structures emblematic of dominant Newar lineages and guilds, potentially marginalizing minority groups' inputs despite Bhaktapur's historically stratified . Power struggles between the municipality and Nepal's manifested in heritage definitions, where local assertions of material authenticity challenged state-driven donor alignments, underscoring causal tensions from devolved intersecting with seismic recovery.

Notable figures

Historical rulers and patrons

Bhupatindra Malla, who reigned from 1696 to 1722, stands as Bhaktapur's most prominent patron of the arts and architecture, commissioning the Nyatapola Temple in 1702—a five-tiered pagoda dedicated to Siddhi Lakshmi that exemplifies Newari engineering with its earthquake-resistant base and symbolic guardian statues ascending its steps. His initiatives extended to palaces, murals depicting royal hunts and divine incarnations, and sculptures, directly involving royal oversight in designs to elevate local craftsmanship during a period of cultural flourishing. These projects, funded through royal treasuries bolstered by trade and agriculture, reflected a blend of devotional piety and aesthetic ambition, though sustained by a hierarchical system enforcing labor and tribute from guilds. Preceding this era, Jaya Sthiti Malla (r. 1382–1395) enacted edicts codifying social structures, linking castes to occupational guilds and regulating land, housing, and taxation to underpin economic order essential for . These measures pragmatically organized Newar society into 64 castes, including artisan groups, facilitating specialized production for royal commissions while imposing taxes that financed infrastructure, albeit within an that prioritized stability over broader equity. Ranajit Malla (r. 1722–1769), the final Malla sovereign, focused on defensive fortifications, erecting extensive city walls to counter Gorkhali incursions, as evidenced by his consultations with local wards amid mounting threats. Despite these pragmatic efforts to preserve autonomy, Bhaktapur succumbed in the 1769 Battle of Bhaktapur, after which Ranajit composed poignant songs lamenting the loss, underscoring a rule marked by cultural persistence amid political decline and reliance on fortified isolation rather than alliances.

Contemporary contributors to culture and economy

Sunil , mayor of Bhaktapur Municipality since 2017 and reelected in 2022 with a , has led efforts to prioritize locally driven reconstruction following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake, emphasizing cost-effective and quality heritage restoration using community labor and resources over foreign interventions. His administration has focused on sustaining as an economic pillar, hosting discussions with local stakeholders to enhance visitor infrastructure while preserving Newar traditions, contributing to Bhaktapur's recovery as a heritage destination. In recognition of these initiatives, Prajapati received the Nagarik Nayak 2080 in 2023 from Republic Media for outstanding . Artisan Binod Prajapati, a potter with nearly two decades of experience in Bhaktapur's Pottery Square, exemplifies entrepreneurial revival of traditional crafts by producing handmade terracotta items such as bowls, vases, and lamps from local black clay, drawing international and bolstering the local economy through direct sales and workshops. His work sustains the Newar guild's legacy, adapting ancient techniques to meet modern demand while fostering community-based that generates income for families in Taumadhi and Suryamadhi squares. Purna Bahadur Vaidya, born in Bhaktapur in 1941, has contributed to Newari cultural preservation as a and essayist, authoring works in Nepal Bhasa that document and promote indigenous literary traditions amid urbanization pressures. Honored with awards like the Shrestha Sirapa, Vaidya's writings help maintain linguistic heritage, supporting educational and cultural programs that indirectly enhance Bhaktapur's appeal to heritage tourists interested in Newar intellectual history.

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