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Binder (material)
Binder (material)
Binder (material)
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A binder or binding agent is any material or substance that holds or draws other materials together to form a cohesive whole mechanically, chemically, by adhesion or cohesion.

More narrowly, binders are liquid or dough-like substances that harden by a chemical or physical process and bind fibres, filler powder and other particles added into it. Examples include glue, adhesive and thickening.

Examples of mechanical binders are bond stones in masonry and tie beams in timber framing.

Classification

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Binders are loosely classified as organic (bitums, animal and plant glues, polymers) and inorganic (lime, cement, gypsum, liquid glass, etc.). These can be either metallic or ceramic as well as polymeric depending on the nature of the main material. For example, in the compound WC-Co (Tungsten Carbide used in cutting tools) Co constitutes the binding agent for the WC particles.

Based on their chemical resistance, binders are classified by the field of use: non-hydraulic (gypsum, air-cements, magnesia, hydrated lime), hydraulic (Roman cement, portland cement, hydraulic lime), acid-resistant (silicon fluoride cement, quartz cement), and autoclavable (harden at 170 to 300°С i.e. 8-16 atm pressure and, e.g., comprise CaSiO3 materials).

Physical properties

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Some materials labeled as binders such as cement have a high compressive strength but low tensile strength and need to be reinforced with fibrous material or rebar if tension and shear forces will be applied.

Other binding agents such as resins may be tough and possibly elastic but can neither bear compressive nor tensile force. Tensile strength is greatly improved in composite materials consisting of resin as the matrix and fiber as a reinforcement. Compressive strength can be improved by adding filling material.

Uses

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Binders hold together pigments and sometimes filling material to form paints, pastels, and other materials used for artistic and utilitarian painting. Materials include wax, linseed oil, natural gums such as gum arabic or gum tragacanth, methyl cellulose, or proteins such as egg white or casein. Glue is traditionally made by the boiling of hoofs, bones, or skin of animals and then mixing the hard gelatinous residue with water. Natural gum-based binders are made from substances extracted from plants.[1] Larger amounts of dry substance are added to liquid binders in order to cast or model sculptures and reliefs.[2]

In cooking, various edible thickening agents are used as binders. Some of them, e.g. tapioca flour, lactose, sucrose, microcrystalline cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone and various starches are also used in pharmacology in making tablets. Tablet binders include lactose powder, sucrose powder, tapioca starch (cassava flour) and microcrystalline cellulose.

In building construction, concrete uses cement as a binder. Asphalt pavement uses bitumen binder. Traditionally straw and natural fibres are used to strengthen clay in wattle-and-daub construction and in the building material cob which would otherwise become brittle after drying. Sand is added to improve compressive strength, hardness and reduce shrinkage. The binding property of clay is also used widely to prepare shaped articles (e.g. pots and vases) or to bind solid pieces (e.g. bricks).

In composite materials, epoxy, polyester or phenolic resins are common. In reinforced carbon–carbon, plastic or pitch resin is used as a source of carbon released through pyrolysis. Transite, hypertufa, papercrete and petecrete used cement as a binder.

In explosives, wax or polymers like polyisobutylene or styrene-butadiene rubber are often used as binders for plastic explosives. For polymer-bonded explosives, various synthetic polymers are used.

In rocket fuels, polybutadiene acrylonitrile copolymer was used in 1960-70's big solid-fuel booster rocket fuels.

Organic binders, designed to disintegrate by heat during baking, are used in sintering.

History

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In the Classical World painters used materials like egg, wax, honey, lime, casein, linseed oil or bitumen as binders to mix with pigment in order to hold the pigment particles together in the formation of paint.[3] Egg-based tempera was especially popular in Europe from the Middle Ages until the early 16th century.[4] However, since that time, the binder of choice for paint has been oil.[5]

See also

[edit]
Look up binder or binding agent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Binder (material)

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
A binder, or binding agent, is any or substance that holds or draws other materials together to form a cohesive whole through mechanical, chemical, or physical processes. In and , binders play a crucial role in providing , cohesion, and durability to a wide range of products, from composites and coatings to structural elements and functional assemblies. They are indispensable for processes such as agglomeration, where they enable the formation of granules or pellets from powders, and in the fabrication of where they ensure uniform distribution and stability of components. Binders are classified primarily by composition into organic and inorganic categories. Organic binders typically consist of polymers, resins, bitumens, or glues sourced from animal, plant, or synthetic origins, offering flexibility and compatibility with diverse substrates. Inorganic binders, on the other hand, include hydraulic materials like , lime, , and silicates, which harden through chemical reactions with to form rigid bonds. Within these categories, binders can also be differentiated by their binding mechanisms: matrix binders embed particles in a continuous phase (e.g., pitch or ); film binders create liquid bridges that solidify upon drying (e.g., water-soluble polymers at 1-10% concentration); and chemical binders rely on reactions for strength development (e.g., with ). The applications of binders are extensive across industries. In construction, inorganic binders like cement bind aggregates to produce concrete for buildings and infrastructure. In the pharmaceutical sector, binders facilitate tablet compaction and control drug release rates during wet granulation. For paints and coatings, they ensure adhesion to surfaces and enhance film durability against environmental stresses. In battery manufacturing, binders such as polymers join electrode materials to maintain structural integrity during charge-discharge cycles. Additionally, in composite materials produced via liquid molding techniques, binders like epoxies or thermoplastics stabilize fiber preforms, improving mechanical properties at low concentrations (e.g., 3 wt.% polyester). These versatile properties make binders foundational to modern material design and processing.

Fundamentals

Definition

A binder is a substance that holds or draws other materials together to form a cohesive whole, typically through mechanical, chemical, or processes. In and , binders function primarily as the continuous phase or matrix in composite systems, where they encapsulate and interconnect discrete components such as particles, fibers, or aggregates, thereby imparting structural integrity to the overall . The fundamental mechanisms of binders involve , which enables surface between the binder and the materials it holds; cohesion, providing internal strength within the binder itself to resist separation; and mechanical interlocking, where the binder physically entwines or penetrates the surfaces of the bound materials for enhanced grip. These actions allow binders to distribute mechanical loads across the composite, protecting embedded fillers from damage while maintaining the assembly's shape and stability. In practical terms, binders serve as thickening agents in fluid mixtures to prevent settling of components and as adhesives in assemblies to join parts without additional fasteners, exemplifying their versatile role in creating unified material structures.

Classification

Binders are broadly classified into organic and inorganic categories based on their chemical composition. Organic binders primarily consist of carbon-based materials, such as polymers, bitumens, animal and plant glues, and synthetic resins like epoxy and polyester, which provide adhesion through molecular interactions. In contrast, inorganic binders are derived from mineral sources, including lime, cement, and gypsum, and typically harden through inorganic reactions to form durable matrices. A key subclassification of binders, particularly inorganic ones, revolves around their hardening mechanisms, which determine their suitability for specific environmental conditions. Non-hydraulic binders, such as lime and , set and harden in the presence of air through or processes, but they do not develop strength when submerged in . Hydraulic binders, exemplified by , undergo a with (hydration) to form insoluble compounds that gain strength even underwater, making them ideal for wet environments. Acid-resistant binders, often based on modified silicates or geopolymers, are designed for corrosive settings and resist degradation from acidic exposures through stable network formations. Autoclavable binders, typically calcium silicate-based, harden under high-pressure steam conditions at temperatures of 170–300°C and pressures of 8–16 atm, resulting in the formation of crystalline phases like for enhanced durability in autoclaved products. Binders can also be categorized by their functional binding mode in composite materials. Mechanical binders achieve cohesion through physical , relying on geometric fit rather than chemical bonds. Chemical binders, on the other hand, form strong interfacial bonds at the molecular level, as seen in cemented carbides where acts as a metallic binder for particles, enhancing overall composite integrity. Emerging classifications distinguish bio-based binders from synthetic ones, reflecting sustainability priorities in . Bio-based binders derive from renewable sources like , , , or alginates, offering biodegradable alternatives to petroleum-derived synthetics while maintaining properties in applications such as composites and coatings.

Properties

Chemical Properties

Binders are broadly categorized into organic and inorganic types based on their molecular composition, which fundamentally influences their binding mechanisms and performance. Organic binders primarily consist of long chains derived from monomers such as isocyanates and polyols for polyurethanes, which form segmented block copolymers with hard and soft segments providing flexibility and strength. binders, synthesized from or esters like , feature repeating ester side chains that confer adhesion and weather resistance. (PVP), a water-soluble homopolymer of N-vinylpyrrolidone, exhibits a polar group in its repeating units, enabling hydrogen bonding and compatibility with hydrophilic substrates. Inorganic binders, in contrast, rely on mineral-based structures such as and aluminates. binders, like sodium water glass, are composed of SiO₄ tetrahedrons linked through polycondensation of (Si-OH) groups into (Si-O-Si) networks, with the modulus (SiO₂/M₂O ratio) determining and reactivity. Aluminates in cements, such as , form from AlO₄ tetrahedra that integrate into frameworks, often yielding hydrated phases like calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH). These compositions provide rigidity and high-temperature endurance typical of inorganic systems. The reactivity of organic binders centers on polymerization processes, exemplified by epoxy resins, which undergo step-growth ring-opening reactions with amine hardeners. In this mechanism, primary amine groups (R-NH₂) nucleophilically attack the epoxy ring, forming β-hydroxy ethers and secondary amines, which further react to establish a three-dimensional cross-linked network; this autocatalytic process is accelerated by hydroxyl groups generated during ring opening. Such cross-linking enhances molecular entanglement and load transfer in composite materials. Inorganic binders exhibit reactivity through hydration or acid-base reactions. In hydraulic cements, tricalcium silicate (Ca₃SiO₅) hydrates rapidly with water to form (C-S-H) gel and (Ca(OH)₂), as simplified by the reaction: \ce2Ca3SiO5+6H2O−>3CaO⋅2SiO2⋅4H2O+3Ca(OH)2\ce{2 Ca3SiO5 + 6 H2O -> 3 CaO \cdot 2 SiO2 \cdot 4 H2O + 3 Ca(OH)2} This creates a cohesive matrix, with C-S-H providing the primary binding strength via its amorphous, gel-like structure. Aluminates hydrate similarly, forming that contribute to early setting. Resistance to environmental factors is a key chemical attribute. Specialized cements like calcium aluminate cement (CAC) demonstrate superior acid resistance compared to , owing to the formation of protective alumina gel (AH₃) that neutralizes acids more effectively (consuming 3 mol H⁺ per mol AH₃) and resists dissolution of vulnerable phases like . For organic resins, thermal stability is evident in decomposition temperatures around 412°C for cured epoxies, where cross-linked networks delay until char formation begins, preserving integrity up to 500°C in filled systems. Compatibility of binders with surrounding media depends on pH sensitivity and solvent interactions. Organic binders like PVP and acrylics are often pH-responsive, with solubility increasing in neutral to alkaline conditions due to of polar groups, and they interact favorably with organic solvents (e.g., alcohols, ketones) via van der Waals forces while dispersing poorly in non-polar hydrocarbons. Inorganic binders, such as silicates, thrive in alkaline environments ( >10) for gelation but show reduced compatibility in acidic solvents, where disrupts Si-O-Si bonds; acts as a universal medium for hydration, contrasting with organic binders' aversion to aqueous systems without emulsification.

Physical Properties

Binders possess diverse physical properties that dictate their suitability for binding aggregates or substrates under various stresses, with mechanical, thermal, and rheological characteristics varying by type such as inorganic cements, bituminous materials, or polymeric resins. Inorganic binders like exhibit high , typically 20-40 MPa after 28 days of curing, but comparatively low tensile and shear strengths, often below 5 MPa, which limits their standalone use in tension-prone applications and requires with fibers or aggregates. Polymeric binders, in contrast, offer greater elasticity, with values ranging from 1 to 10 GPa depending on the type, enabling flexibility in coatings and adhesives while maintaining under deformation. Resins inherently lack sufficient compressive resistance due to their low modulus and high deformability, necessitating incorporation of fillers like silica or particles to distribute loads, reduce volumetric shrinkage during curing, and enhance overall hardness and strength. Thermal properties influence binder stability across temperature fluctuations; for instance, bituminous binders soften and melt in the range of 100-200°C, affecting their performance in high-heat environments like road surfacing. Portland cement binders have a coefficient of around 11 × 10^{-6} /°C, which can lead to cracking if mismatched with aggregates during thermal cycling. Rheological attributes are critical during application and curing; many paint binders display thixotropic behavior, where decreases under applied shear (e.g., brushing) for easy spreading but recovers at rest to prevent sagging. For hydraulic cements, setting times distinguish initial set (typically 45 minutes to 4 hours, when workability ends) from (6-10 hours), with full strength development extending to 28 days.

Applications

Construction and Building Materials

Binders play a crucial role in by binding aggregates into cohesive, durable materials that form the backbone of structural elements like foundations, walls, and pavements. In production, serves as the primary binder, typically mixed with and in a 1:2:4 ratio by volume to create a strong composite capable of supporting heavy loads. functions as a viscoelastic binder in asphalt for road , providing and flexibility to withstand traffic and environmental stresses. Lime, often in hydrated form, is used as a binder in mortars to join units, offering workability and breathability for historic and modern . Hydraulic binders, such as Portland cement, enable setting and hardening through chemical reactions with water, even in submerged conditions, making them essential for underwater foundations, bridges, and marine structures. Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) incorporates cement or lime binders with aerating agents and fine aggregates, cured under high-pressure steam to produce lightweight blocks with thermal insulation properties suitable for non-load-bearing walls and panels. In load-bearing applications, binders in reinforced concrete integrate with steel rebar to enhance tensile strength, allowing structures like beams and columns to resist bending and shear forces effectively. Epoxy-based binders applied as coatings provide waterproofing to concrete surfaces, reducing permeability and protecting against moisture ingress in basements and tunnels. For compressive strength, these binder-aggregate systems can achieve values exceeding 20 MPa, depending on mix design and curing. Modern advancements include geopolymer binders, which activate aluminosilicate materials like fly ash with alkaline solutions to form high-strength composites as sustainable alternatives to traditional , offering comparable or superior mechanical performance in precast elements and repairs.

Arts and Coatings

In , binders play a crucial role in paints by suspending pigments and forming durable films upon application, enabling vibrant colors and adhesion to surfaces. Traditional oil paints rely on as the primary binder, which holds pigments together through oxidative drying, where the oil polymerizes upon exposure to air, creating a flexible and glossy finish that can take days to weeks to fully cure. In contrast, egg tempera uses egg yolk as an emulsion binder, which dries rapidly via and , resulting in a matte, hard surface suitable for detailed frescoes and panel paintings, though it lacks the blendability of oils. Modern acrylic paints employ water-based acrylic emulsions as binders, where polymers coalesce after , forming a tough, flexible that dries quickly—often within minutes—making them ideal for contemporary artists seeking versatility and archival stability. This evaporation-driven mechanism contrasts with the oxidative process in oils, allowing acrylics to be water-soluble during application but insoluble once dry. In sculptures and , binders ensure cohesion and workability for three-dimensional or drawing media. typically use as a water-soluble binder to hold dry pigments into sticks, providing a soft, blendable texture that adheres lightly to without heavy film formation. For sculptural modeling and encaustic techniques, waxes such as serve as binders, melting to incorporate pigments and solidifying into robust, textured forms upon cooling. Protective coatings in the arts often utilize polyurethane resins in varnishes to seal and enhance painted surfaces, offering high gloss and resistance to prevent fading and yellowing over time. These resins cure via , typically under UV light, forming a clear, durable barrier that maintains aesthetic integrity in both and decorative applications.

Industrial and Other Uses

In the , binders play a crucial role in tablet formulation through wet processes, where they promote granule formation and enhance tablet integrity. (PVP), a hydrophilic , is widely used as a binder to provide adhesive and cohesive forces, improving the dissolution of poorly water-soluble drugs by ensuring uniform wetting and drug-polymer contact during . serves as an binder in moist granulation techniques, absorbing moisture to facilitate agglomeration and improve flowability and for subsequent . Binders are essential in explosives and rocket propellants to achieve stable, moldable compositions that maintain structural integrity under stress. Polyisobutylene (PIB) functions as a binder in paste explosives such as , contributing to the material's plastic, putty-like consistency and elasticity for safe handling and detonation control. Polybutadiene-acrylonitrile (PBAN) is employed as a polymeric binder in composite and solid rocket fuels, enhancing mechanical properties, stability, and processability in formulations like PBXN-5. In battery manufacturing, polymer binders such as (PVDF) hold active materials and conductive additives together, maintaining structural integrity and during repeated charge-discharge cycles in lithium-ion batteries. In composite manufacturing, epoxy resins act as matrix binders in fiber-reinforced plastics, providing between fibers and the surrounding material to yield high-strength, lightweight structures used in and automotive applications. Melamine-formaldehyde resins serve as binders in the production of laminates, impregnating papers to form durable, heat-resistant surfaces for decorative and industrial panels. Natural binders like and are utilized in the as thickeners to modify texture and stability in processed products such as sauces and puddings. from sources including provides and gelling properties, acting as a biodegradable alternative to synthetic agents while maintaining product consistency over . Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) emulsions are a primary binder in woodworking adhesives, forming strong, transparent bonds in furniture assembly and laminate applications through rapid room-temperature curing and water diffusion into wood substrates. These adhesives offer high dry strength but limited moisture resistance, making them suitable for interior uses where creep under load is minimized by proper design.

Production and Sustainability

Manufacturing Processes

The manufacturing of organic binders primarily involves polymerization processes to create polymer-based materials such as acrylics, which are widely used in coatings and adhesives. Emulsion polymerization, a common method for acrylic binders, begins with an emulsion of water, monomers (like methyl acrylate or ethyl acrylate), surfactants, and initiators, where radical polymerization occurs to form stable latex particles. This process typically operates at temperatures between 50°C and 85°C, allowing for the production of homo- or copolymers with controlled particle size and stability. For bitumen, an organic binder used in asphalt, production relies on distillation of crude oil, where the heaviest fraction is separated through atmospheric and vacuum distillation to yield the viscous residue. This refining separates lighter hydrocarbons first, leaving bitumen as the bottom product, often further processed by air blowing to adjust viscosity. Inorganic binders, such as , are produced through high-temperature firing known as clinkering. Raw materials like , clay, , and are ground into a fine powder (raw meal), preheated, and fed into a where they are heated to approximately 1450°C, forming clinker nodules through and . The clinker is then rapidly cooled and ground with to control hydration kinetics, ensuring the binder's setting behavior during use. Hydration control in production is achieved by adjusting the gypsum content and particle fineness, which influences the rate of chemical reactions when is later added, preventing premature setting. Application techniques for binders vary by end-use and include mixing, , and autoclaving to integrate them with aggregates or substrates. In pharmaceutical formulations, wet granulation mixes powders with a liquid binder solution (such as ) in a , forming wet granules that are dried and sized for tablet compression. For binders in composites or molds, involves pouring liquid (e.g., or phenolic) into a mold, where it cures via heat or catalysts to bind fillers like grains. Autoclaving, used in for materials like aerated , subjects the binder-aggregate to high-pressure at 180–200°C, accelerating hydration and enhancing bonding for denser, stronger products. Quality control in binder manufacturing ensures performance consistency through standardized tests for setting time and viscosity. Setting time testing for cementitious binders uses the Vicat apparatus to measure initial set (typically 30–60 minutes, when plasticity is lost) and final set (up to 10 hours), verifying compliance with standards like ASTM C191 to avoid handling issues. For organic binders in paints and adhesives, viscosity is measured using rotational viscometers (e.g., Krebs Stormer) or Brookfield instruments to confirm flow properties, ensuring uniform application and adhesion without defects like sagging. These tests are conducted at multiple production stages to maintain batch-to-batch uniformity.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainable Alternatives

The production of traditional binders, particularly , contributes significantly to global , accounting for approximately 8% of anthropogenic CO₂ releases worldwide. As of 2025, this accounts for 7–8% of global anthropogenic CO₂ emissions. This impact stems primarily from the high-temperature process required to produce clinker, which releases CO₂ both from fuel combustion and the chemical decomposition of . Additionally, binder manufacturing consumes substantial energy, often derived from fossil fuels, exacerbating the sector's . Beyond emissions, binders pose other environmental challenges during their lifecycle. Degradation of synthetic binders, such as polymers in coatings or composites, can lead to waste accumulation in landfills, where incomplete breakdown releases and leachates that contaminate and . Resins used in industrial applications, including polyurethanes and epoxies, contribute to through the release of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and non-biodegradable residues during production and disposal. These issues highlight the need for alternatives that minimize and pollution across the . Sustainable alternatives to conventional binders have gained traction, offering substantial reductions in environmental impacts. Geopolymers, derived from industrial byproducts like fly ash and , can achieve up to 57% lower CO₂ emissions compared to while saving up to 30% in energy use during production. Bio-based options, such as extracted from and from plant sources, represent recent advances in renewable binders; for instance, enzymatic crosslinking of nanoparticles with has enabled stronger, biodegradable composites for environmental applications such as pollutant adsorption in cryogels since 2023. These materials leverage , reducing reliance on petroleum-derived synthetics and promoting circular resource use. Innovations in carbon-negative binders further address emission challenges. A 2024 development from introduced a binder using , a carbon-negative of the industry, that sequesters CO₂ during curing, achieving up to 75% emission reductions in ground improvement applications compared to . Enzyme-assisted curing methods enhance by enabling low-temperature of bio-based precursors, such as in laccase-treated kraft for fiberboards, which cuts energy demands and VOC emissions. Post-2023 research on magnesium-based cements, including magnesium oxysulfate and variants, has demonstrated their potential as low-CO₂ alternatives, with production emitting significantly less CO₂ than , achieving over 60% reduction compared to traditional magnesia production due to lower temperatures and the use of industrial residues. For binders, initiatives like the Purman method (advanced in 2023-2024) convert waste PU foam into reusable secondary raw materials, fostering circularity and diverting millions of tons from landfills annually. These alternatives collectively support a transition toward binders that align with net-zero goals, though and cost remain key hurdles.

History

Ancient and Medieval Uses

In prehistoric times, early human societies utilized natural binders such as clay and mud to form sun-dried bricks for constructing simple shelters and structures, with evidence dating back to the period around 10,000 BCE in regions like the and . Lime, derived from calcined , also emerged as a binder in early plasters and mortars as far back as 7,000 BCE, providing adhesion for wall coatings in proto-urban settlements. Additionally, natural glues extracted from animal hides served as organic binders for tools and decorative elements, as seen in a 5,000-year-old yew bow where cattle or sheep hide glue secured cherry bark inlays. During the classical era, binders evolved in sophistication for both and artistic applications across Egyptian, Greek, and Roman civilizations. In and , lime-based mortars were widely employed for masonry and plastering, offering durable adhesion in temples and public buildings due to lime's hydraulic properties when mixed with aggregates. For paints, served as a key binder in formulations, mixed with pigments to create vibrant wall and panel decorations, while functioned as a heat-resistant binder in encaustic techniques for funerary portraits and sculptures, preserving colors through its emulsifying qualities. A pivotal advancement occurred around 200 BCE when Romans developed hydraulic by combining from with lime, enabling underwater setting for critical infrastructure like the aqueducts that supplied with water over vast distances. In the medieval period, European builders relied on natural binders adapted to local resources, particularly in vernacular architecture and ecclesiastical art. Straw-clay mixtures formed the daub in wattle-and-daub walls, where woven wooden lattices were coated with clay reinforced by straw for insulation and structural integrity in rural homes and timber-framed buildings across England and continental Europe. Gypsum plasters, calcined from abundant mineral deposits, became prevalent for interior finishes in cathedrals and castles from the 13th century onward, prized for their quick-setting properties and smooth finish in decorative moldings. Egg tempera remained the dominant binder in panel painting throughout Europe until the early 1500s, blending yolk with pigments to produce luminous, durable works for altarpieces and religious icons, as exemplified in the detailed religious art of the Byzantine and Gothic eras.

Modern Developments

The transition to oil-based binders in paints gained momentum from the onward, with emerging as a dominant medium due to its drying properties and compatibility with , enabling more flexible and durable coatings compared to earlier methods. By the 18th and 19th centuries, industrial advancements during the facilitated mass production of oil paints, incorporating refined and natural resins like copals for enhanced gloss and body, while zinc oxide replaced as a safer pigment in ready-mixed formulations. A pivotal milestone in binder development occurred in 1824 when Joseph Aspdin patented , a hydraulic binder produced by heating and clay, which revolutionized by providing a stronger, more waterproof alternative to lime mortars. The marked a shift toward synthetic polymers as binders, beginning with acrylic emulsions developed by Rohm & Haas in the 1930s, which offered water-based alternatives with improved stability and versatility for paints and coatings. resins followed in the 1940s, pioneered by Pierre Castan through patents filed in 1936 and granted around 1940, providing exceptional adhesion and chemical resistance that proved invaluable during for bonding aircraft components, adhesives in explosives, and protective coatings on military equipment. These innovations expanded binder applications across industries, from automotive to , laying the foundation for modern polymer-based materials. Post-2000 developments emphasized , building on the commercialization of geopolymers in the by Joseph Davidovits, whose GEOPOLYMITE resins and PYRAMENT blended were applied in fire-resistant composites for and rapid-strength pavements at over 50 U.S. facilities by 1993. Recent bio-based advances include reinforcements, such as acetylated cellulose nanocrystals integrated into nanocomposites, which in 2023 research demonstrated a 58% increase in and 27% in ultimate strength through improved dispersion and reduced interfacial adhesion. In 2024, researchers at and VTT developed the first carbon-negative binder using to replace , reducing emissions by up to 75% while sequestering CO₂ in stable carbonates for ground stabilization in projects. Key milestones in additive manufacturing include the rise of binder jetting for , which in saw market growth to USD 0.53 billion with a projected CAGR of 17.79% through 2030, driven by advancements in metal binder jetting for intricate jewelry and sand-casting molds, as exemplified by Desktop Metal's qualification of alloys.

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