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In Catholic settings, the traditional style of confessional allows the priest, seated in the center, to hear from penitents on alternating sides.
A confessional in Colombia
Pilgrims queueing to confess at Međugorje, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Confession, in many religions, is the acknowledgment of sinful thoughts and actions. This is performed directly to a deity or to fellow people.

It is often seen as a required action of repentance and a necessary precursor to penance and atonement. It often leads to reconciliation and forgiveness.

Christianity

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Latin Catholicism

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Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name, Dunedin, New Zealand. The penitent may kneel on the kneeler or sit in a chair facing the priest (not shown)

In Catholic Church teaching, the Sacrament of Penance is the method by which individuals confess any sins they have committed after their baptism; these sins are then absolved by God through the administration of a priest, who assigns an act of penance. To validly receive absolution, the penitent must make a sincere sacramental confession of all known mortal sins not yet confessed to a priest and pray an act of contrition (a genre of prayers) that expresses both motives for sorrow and the resolve not to sin again.

In the Latin Church, it is obligatory at least once a year for serious sins, is usually conducted within a confessional box, booth, or reconciliation room. This sacrament is known by many names, including penance, reconciliation, and confession.[1] While official Church publications usually refer to the sacrament as "penance", "reconciliation", or "penance and reconciliation", many clergy and laypeople continue to use the term "confession" when referring to the sacrament.

For the Catholic Church, the sacrament intends to provide healing for the soul as well as to regain the grace of God, lost by sin. In Catholic teaching, a perfect act of contrition – where the penitent expresses sorrow for having offended God and not out of fear of eternal punishment – removes the eternal punishment associated with mortal sin, even outside of confession. However, Catholics must confess their mortal sins within confession at the earliest opportunity.[2] In theological terms, the priest acts in persona Christi and receives from the Church the power of jurisdiction over the penitent. The Council of Trent (Session Fourteen, Chapter I) quoted John 20:22–23[3] as the primary Scriptural proof for the doctrine concerning the sacrament.[4] Catholics also consider Matthew 18:18,[5] describing the power to "bind" and to "loose", to be among the Scriptural bases for the sacrament.[6]

The Catholic Church teaches that sacramental confession requires three "acts" on the part of the penitent: contrition (sorrow of the soul for the sins committed), disclosure of the sins (the 'confession'), and satisfaction (the 'penance'; i.e., doing something to make amends for the sins).[7] The basic form of confession has not changed for centuries, although at one time, confessions were made publicly.[clarification needed][8] The concept of confessing in private is called sub rosa, which comes from Hellenistic and later Roman mythology and was eventually adopted into Christian symbolism.[9]

Typically, the penitent begins sacramental confession by saying, "Bless me, Father, for I have sinned. It has been [time period] since my last confession."[10] The penitent must then confess what they believe to be grave and mortal sins, in both kind and number,[11] to be reconciled with God and the Church. The sinner may also confess venial sins; this is especially recommended if the penitent has no mortal sins to confess. According to the Catechism, "without being strictly necessary, confession of everyday faults (venial sins) is nevertheless strongly recommended by the Church. Indeed, the regular confession of our venial sins helps us form our conscience, fight against evil tendencies, let ourselves be healed by Christ, and progress in the life of the Spirit."[12] "When Christ's faithful strive to confess all the sins they can remember, they undoubtedly place all of them before the divine mercy for pardon."[13]

The Catholic Church teaches, based on the Parable of the Prodigal Son, that confession is not a tribunal or criminal court, where one is condemned by God like a criminal, but a "wedding banquet hall, where the community celebrates Easter, Christ's victory over sin and death, in the joyful experience of his forgiving mercy." In confession, the church believes God judges a person in the sense of bringing to light their sins by granting the person the ability to confess their sins to the confessor, then grants the person repentance and, through the confessor, grants the person forgiveness. God's forgiveness restores the person to "the brightness of the white robe of baptism, a garment specifically required to participate in the [wedding] feast."[14]

In Catholicism, it is considered the duty of priests not to reveal anything learned during the Sacrament of Penance; this protection against disclosure is known as the Seal of Confession.

Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, and Eastern Rite Catholicism

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Russian Orthodox priest hearing confessions before Divine Liturgy, Church of the Protection of the Theotokos, Düsseldorf, Germany.

Orthodox Christians as well as members of the Assyrian Church of the East and Eastern Rite Catholics choose an individual to trust as their earthly guide to help them grow in Christ. In most cases, this is the parish priest, but may also be a starets (Elder, a monastic who is well known for their advancement in the spiritual life). This person is often referred to as one's "spiritual father". Once chosen, the individual turns to their spiritual guide for advice on their spiritual development, confessing sins, and asking advice. Orthodox Christians tend to formally confess only to this individual, with their spiritual guide assisting them with their growth in Christ and through Theosis. The bond between an Orthodox Christian and their spiritual father is so deep that no legal official can override a spiritual guide in criminal cases. What is confessed to one's spiritual guide is protected by the same seal as would be any priest hearing a confession. Only an ordained priest may pronounce the absolution.[citation needed]

Confession does not take place in a confessional, but normally in the main part of the church itself, usually before an analogion (lectern) set up near the iconostasion. On the analogion is placed a Gospel Book and a blessing cross. The confession often takes place before an icon of Jesus Christ. Orthodox Christians understand that during Confession, forgiveness is not bestowed by the priest, but by Christ. The priest stands only as a witness and vessel to be used by God. Before confessing, the penitent venerates the Gospel Book and blessing cross and places the thumb and first two fingers of his right hand on the feet of Christ as depicted on the cross. The confessor will often read an admonition warning the penitent to make a full confession, holding nothing back.[citation needed]

As with administration of other sacraments, in cases of emergency confession may be heard anywhere. For this reason, especially in the Russian Orthodox Church, the pectoral cross that the priest wears at all times will often have the Icon of Christ "Not Made by Hands" inscribed on it so that such an icon will be available to penitents who are experiencing imminent death or life-threatening danger in the presence of a priest but away from a church.[citation needed]

In general practice, after one confesses to one's spiritual guide, the parish priest (who may or may not have heard the confession) covers the head of the person with his Epitrachelion (Stole) and reads the Prayer of Absolution, asking God to forgive the transgression of the individual (the specific prayer differs between Greek and Slavic use). It is not uncommon for a person to confess their sins to their spiritual guide on a regular basis but only seek out the priest to read the prayer before receiving Holy Communion.[citation needed]

A penitent confessing his sins

In the Eastern Churches, clergy often make their confession in the sanctuary. A bishop, priest, or deacon will confess at the Holy Table (Altar) where the Gospel Book and blessing cross are normally kept. He confesses in the same manner as a layman, except that when a priest hears a bishop's confession, the priest kneels.

There are many different practices regarding how often Orthodox Christians should go to confession. Some Patriarchates advise confession before each reception of Holy Communion, others advise confessing during each of the four fasting periods (Great Lent, Nativity Fast, Apostles' Fast and Dormition Fast), and there are many additional variants.[15] Many pastors encourage frequent confession and communion. In some of the monasteries on Mount Athos, the monks will confess their sins daily.

Eastern Christians also continue to practice a form of general confession, (or manifest contrition), referred to as the rite of "Mutual Forgiveness". This rite involves an exchange between the priest and the congregation (or, in monasteries, between the superior and the brotherhood). The priest will make a prostration before all and ask their forgiveness for sins committed in act, word, deed, and thought. Those present ask that God may forgive them, and then they in turn all prostrate themselves and ask the priest's forgiveness. The priest then pronounces a blessing. The rite of Mutual Forgiveness does not replace the Mystery of Confession and Absolution, but is for the purpose of maintaining Christian charity and a humble and contrite spirit. This general confession is practiced in monasteries at the first service on arising (the Midnight Office) and the last service before retiring to sleep (Compline). Old Believers will perform the rite regularly before the beginning of the Divine Liturgy. The best-known asking of mutual forgiveness occurs at Vespers on the Sunday of Forgiveness, and it is with this act that Great Lent begins.[citation needed]

Lutheranism

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Main article: Confession (Lutheran Church)
"Private Absolution ought to be retained in the churches, although in confession an enumeration of all sins is not necessary." (Augsburg Confession, Article 9)

Lutherans differ from other Protestants as they practice "confession and absolution" (in two forms). They, like Roman Catholics and many Anglicans, see James 5:16[16] and John 20:22–23[17] as biblical evidence for confession.[18]

The first form of confession and absolution is done at the Divine Service with the assembled congregation. Here, the entire congregation pauses for a moment of silent confession, recites the confiteor, and receives God's forgiveness through the pastor as he says the following (or similar): "Upon this your confession and in the stead and by the command of my Lord Jesus Christ, I forgive you all your sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."[19]

A confessional box in the Luther Church (Helsinki, Finland)

The second form of confession and absolution is known as "Holy Absolution", which is done privately to the pastor (commonly only upon request). Here the person confessing (known as the "penitent") confesses individually their sins and makes an act of contrition as the pastor, acting in persona Christi, announces this following formula of absolution (or similar): "In the stead and by the command of my Lord Jesus Christ I forgive you all your sins in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit."[20] In the Lutheran Church, the pastor is bound by the Seal of the Confessional (similar to the Roman Catholic tradition). Luther's Small Catechism says "the pastor is pledged not to tell anyone else of sins to him in private confession, for those sins have been removed.[18]

At the present time, Confession and Absolution is expected before partaking of the Eucharist for the first time.[21] Confession and Absolution has historically been scheduled on Saturdays (after vespers), in preparation for Mass on the Lord's Day (though it may be held on any day of the week depending on the individual Lutheran parish).[22][23]

Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist

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In the Reformed tradition (which includes the Continental Reformed, Presbyterian and Congregationalist denominations), corporate confession is the normative way that confession and absolution is practiced, though confession on an individual basis is an approved rite:[24][25]

SACERDOTAL CONFESSION AND ABSOLUTION But we believe that this sincere confession which is made to God alone, either privately between God and the sinner, or publicly in the Church where the general confession of sins is said, is sufficient, and that in order to obtain forgiveness of sins it is not necessary for anyone to confess his sins to a priest, mumuring them in his ears, that in turn he might receive absolution from the priest with his laying on of hands, because there is neither a commandment nor an example of this in Holy Scriptures. David testifies and says: “I acknowledged my sin to thee, and did not hide my iniquity; I said, `I will confess my transgressions to the Lord’; then thou didst forgive the guilt of my sin” (Ps. 32:5). And the Lord who taught us to pray and at the same time to confess our sins said: “Pray then like this: Our Father, who art in heaven,…forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors” (Matt. 6:12). Therefore it is necessary that we confess our sins to God our Father, and be reconciled with our neighbor if we have offended him. Concerning this kind of confession, the Apostle James says: “Confess your sins to one another” (James 5:16). If, however, anyone is overwhelmed by the burden of his sins and by perplexing temptations, and will seek counsel, instruction and comfort privately, either from a minister of the Church, or from any other brother who is instructed in God’s law, we do not disapprove; just as we also fully approve of that general and public confession of sins which is usually said in Church and in meetings for worship, as we noted above, inasmuch as it is agreeable to Scripture. —Second Helvetic Confession[24]

The Order of Worship in the Bible Presbyterian Church, for example, enjoins the following:[25]

Each Sunday we have a corporate confession of sins with an announcement of assurance of pardon from sin—this is great news for all believers. We strive to use the form of confession sincerely, to acknowledging our brokenness—in thought, word, and deed—and to receive God's forgiveness through Jesus Christ in thankfulness.[25]

Many Reformed, Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches (including the Church of Scotland, Presbyterian Church (USA) and Presbyterian Church in America) practice Confession in the Divine Liturgy or Divine Worship on each Lord's Day. The practices are found in the Book of Common Worship, the Book of Order and the Book of Common Order.

It may start usually with the following confessional prayer read in unison, followed by the Kyrie Eleison or Trisagion (Holy God, holy and mighty) and Agnus Dei (Lamb of God).

Merciful God,
we confess that we have sinned against you
in thought, word, and deed,
by what we have done,
and by what we have left undone.

We have not loved you
with our whole heart and soul
and mind and strength.

We have not loved our neighbors as ourselves.

In your mercy,
forgive what we have been,
help us amend what we are,
and direct what we shall be,
so that we may delight in your will
and walk in your ways,
to the glory of your holy name.

— Book of Common Worship

Following this, an Assurance of Pardon is spoken.[26]

The Presbyterian Church (USA)'s Directory of Worship, in directing the components or worship, states: "A prayer of confession of the reality of sin in personal and common life follows. In a declaration of pardon, the gospel is proclaimed and forgiveness is declared in the name of Jesus Christ. God's redemption and God's claim upon human life are remembered."[27]

Anabaptism

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Many Anabaptist denominations, including those of the Schwarzenau Brethren, Mennonite and Amish traditions, encourage confession to another or to the elders,[28] and some denominations require such confession when a wrong has been done to a person as well as to God. Confession is then made to the person wronged and also to God, and is part of the reconciliation process. In cases where sin has resulted in the exclusion of a person from church membership due to unrepentance, public confession is often a prerequisite to readmission. The sinner confesses to the church their repentance and is received back into fellowship. In both cases there is a required manner to the confessions: for sins between God and man and for sins between man and man. Confession in the Anabaptist tradition is done in the humble posture of kneeling.[29]

Anglicanism

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In the Anglican tradition, confession and absolution is usually a component part of corporate worship, particularly at the Eucharist (as with Lutheranism). The form involves an exhortation to repentance by the priest, a period of silent prayer during which believers may inwardly confess their sins, a form of general confession said together by all present and the pronouncement of general absolution by the priest, often accompanied by the sign of the cross.

Private or auricular confession is also practiced by Anglicans and is especially common among Anglo-Catholics. The venue for confessions is either in the traditional confessional, which is the common practice among Anglo-Catholics, or in a private meeting with the priest. Often a priest will sit in the sanctuary, just inside the communion rail, facing toward the altar and away from the penitent. Other times they will use a portable screen to divide themselves and the penitent. Following the confession of sins and the assignment of penance, the priest makes the pronouncement of absolution. The seal of the confessional, as with Roman Catholicism, is absolute and any confessor who divulges information revealed in confession is subject to deposition and removal from office.

Historically, the practice of auricular confession was highly controversial within Anglicanism. When priests began to hear confessions, they responded to criticisms by pointing to the fact that such is explicitly sanctioned in "The Order for the Visitation of the Sick" in the Book of Common Prayer, which contains the following direction:

Here shall the sick person be moved to make a special Confession of his sins, if he feel his conscience troubled with any weighty matter. After which Confession, the Priest shall absolve him (if he humbly and heartily desire it).

— Book of Common Prayer

Auricular confession within mainstream Anglicanism became accepted in the second half of the 20th century; the 1979 Book of Common Prayer for the Episcopal Church in the US provides two forms for it in the section "The Reconciliation of a Penitent".

Private confession is also envisaged by the canon law of the Church of England, which contains the following, intended to safeguard the seal of the confessional:

[I]f any man confess his secret and hidden sins to the minister, for the unburdening of his conscience, and to receive spiritual consolation and ease of mind from him; we [...] do straitly charge and admonish him [i.e., the minister], that he does not at any time reveal and make known to any person whatsoever any crime or offence so committed to his trust and secrecy

— Proviso to Canon 113 of the Code of 1603[30]

There is no requirement for private confession, but a common understanding that it may be desirable depending on individual circumstances. An Anglican aphorism regarding the practice is "All may; none must; some should".[31]

Private confession of sins to a priest, followed by absolution, has always been provided for in the Book of Common Prayer. In the Communion Service of the 1662 English Prayer Book, for example, we read:

And because it is requisite, that no man should come to the holy Communion, but with a full trust in God's mercy, and with a quiet conscience; therefore, if there be any of you, who by this means [that is, by personal confession of sins] cannot quiet his own conscience herein, but requireth further comfort or counsel; let him come to me, or to some other discreet and learned Minister of God's Word, and open his grief; that by the ministry of God's holy Word he may receive the benefit of absolution, together with ghostly counsel and advice, to the quieting of his conscience, and avoiding of all scruple and doubtfulness.[32]

The status of confession as lesser sacrament than Baptism and Communion is stated in Anglican formularies, such as the Thirty-Nine Articles. Article XXV includes it among "Those five commonly called Sacraments" which "are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel [...] for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God."[33] In the view of some theologians, "commonly called Sacraments" does not mean "wrongly called Sacraments;" and that the Article merely distinguishes confession and the other rites from the two great Sacraments of the Gospel.[34]

Until the Prayer Book revisions of the 1970s and the creation of Alternative Service Books in various Anglican provinces, the penitential rite was always part of larger services. Prior to the revision, private confessions would be according to the form of Ministry to the Sick. The form of absolution provided in the order for the Visitation of the Sick reads, "Our Lord Jesus Christ, who hath left power to his Church to absolve all sinners who truly repent and believe in him, of his great mercy forgive thee thine offences: And by his authority committed to me, I absolve thee from all thy sins, In the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen."[35]

Despite the provision for private confession in every edition of the Book of Common Prayer, the practice was frequently contested during the Ritualist controversies of the later nineteenth century.[36]

Methodism

[edit]
Further information: Christian views on sin § Methodist views

Methodist theology teaches that the Christian life should be characterized by holy living, free from sin.[37] However, for individuals who fall into sin, Wesleyan doctrine holds that "there is a Saviour waiting with open arms ready to forgive and to help establish them in the Christian faith" and that these persons should "immediately confess the problem and restore the relationship with God."[38] Methodists normatively practice confession of their sin to God himself through prayer, holding that "When we do confess, our fellowship with the Father is restored. He extends His parental forgiveness. He cleanses us of all unrighteousness, thus removing the consequences of the previously unconfessed sin. We are back on track to realise the best plan that He has for our lives."[39]

In the Methodist Churches, as with the Anglican Communion, the particular, private confession of sins to a pastor is defined by the Articles of Religion as one those "Commonly called Sacraments but not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel", also known as the "five lesser sacraments".[40][41] John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist movement, held "the validity of Anglican practice in his day as reflected in the 1662 Book of Common Prayer",[42] stating that "We grant confession to men to be in many cases of use: public, in case of public scandal; private, to a spiritual guide for disburdening of the conscience, and as a help to repentance."[43] Additionally, per the recommendation of John Wesley, Methodist class meetings traditionally meet weekly in order to confess sins to one another.[44]

The Book of Worship of The United Methodist Church contains the rite for private confession and absolution in "A Service of Healing II", in which the minister pronounces the words "In the name of Jesus Christ, you are forgiven!";[a] some Methodist churches have regularly scheduled auricular confession and absolution, while others make it available upon request.[45] Near the time of death, many Methodists confess their sins and receive absolution from an ordained minister, in addition to being anointed.[46] Since Methodism holds the office of the keys to "belong to all baptized persons", private confession does not necessarily need to be made to a pastor, and therefore lay confession is permitted, although this is not the norm.[47]

In the Methodist tradition, corporate confession is the most common practice, with the Methodist liturgy including "prayers of confession, assurance and pardon".[48] The traditional confession of The Sunday Service, the first liturgical text used by Methodists, comes from the service of Morning Prayer in The Book of Common Prayer.[48]

The confession of one's sin is particularly important before receiving Holy Communion; the official United Methodist publication about the Eucharist titled This Holy Mystery states that:

We respond to the invitation to the Table by immediately confessing our personal and corporate sin, trusting that, "If we confess our sins, He who is faithful and just will forgive us our sins and cleanse us from all unrighteousness" (1 John 1:9). Our expression of repentance is answered by the absolution in which forgiveness is proclaimed: "In the name of Jesus Christ, you are forgiven!"[49]

In Methodism, the minister is bound by the Seal of the Confessional, with The Book of Discipline stating "All clergy of The United Methodist Church are charged to maintain all confidences inviolate, including confessional confidences"; any confessor who divulges information revealed in confession is subject to being defrocked in accordance with canon law.[50]

The Book of Offices and Services of the Order of Saint Luke, a Methodist religious order, contains a corporate Service of Prayer for Reconciliation in addition to a Rite of Reconciliation for Individual Persons.[51]

Irvingism

[edit]

In the Irvingian Churches, such as the New Apostolic Church, persons may confess their sins to an Apostle.[52] The Apostle is then able to "take the confession and proclaim absolution".[52] A seal of confession ensures that confidentiality between the Apostle and Penitent is maintained.[52] In cases of grave urgency, any priestly minister can hear confessions and pronounce absolutions.[52] Auricular confession is not necessary for forgiveness, but it may provide peace if a believer feels burdened.[52]

Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

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Main article: Worthiness interview

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) teaches that "confession is a necessary requirement for complete forgiveness."[53] Such confessions take place in worthiness interviews prior to baptism into the church,[54] to being set apart for any church callings, or to receiving yearly temple recommends.

Within confession, the sinner must confess both to God and to those persons wronged by the sin.[55] Confession may also be required to an authorized priesthood leader, such as a bishop, branch president, stake president, or mission president. Although there is no definitive list of sins that require confession to a priesthood leader,[56] "adultery, fornication, other sexual transgressions and deviancies, and sins of a comparable seriousness" are included,[53] as is intentional and repeated use of pornography.[57] Depending on the seriousness of the sin, the priesthood leader may counsel the sinner to submit to the authority of a disciplinary council, but does not have the authority to forgive sin, which can come only from God.[55][53] The confession to the priesthood leader must be held in strict confidence unless the confessor grants permission to disclose it to the disciplinary council.[53] The LDS Church rejects the belief that confession is all that is required to secure repentance from God.[58]

Hinduism

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Main article: Prāyaścitta

In Hinduism, confession is part of Prāyaścitta, a dharma-related term and refers to voluntarily accepting one's errors and misdeeds, confession, repentance, means of penance and expiation to undo or reduce the karmic consequences.[59] It includes atonement for intentional and unintentional misdeeds. The ancient Hindu literature on repentance, expiation and atonement is extensive, with earliest mentions found in the Vedic literature.[59][60] Illustrative means to repent for intentional and unintentional misdeeds include admitting one's misdeeds, austerities, fasting, pilgrimage and bathing in sacred waters, ascetic lifestyle, yajna (fire sacrifice, homa), praying, yoga, giving gifts to the poor and needy, and others.[61][59][62]

Those texts that discuss Prāyaścitta, states Robert Lingat, debate the intent and thought behind the improper act, and consider penance appropriate when the "effect" had to be balanced, but "cause" was unclear.[60]

Islam

[edit]
Main article: Istighfar

The act of seeking forgiveness from God for sins is called Istighfar. Confession of sins is made directly to God and not through man; the only exception is when confessing to a person is a required step in recompensing for the damage done. It is taught that sins are to be kept to oneself to seek individual forgiveness from God. God forgives those who seek his forgiveness and commit themselves not to repeat the sin. Typically, a Muslim will pray to God for forgiveness and promises that they will be careful not to commit the same mistake/sin ever again.[63][64]

Alcoholics Anonymous

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In the AA Twelve-Step Program, confession is made in Step 5: "Admitted to God, to ourselves, and to another human being the exact nature of our wrongs."[65]

"If we decline to follow through with this step, our un-confessed sins will haunt us, resulting in the demise of our body and spirit. We will have to continue paying the penalty of our wrongdoings."[66]

"By completing the Fifth Step, we gain God's forgiveness, supervision, and strength. We obtain complete forgiveness..."[66]

Judaism

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Main article: Confession in Judaism

In Judaism, confession is an important part of attaining forgiveness for both sins against God and another man. Confessions to God are done communally in the plural. During Yom Kippur service, Jews confess that "We have sinned." In matters involving offenses against a fellow man, private confession to the victim is a requirement to obtaining forgiveness from the victim, which is generally a requirement to obtaining forgiveness from God. If the victim refuses to forgive, the offender confesses publicly, before larger and larger audiences. Confession (viduy) is also performed on one's deathbed, if at all possible.

In pre-rabbinic Judaism, sacrifices were an important part of atonement.

Buddhism

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Buddhism has been from its inception primarily a tradition of renunciation and monasticism. Within the monastic framework (called the Vinaya) of the sangha regular confession [zh] of wrongdoing to other monks is mandatory.[67] In the suttas of the Pali Canon Bhikkhus sometimes even confessed their wrongdoing to the Buddha himself.[68] That part of the Pali Canon called the Vinaya requires that monks confess their individual sins before the bi-weekly convening for the recitation of the Patimokkha.

See also

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Explanatory notes

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References

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Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Confession (religion)

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In religion, refers to the act of acknowledging sins, wrongdoings, or moral failings, typically to a divine , religious leader, or , as a means of seeking , spiritual cleansing, and . The term derives from the Latin confessio, meaning an acknowledgment or admission, especially of faults. This practice varies widely across traditions but generally involves , verbal admission, and a commitment to amendment, serving as a pathway to restore with the divine and others. While present in many faiths, is most prominently formalized as a in , where it addresses post-baptismal sins through ordained . In Catholicism, confession is known as the Sacrament of Penance and Reconciliation, instituted by Christ to forgive s committed after and to reconcile the penitent with and the Church. Drawing from biblical foundations such as John 20:22-23, where breathes the upon the apostles and grants them authority to forgive sins, the sacrament involves four key elements: (sorrow for ), (oral admission to a ), (the 's pronouncement of forgiveness ), and satisfaction (acts of to repair harm). Historically, early Church practices included public for grave sins, evolving by the into private , which allows for repeated use and addresses both mortal and venial sins. The rite emphasizes 's , offering a "second plank after " for those who have fallen into serious , and is typically celebrated in a or room. Eastern Orthodox Christianity views confession, or the Mystery of Repentance, as a transformative process of metanoia—a change of heart and mind—rather than mere remorse, aimed at renewing one's relationship with God and the community. Rooted in Scriptures like James 5:16 ("confess your sins to one another") and the (Luke 15:11-32), it is a encounter with Christ through a spiritual father (priest or bishop), involving self-examination, verbal confession, and pastoral guidance without a fixed formula of , as the priest acts as a to divine . Unlike early public forms, modern Orthodox practice favors private confession, often before receiving Holy Communion, as a lifelong discipline fostering and healing. In Protestant traditions, confession of sins is generally directed immediately to God without sacramental mediation, emphasizing personal and in Christ's , as supported by 1 John 1:9 ("If we confess our sins, he is faithful and just to forgive us"). However, some denominations retain elements of auricular : Lutherans, per the , recognize individual and as beneficial, though not mandatory, allowing private sessions with a for assurance of pardon; Anglicans incorporate corporate in liturgies like the , with optional private rites for deeper reconciliation. This approach underscores the while encouraging mutual among Christians (James 5:16). Beyond , confession appears in as vidui, a confessional recited communally during and privately at life's end to atone for s and prepare the soul for . Involving an alphabetical litany of transgressions (e.g., ashamnu for "we have been guilty"), it promotes and seeks divine mercy without intermediary , often accompanied by seeking forgiveness from those harmed. In , the equivalent is tawbah (), a direct, heartfelt return to involving regret, cessation of , resolution against repetition, and restitution where possible, as exemplified in Qur'an 39:53 encouraging perpetual forgiveness for the repentant. This personal act, performable anytime, is heightened during and underscores Allah's infinite mercy, sometimes formalized through optional s like salat al-tawbah. In other traditions, features , ritual atonements involving confession and penance to expiate sins and restore . includes confession practices in the , the monastic code requiring monks and nuns to admit offenses during communal gatherings for purification. In , a spiritual recovery program, the Fifth Step entails confessing one's wrongs to , oneself, and another person to achieve emotional relief and moral inventory.

Introduction

Definition and Etymology

In religious contexts, is defined as the deliberate acknowledgment of sins, failings, or transgressions, typically expressed verbally or through to a divine , a spiritual such as a , or a , serving as a preliminary step toward , spiritual purification, or . This act emphasizes personal responsibility and often involves detailing specific offenses to facilitate or . The term "" derives etymologically from the Latin confessio, meaning "acknowledgment" or "avowal," stemming from the verb confiteri ("to acknowledge together"), which combines con- ("together") with fateri ("to admit"). In early Christian usage, it referred to disclosing sins to a as part of . The Greek equivalent, homologia, translates to "saying the same thing," implying agreement with divine truth or open and faults, as seen in contexts like 1 John 1:9. In , the Hebrew vidui denotes "admission" or "," rooted in the verb yadah ("to throw" or "cast," metaphorically extending to acknowledging before ), central to rituals like . Broader linguistic parallels include Arabic , signifying "return" or toward in Islamic , and Sanskrit , meaning "atonement" or "expiation through " in . Unlike mere apology or , which may involve without formal expression, religious confession requires explicit verbal or admission, coupled with a sincere intent for behavioral change and spiritual renewal, distinguishing it as a structured rite rather than casual . Confession manifests in several general forms across traditions: private confession, directed solely to without intermediaries; auricular confession, a confidential disclosure to a like a for guidance and ; and communal confession, involving collective recitation or public acknowledgment within a group to foster shared and purification.

Purpose Across Traditions

Across religious traditions, confession serves as a fundamental practice aimed at achieving divine forgiveness, restoring moral equilibrium, and cultivating personal humility. In Abrahamic faiths, it enables believers to acknowledge transgressions against ethical and spiritual standards, thereby seeking absolution from a higher power to cleanse the soul and realign one's life with divine will. This process often involves an admission of guilt that fosters humility by confronting human fallibility, as seen in Jewish teshuvah, where repentance promotes self-awareness and ethical renewal without intermediaries. Similarly, in Islam, tawbah (repentance through confession) directly restores the believer's relationship with Allah, emphasizing remorse and commitment to righteousness for moral balance. In Christianity, confession facilitates spiritual purification by admitting sins, allowing for the release of guilt and the promotion of virtuous living. A key role of confession lies in soteriology, acting as a prerequisite for divine mercy and across these traditions. For instance, in , sincere confession within teshuvah is essential for attaining and entry into the world to come, resolving the consequences of through personal transformation. views confession as integral to , where it reconciles the individual with , wiping away post-baptismal sins and ensuring eternal life through mediated or direct depending on the denomination. In , confession via tawbah erases sins entirely, serving as a pathway to paradise by invoking Allah's boundless mercy and preventing spiritual despair. These practices underscore confession's function in bridging human imperfection with , often framed as a return to a state of purity essential for ultimate redemption. Beyond individual benefits, confession yields communal advantages by strengthening social bonds and enforcing accountability. By publicly or semi-publicly admitting faults, participants reinforce group norms, promote , and heal relational ruptures within the , as evidenced in shared rituals that emphasize mutual support. This fosters a of unity and shared , reducing isolation from wrongdoing and encouraging communal harmony. Variations in emphasis highlight differences between direct divine and mediated . In and , confession typically involves unmediated appeal to , prioritizing personal accountability and immediate spiritual relief through heartfelt admission. Conversely, many Christian traditions, particularly Catholicism, incorporate priestly for , enhancing psychological relief through guided reflection while maintaining the ultimate source of as divine. These approaches reflect diverse theological priorities but converge on confession's core aim of holistic restoration.

In Judaism

Biblical and Talmudic Foundations

The foundations of confession in Judaism are rooted in the , where it is presented as an essential step in the process of following the recognition of . In Leviticus 5:5, the text mandates that upon becoming guilty of one of the offenses requiring a , an individual "shall confess that in which he has sinned," linking verbal admission directly to the sacrificial rite for purification. Similarly, Numbers 5:6-7 instructs that anyone who commits a against another, thereby breaking with the , must confess the and make restitution, emphasizing confession's role in both spiritual reconciliation with God and interpersonal restoration. These passages establish confession as a prerequisite for , underscoring personal accountability in the covenantal relationship. The prophetic writings further develop this theme, portraying confession as a verbal act of return to that brings relief and restoration. 14:2 calls upon to "take words with you and return to the ," urging sincere verbal expression of as a means of and forgiveness, even in the absence of sacrifices. celebrates the joy that follows , declaring that the one whose "transgression is forgiven" finds , while unconfessed iniquity weighs heavily like a burden; , the psalm's attributed author, models this by acknowledging his openly before . These texts highlight confession's transformative power, shifting from isolation in guilt to communal and divine harmony. Talmudic literature builds on these biblical precedents, formalizing confession within the framework of teshuva () and specifying its formulas and necessity. The Yoma 6:2 describes the High Priest's vidui () over the scapegoat on , where he lays hands on the animal and recites: "O please, ! They have done wrong, sinned, and transgressed before You, Your people the house of ," adapting biblical language into a structured liturgical admission for collective sins. The Babylonian , Yoma 86b, affirms confession's indispensability for teshuva, identifying it alongside and resolve to abandon as core elements that enable , even elevating repentance to override Torah prohibitions through its spiritual efficacy. This development integrates confession into broader ethical and life, making it accessible beyond temple sacrifices. Central to this tradition is the concept of vidui as an oral admission directed solely to , without any human intermediary, which affirms human amid divine . , in his (Hilkhot Teshuva 1:1), codifies vidui as a positive commandment requiring explicit verbal articulation of the , fostering genuine and commitment to change as an exercise of volition. This practice reconciles human agency with 's foreknowledge, as confession serves not to inform the Omniscient but to align the penitent's will with divine purpose, transforming deliberate s into merits through motivated (Hilkhot Teshuva 7:7).

Liturgical and Personal Practices

In Jewish liturgy, the vidui serves as the central confessional , most prominently during services where it is recited collectively ten times throughout the day. The Ashamnu , an alphabetical acrostic listing in the plural form, emphasizes communal responsibility by including transgressions of the entire community, fostering a shared sense of . Similarly, the Al Chet expands on specific "for the sin we have committed," recited in the plural to underscore collective accountability during the and other services. Personal practices of confession integrate into daily life through the prayer, where the fifth blessing, known as Teshuvah, invokes with phrases like "Bring us back, our Father, to Your ," recited three times daily to seek ongoing . The teshuva process, essential for personal , involves four key steps: ceasing the sinful action, feeling genuine regret for the wrongdoing, verbally confessing the before , and resolving not to repeat it in the future. This structured approach ensures confession is not merely ritualistic but transformative, applicable year-round beyond high holidays. An important interpersonal dimension requires individuals to confess directly to those harmed by their actions, particularly in the days before , as mandated by the , which instructs seeking forgiveness from anyone angered or wronged to enable full . This practice highlights confession's role in repairing human relationships as a prerequisite for divine . A significant personal application of vidui occurs at life's end, where the serves to atone for remaining sins and prepare the soul for judgment before . This practice involves reciting a structured , often including the Ashamnu and Al Chet confessions, beseeching and for all transgressions, emphasizing complete in one's final moments. Historically, Jewish atonement evolved from Temple-era sacrifices, where offerings like the provided expiation, to post-Temple reliance on and after the Second Temple's destruction in 70 CE, with rabbinic tradition affirming that sincere and teshuva fully substitute for sacrificial rites. This shift maintained continuity in seeking forgiveness through verbal admission and ethical amendment, adapting ancient mandates to contemporary worship.

In Christianity

Early Christian and Patristic Practices

In the apostolic era, confession of sins was understood as a communal practice essential for maintaining the purity and unity of the early Christian communities, drawing on New Testament exhortations such as 1 John 1:9, which promises forgiveness through confession, and James 5:16, which urges believers to "confess your sins to one another and pray for one another, that you may be healed." This public dimension reflected the tight-knit nature of these groups, where grave sins like apostasy or immorality required open acknowledgment to facilitate reconciliation and demonstrate genuine repentance. Scholars note that such confessions were often performed before the assembled congregation, emphasizing mutual accountability rather than private absolution. Following the apostolic period, post-apostolic writers like (c. 200 CE) formalized public as a rigorous process for post-baptismal sins, arguing in his De Paenitentia that sinners must undertake visible acts of , such as prolonged fasting and exclusion from the , to manifest true before re-admission to the community. viewed this exomologesis—an outward confession—as a singular opportunity for grave offenses, limited typically to once in a lifetime to underscore the severity of falling away after baptism. (c. 185–254 CE), building on this framework, advocated for more frequent confessions in his homilies, such as on , where he instructed believers to carefully select a spiritual guide to whom they could confess sins repeatedly, highlighting the therapeutic role of disclosure in spiritual healing. This shift toward guided confession marked an early evolution from purely communal to somewhat personalized practices, though still within a public ecclesial context. Patristic developments further refined these ideas, with (354–430 CE) emphasizing interior as the heart of in works like his Confessions and sermons, where he described sorrow for arising from as essential for authentic , beyond mere external acts. Augustine's focus on the internal disposition influenced later theology, portraying confession not just as ritual but as a transformative encounter with . Meanwhile, the Council of Nicaea (325 CE) addressed post-baptismal in its canons, particularly Canon 11, which sought reconciliation with rigorist groups like the Novatians by affirming limited but possible for the lapsed, while Canon 12 outlined periods of —up to three years as hearers—for those who had fallen during , thereby restricting but not eliminating opportunities for restoration. These conciliar decisions aimed to balance with , preventing schism while upholding the gravity of after . The transition toward private confession emerged in the 6th and 7th centuries through monastic traditions, particularly among Irish Celtic communities, where penitentials like those attributed to St. Columbanus (c. 543–615 CE) introduced repeatable, confidential confessions to a spiritual father, replacing lifelong public with tailored, private acts of satisfaction such as prayers or almsgiving. This innovation, inspired by Egyptian desert monasticism, allowed for more frequent access to and spread across via Irish missionaries, laying groundwork for the sacrament's later privatization while preserving its roots in communal accountability.

Roman Catholic Sacrament of Penance

The Sacrament of Penance, also known as or , is one of the seven , instituted by Christ to grant forgiveness of sins committed after through the ministry of the Church. It confers sanctifying grace upon the penitent, restoring the state of grace lost through and increasing it in the case of venial sins, with serving as the essential form administered by a validly ordained . The sacrament's relies on the penitent's , emphasizing conversion of heart and reconciliation with and the Church community. Doctrinally, the (1545–1563) defined as comprising three acts of the penitent—, , and satisfaction—along with the priest's as the fourth integral part, all necessary for complete forgiveness of sins. involves sorrow for sins, distinguished as perfect (motivated by love of God) or imperfect (arising from fear of punishment or loss of heaven), while requires the oral enumeration of mortal sins to a priest, and satisfaction entails performing assigned to make amends. The rite begins with an , where the penitent prayerfully reflects on sins in light of the Ten Commandments and Gospel teachings, fostering self-awareness and resolve to amend one's life. Historically, the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215 mandated that all Catholics who have reached confess their sins at least annually to their parish priest, marking a pivotal development in making private auricular confession a universal obligation and emphasizing the priest's role as spiritual physician. Following the Second Vatican Council, the Rite of Penance was revised and promulgated in 1973, introducing three ritual forms: individual confession and , communal celebration with individual confessions, and communal rite with general under specific grave circumstances, to better express the sacrament's communal and paschal dimensions. Central to the is the seal of confession, an inviolable secret binding the under pain of , as codified in Canon 983 of the , which declares it absolutely forbidden for a to betray a penitent by word or sign for any reason or to any person. This absolute confidentiality underscores the trust essential to the , protecting the penitent's freedom and ensuring that operates without human interference.

Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Practices

In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, confession is regarded as the Mystery of , a that heals spiritual wounds and advances the believer toward theosis, the process of divinization through union with God. This theological perspective views , or metanoia, not as a one-time act but as an ongoing transformation initiated by , restoring the soul's harmony and enabling deeper participation in the divine life. Influenced by patristic teachings, such as those of , who likened to medicine that cures the soul's ailments through paths like , , and . The practice emphasizes private confession to a spiritual father—a or monastic elder—who acts as a compassionate and guide, facilitating rather than juridical judgment. Unlike formalized scripts, the rite focuses on the penitent's narrative disclosure of sins in their own words, allowing for personal reflection and tailored counsel, often conducted in a quiet church corner or monastic to foster vulnerability and trust. This relational approach underscores 's role in lifelong spiritual growth, with frequent participation encouraged to maintain inner purity, though without a strict annual mandate. Among the , confession mirrors these Eastern practices but varies by rite; in the , penitents confess privately to a , who after breathes three times into the penitent's face while invoking the Holy Trinity for . In the , a brief confession and is widespread in parishes, often before receiving Holy Communion. These traditions retain an emphasis from ancient canons on the limited nature of post-baptismal for grave sins, historically restricting formal reconciliation to one or a few instances to underscore the gravity of or mortal offenses, though contemporary application allows for repeated with sincere . Liturgically, confession integrates with penitential services like the Great Canon of Repentance composed by St. Andrew of Crete in the seventh century, chanted during Great Lent to evoke self-examination and sorrow for sin through poetic odes and prostrations. This canon, divided into multiple sections and performed over several evenings, complements the sacrament by preparing the heart for narrative confession, reinforcing the call to frequent repentance as a voluntary discipline for healing and renewal.

Protestant Traditions

In Protestant traditions, confession underwent significant reform during the 16th-century Reformation, driven by the principle of sola fide—justification by faith alone—which rejected the Catholic emphasis on priestly mediation and sacramental penance as meritorious works. Reformers critiqued the mandatory enumeration of sins and indulgences associated with auricular confession, viewing forgiveness as immediate through Christ's atonement rather than human absolution. Martin Luther, while abolishing compulsory confession, retained private confession to a pastor as a beneficial practice for pastoral comfort and assurance, but deemed it non-sacramental and voluntary. In , confession is framed as a for troubled consciences, consisting of two parts: the acknowledgment of sins and the reception of from the as God's representative. The (1530) affirms the retention of private absolution without requiring a full listing of sins, as human frailty makes complete enumeration impossible, and emphasizes general corporate in worship services. encourages daily self-examination and directly to God, with optional private sessions to a for specific guidance and , fostering personal assurance amid ongoing . Modern Lutheran practice often prioritizes general during divine services, where the entire congregation confesses collectively and receives blanket forgiveness, reflecting a communal rather than individualistic approach. Reformed and Presbyterian traditions, influenced by , eschew private auricular confession to , insisting on direct to God through prayer as the primary mode of seeking forgiveness. Calvin's Geneva Catechism (1541) integrates confession within broader catechetical instruction on , portraying it as a heartfelt turning from in and daily life, without clerical . The (1646) elaborates that unto life involves private confession to God for all s, supplemented by public confession in church assemblies or mutual acknowledgment among believers when offenses affect the community, but explicitly rejects any notion of satisfaction through works or priestly . This direct-to-God focus underscores the , with serving restorative purposes through admonition rather than formal confession rites. Anabaptist and Congregationalist groups emphasize mutual confession within the believing community as an expression of and discipleship, aligning with their emphasis on visible church purity and . Early Anabaptist confessions, such as the Dordrecht Confession (1632), outline processes that include private admonition, public rebuke, and calls for to restore erring members, viewing as a communal act of humility rather than a ordinance. In contemporary Mennonite practice, as articulated in the Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective (1995), manifests through in , ongoing aimed at reconciliation, and small-group where members confess faults to one another for mutual edification and . Among modern evangelical Protestants, confession often takes the form of public calls during or evangelistic gatherings, inviting individuals to openly declare in Christ and repent of sins as a decisive response to . This practice, popularized in the 19th and 20th centuries, serves as a visible of conversion, drawing on biblical exhortations to confess Christ publicly, though it is not seen as salvific in itself but as evidence of inner . While varying by denomination, such calls provide an opportunity for immediate and counseling, reinforcing the personal, faith-centered nature of Protestant without reliance on rituals.

Restorationist and Other Denominations

In the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, confession forms a key element of , emphasizing personal accountability to while requiring disclosure to ecclesiastical leaders for grave transgressions. Members are instructed to confess sins directly to through , but for serious offenses—such as violations of the law of chastity or other moral failings—confession to a or stake president is mandatory to facilitate healing and worthiness determination. This practice draws from 58:43, which states, "By this ye may know if a man repenteth of his sins—behold, he will confess them and forsake them." Unlike sacramental traditions, there is no formalized rite of ; instead, conduct confidential interviews to assess , offer counsel, and, if appropriate, extend forgiveness on behalf of the Church, ensuring the individual remains eligible for temple ordinances and priesthood responsibilities. The , founded in the 1830s amid the charismatic movement led by Scottish preacher , incorporated auricular confession as a private rite to pastors or priests, blending elements of Catholic sacramentalism with prophetic and apocalyptic emphases. Pastors held the authority to hear individual confessions of sin and pronounce , particularly for those unable to partake in the due to unresolved guilt, as outlined in their liturgical forms for solemn absolution of penitents. This practice occurred in designated spaces near the church entrance for spiritual counsel, avoiding secretive booths, and was influenced by Eastern Orthodox models while integrating the church's unique of apostles, prophets, and angels—who facilitated but did not directly receive confessions. General confessions of corporate sinfulness also featured in liturgical services, such as morning and evening prayer or the service of penitence, underscoring communal humility before the anticipated . Anglicanism provides for optional private confession to a , known as the Reconciliation of a Penitent, alongside communal rites in the . This auricular form, detailed in services like the Visitation of the Sick or dedicated penitential orders, allows individuals burdened by to confess privately, receive counsel, and hear , affirming the priest's role in declaring God's forgiveness without mandating the practice for all communicants. General confession occurs routinely during the and daily offices, where the congregation collectively acknowledges sinfulness and seeks mercy, as in the prayer "We have erred and strayed from thy ways like lost sheep." Methodist traditions, evolving from John Wesley's 18th-century adaptations within , emphasized mutual accountability through class meetings, where participants openly confessed weekly failings and temptations to foster spiritual growth and holiness, adapting Anglican forms into small-group settings without formal priestly mediation. Among Anabaptist descendants like the and , confession integrates with communal discipline, often publicly for serious breaches to restore fellowship, while foot-washing and reinforce accountability. Public confession before the congregation is required for offenses like or , allowing the offender to express and seek ; failure to confess leads to or excommunication via (Meidung), a form of social avoidance intended to prompt without permanent banishment. Foot-washing, observed during love feasts or communion as per the Dordrecht Confession of 1632, symbolizes mutual and cleansing from , enacted after confession to signify renewed purity within the . These practices emphasize visible and community oversight, distinct from individualistic Protestant general confessions.

In Islam

Concept of Tawba

In Islam, tawba represents the fundamental concept of repentance as a sincere turning back to , characterized by deep regret for the committed , an immediate cessation of the wrongful act, and a resolute determination to avoid repeating it in the future. This process is described in the as "tawbatan nasuha," or sincere repentance, urging believers to return to so that He may forgive their misdeeds and grant them entry into paradise. Authentic further emphasize 's eagerness to accept such repentance, likening His pleasure to that of a person finding a lost in the , highlighting the divine openness to . The conditions for valid tawba include performing the promptly upon recognition of the , making restitution for any harm caused to others—such as returning stolen or compensating for —and refraining from public disclosure of private s to prevent fitna (social discord or temptation). If the involves the rights of another person, seeking their is essential alongside tawba to , ensuring comprehensive moral restoration. These elements underscore tawba's role as a direct, personal act between the individual and the Divine, without intermediary requirements. Theologically, tawba offers unlimited opportunities for forgiveness, as the Quran assures believers not to despair of 's mercy, for He forgives all sins to those who sincerely repent. This extends even to major sins like shirk (associating partners with ), which, while the gravest offense, can be forgiven through timely tawba before death, without needing specific beyond the repentance itself. Such provisions reflect 's attribute as , the Most Merciful, who applies tawba universally to all believers, prioritizing divine compassion in the path of moral renewal.

Methods of Repentance

In Islamic practice, tawba is enacted through , the verbal and heartfelt seeking of from , integrated into daily worship routines. During salat (obligatory prayers), Muslims commonly recite istighfar phrases such as "Astaghfirullah" (I seek from ) at least three times immediately after completing the prayer, as this follows the of the Prophet Muhammad to seek pardon for any shortcomings in worship. A prominent example is the Sayyid al-Istighfar, described by the Prophet as the master for , which states: "Allahumma anta Rabbi la ilaha illa anta, khalaqtani wa ana 'abduka, wa ana 'ala 'ahdika wa wa'dika mastata'tu, a'udhu bika min sharri ma sana'tu, abu'u laka bini'matika 'alayya, wa abu'u bidhanbi faghfirli fainnahu la yaghfiru adh-dhunuba illa anta." This , when recited once during the day with firm faith in its truthfulness and one dies before evening, or once at night and dies before morning, ensures one enters Paradise, as per in Sahih Bukhari. Another method is Salat al-Tawbah, a two-rak'ah voluntary offered upon from a , followed by sincere for , as recommended in (Sunan al-Tirmidhi 406). Tawba takes on heightened significance during special occasions, where acts of worship amplify the opportunity for . In , the month of , Muslims intensify through extended prayers (Tarawih), night vigils (Qiyam al-Layl), and supplications, as the gates of mercy are believed to open widely, facilitating easier acceptance of . Similarly, during , the pilgrimage to , performers engage in tawba through the rituals of , Tawaf, and Sa'i, which symbolically cleanse past , provided sincere accompanies the physical acts; an accepted expiates all , leaving the pilgrim as sinless as the day their mother gave birth to them. For involving interpersonal harm, such as injustice or violation of rights, tawba requires not only seeking Allah's but also directly approaching the victim to request and, if applicable, restitution, ensuring the repentance addresses both divine and human obligations. Islamic teachings emphasize privacy in repentance for personal sins, prohibiting their public disclosure to avoid spreading or inviting judgment. A in states: "All the people of my would get pardon for their sins except those who publicise them," underscoring that private sins should be confessed solely to , without revealing them to imams, scholars, or others, as this preserves dignity and relies on divine mercy alone. Public repentance is reserved for communal harms, such as collective wrongdoing or public slanders, where acknowledgment and rectification before the affected community may be necessary to restore social harmony. Within Sufi traditions, tawba extends beyond verbal to deeper inner purification practices, though these are not obligatory across all Islamic schools. , the rhythmic remembrance of through repeated invocations like "La ilaha illallah," helps detach the heart from worldly attachments and sins. Muraqaba, a form of meditative , involves self-vigilance to observe and uproot inner flaws, fostering profound and resolve as extensions of the core conditions of tawba—regret, cessation, and not to repeat.

In Hinduism

Scriptural Basis of Prāyaścitta

The scriptural foundations of , or , in trace back to the Vedic corpus, where concepts of and purification emerge prominently. In the , the term enah denotes or moral transgression, often depicted as a burden that can be alleviated through hymns invoking deities like , Varuṇa, and the waters (Āpaḥ) for purification from evils such as violence or falsehood. For instance, hymns in 1.18.1-5 and 1.24.9 seek divine intervention to remove enah and durita (evil deeds), emphasizing ritual sacrifices and prayers as means of expiation. The extends this framework into structured rituals, prescribing expiatory practices like the Aśvamedha and Agniṣṭoma sacrifices to eradicate all , with the term prāyaścitta explicitly appearing in contexts such as 39.12 to denote rites correcting ritual errors through purificatory baths, mantras, and offerings. Dharmashastra texts systematize these Vedic ideas, particularly in the (Chapter 11), which outlines for sins differentiated by varna (social class) and severity, incorporating verbal admission as a core element. Verses such as 11.227 state that "by , by , by and by study is the sinner freed from ," where confession (pāpa-nivedana) involves publicly declaring guilt before Brāhmaṇas or in sacred settings, reducing the karmic weight of transgressions like forbidden acts or ritual lapses. The text prescribes graduated penances—milder for Śūdras and stricter for higher varṇas—for offenses including , , or caste-specific violations, underscoring verbal acknowledgment as essential to initiate and restore . Upanishadic philosophy elevates concepts of purification to a metaphysical dimension, emphasizing wherein the unity of ātman and dissolves ego-driven faults through eradicating ignorance. Hindu scriptures distinguish between pāpa (moral sins stemming from desire, evil intent, or neglect, binding one to saṁsāra) and doṣa (ritual faults or impurities from procedural errors), with aiding karma resolution in both. Pāpa encompasses heinous acts like or , while doṣa involves minor lapses like impure offerings; , including verbal before priests or fire, neutralizes these by invoking divine and balancing karmic debts, as detailed in Dharmashastras.

Ritual and Devotional Forms

In Hinduism, is enacted through various ritual methods aimed at atonement for sins, such as , which involves the repetitive chanting of mantras or divine names, often performed a prescribed number of times like 108 repetitions to purify the mind and invoke divine . Homa rituals, central to many expiatory practices, entail offerings of , herbs, and other substances into a consecrated while reciting Vedic mantras, symbolizing the burning away of impurities and the transfer of sins to the flames. , known as tirtha , serves as a physical and spiritual journey to sacred rivers or sites like the or Kashi, where bathing and are believed to wash away accumulated karma, making it accessible for collective or individual redemption across social strata. often includes seeking directly from those harmed to promote reconciliation. Devotional forms of emphasize personal surrender within traditions, particularly in the Sri Vaishnava school founded by (11th-12th century CE), where —complete self-surrender to —includes verbal confession of one's faults and dependence on for , as outlined in texts like the Sharanagati Gadya. This approach prioritizes heartfelt pleas and hymns over elaborate rites, allowing devotees to express remorse directly to the during temple pujas or private worship, fostering an intimate through love and humility. Contemporary adaptations of reflect concerns for accessibility and equality, influenced by social movements since the 19th century. Historically, prāyaścitta practices exhibited inequalities tied to varna, with penalties scaled by ; for instance, a Shudra's atonement for was eightfold less severe than a Brahmin's, reflecting hierarchical social ideologies in texts like the (8.337-338). Women, often subsumed under male guardianship, faced restricted access to certain rituals, exacerbating disparities in expiation opportunities. Modern reforms promote equality by allowing women and lower varnas full participation in penances, as seen in inclusive programs and constitutional protections against .

In Buddhism

Monastic Confession in Vinaya

In the , the foundational disciplinary code of early , confession serves as a core mechanism for maintaining the purity and harmony of the monastic community (saṅgha). The Prātimokṣa, a concise of the monastic rules, is performed bi-monthly during ceremonies, where and nuns publicly acknowledge and confess offenses to ensure collective adherence to ethical standards. Specifically, the Prātimokṣa outlines categories of offenses, including the four pārājika rules—such as , , intentional killing of a human being, and false claims of spiritual attainments—that result in automatic defeat and expulsion from the saṅgha, rendering ineffective for reversal. In contrast, the thirteen saṅghādisesa offenses, involving acts like intentional emission of or attempts to create , require formal before the community after , often up to three times, to allow for rehabilitation. In the Theravāda tradition, as preserved in the Pāli Canon, ceremonies emphasize confession as essential for upholding saṅgha purity, with the Mahāvagga detailing their origins and procedures. These gatherings occur on the and new moon days, during which the Prātimokṣa is recited in full, prompting participants to reflect on and confess any remembered transgressions to prevent discord and foster communal integrity. The Mahāvagga describes how instituted these fortnightly observances to address early monastic disputes, mandating that assemble without division to recite the rules and purify themselves through open admission of faults. Consequences for unconfessed or grave breaches are severe, reflecting the Vinaya's aim to safeguard the saṅgha's ethical foundation. Pārājika violations lead to immediate expulsion, barring the offender from monastic life and requiring them to leave the community without further ritual remedy. For lesser but confessed offenses, particularly those initially concealed, purification involves probationary periods known as parivāsa, during which the offender observes stricter rules in for a duration equal to the time of concealment, followed by reinstatement proceedings to restore full participation. Philosophically, monastic confession in the functions to interrupt the accumulation of negative karma by cultivating remorse and restraint, thereby promoting (sati) as a safeguard against future ethical lapses. By verbalizing and mentally acknowledging faults, confessors engage in a process of mental purification that aligns actions with the path to liberation, reducing karmic burdens through heightened and ethical vigilance. This practice underscores the Vinaya's role in training the mind to embody the Buddha's teachings on intention and consequence.

Lay and Mahayana Practices

In lay Buddhist traditions, practitioners engage in daily reflection on the five precepts (pañca śīla)—abstaining from killing, stealing, , lying, and intoxicants—as a form of self-confession to maintain ethical conduct and clear mental obstacles. This reflection involves acknowledging breaches with but without self-judgment, often integrated into sessions to purify negative karma and foster , using practices like the four opponent powers: for past actions, reliance on virtuous objects such as , determination to avoid repetition, and remedial actions like or ethical deeds. Such routines, drawn from texts like the seven-limb prayer, help non-monastics restore harmony in relationships and prevent karmic buildup, emphasizing personal accountability over formal . Mahayana developments extend confession into devotional rituals, particularly in , where the hundred-syllable of serves as a core purification practice to confess and dissolve negativities accumulated through body, speech, and mind. Practitioners visualize above them, reciting the (Oṃ Vajrasattva samaya manu-pālaya...) while generating bodhichitta motivation, applying the four opponent forces to neutralize karmic imprints; daily recitations of at least twenty-one times mitigate daily faults, while 100,000 repetitions aim for profound cleansing akin to "burnt seeds" of karma. This accessible sadhana, often part of preliminary practices (), enables lay devotees to purify obstacles to enlightenment without requiring full tantric . In , confession accompanies (nenbutsu) recitation of Amitabha's name, where admitting faults reinforces reliance on the Buddha's for rebirth in the Pure Land, transcending self-powered efforts. Lay practitioners express through rituals like the Forty-two Buddhas Repentance, confessing past sins before buddhas as witnesses to invoke and karmic purification, viewing such admission as essential for embodying and . , a foundational Jōdo Shinshū figure, emphasized this devotional as a path for ordinary beings burdened by transgressions, integrating fault admission into continuous to align with Amitabha's salvific power. Key texts illuminate lay confession beyond monastic codes. The portrays the lay householder advising bodhisattvas to urge the sick to confess evil deeds, not for but to cultivate for all beings and advance bodhisattva welfare. In Chinese Chan () traditions, reflection on transgressions occurs through introspective practices, including ritual confessions before buddhas or assemblies, as in the Golden Light Sūtra, where bodhisattvas like Ruchiraketu enumerate unwholesome acts of body, speech, and mind to vow non-repetition and ease mental burdens. study further promotes self-examination of faults, fostering insight into ignorance-driven actions without external judgment. Modern global adaptations of lay confession incorporate retreat settings where practitioners disclose transgressions to teachers for guidance, blending traditional reflection with psychological principles to enhance emotional processing and relational repair. Influenced by therapies like —rooted in introspection on gratitude, debts, and faults—contemporary retreats encourage verbal confession to build and reduce guilt, adapting Buddhist purification for therapeutic outcomes in diverse cultural contexts.

In Alcoholics Anonymous

The Fifth Step Practice

Step Five of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is articulated as: "Admitted to , to ourselves, and to another being the exact nature of our wrongs." This step builds directly on the moral inventory compiled in Step Four, requiring participants to share the full details of their resentments, fears, and character defects with a (as understood individually), themselves through , and a trusted confidant. The process emphasizes complete honesty to dismantle the isolation fostered by and , with participants typically selecting a sponsor or another experienced, discreet individual for the sharing session, which may occur in a private setting to ensure focus and emotional safety. Holding back any part of the is viewed as risky, potentially undermining the therapeutic and spiritual benefits by perpetuating . While Step Five involves a singular, in-depth of the comprehensive , AA encourages subsequent ongoing admissions of wrongs during group meetings to maintain progress and . Completing this step often results in profound relief from accumulated guilt and emotional burdens, fostering greater and interpersonal trust while establishing a foundation for personal . AA's of safeguards participants by promoting in such disclosures, protecting against stigma and encouraging uninhibited without fear of external judgment.

Spiritual and Therapeutic Foundations

The spiritual foundations of confession in (AA) trace back to the organization's origins in the 1930s , a Christian movement that emphasized personal surrender to a as a pathway to moral and spiritual renewal. Early AA founders, including Bill Wilson and Dr. Bob Smith, adapted the 's practices of guided confession and accountability, viewing them as essential for overcoming the isolation and self-deception of . A key biblical influence was James 5:16, which calls for confessing faults to one another for healing, a integrated into AA's emphasis on verbal admission as a step toward spiritual liberation. Therapeutically, confession in AA serves as a form of catharsis, helping members release pent-up guilt and shame that perpetuate addiction cycles. This approach was influenced by ideas from psychiatrist , including his 1961 correspondence with Wilson, in which Jung described the "spiritual thirst" underlying alcoholism and suggested that profound spiritual or conversion experiences could provide lasting relief. By articulating wrongs aloud, often to a trusted sponsor, members experience emotional relief and reduced isolation, fostering resilience against relapse. AA's non-dogmatic stance enhances the inclusivity of this practice, framing the as "God as we understood Him" to accommodate diverse beliefs without requiring adherence to specific religious doctrines. This phrasing, introduced in the 1939 Big Book, allows atheists, agnostics, and members of various faiths to engage in confession meaningfully, prioritizing personal recovery over theological uniformity. Since AA's founding in , has evolved as a core element in its global spread, with empirical studies supporting its role in sustained . For instance, meta-analyses indicate that AA participation correlates with lower rates compared to other interventions, attributing benefits to enhanced and . Longitudinal research further links AA involvement to decreased depression and alcohol use, underscoring 's dual spiritual and psychological impact.

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