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Cosmogony
Cosmogony
Cosmogony
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The Big Bang theory of modern cosmology postulates the universe began as a dense hot fire ball.

Cosmogony, also spelled as cosmogeny,[1] or cosmogenesis[2] is any model concerning the origin of the cosmos or the universe.[3][4]

Types

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While cosmogony generally refers to origin stories, the nature and subject of these stories varies with times and sources. Ancient Greece developed a cosmogony focused on the origin of matter, space, and time with a transition from Chaos to Cosmos. This was a form of "philosophical cosmogony" that is distinct from modern empirical science but which nevertheless dealt with many similar questions.[5]: 7  Another type of cosmogony focuses on the formation and evolution of the Solar System.[4] or sometimes the formation of galaxies.[3] The standard cosmological model of the early development of the universe is the Big Bang theory,[6] but it is based on a model known to fail at the very earliest times.[7]: 275  Thus modern cosmogony is not generally a consequence of modern cosmology theories.

Scientific cosmogenesis

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A Big Bang model for the dynamics of the universe is widely agreed among cosmologists. Like most physical models, Big Bang models describe changes of state. Few physical models are designed to determine initial conditions: initial states are given by experimental measurements or by hypothesis. In cosmology, the initial state would be the origin of the universe. It is considered a valid challenge to address but there are significant disagreements over even the form of acceptable answers.[8]

Initial singularity

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Main article: Initial singularity

Since the Big Bang model describes an expanding and cooling universe, it must have been denser and hotter in the past. Conceptually the model can be extrapolated back to time zero. However, this process cannot be run all the way back to time zero: the standard model assumes a density low enough to avoid quantum effects. As the model is followed to smaller times the density exceeds the validity of general relativity.[8] This point in time is called the Planck time.[citation needed]

General relativity initial state

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One approach to the limitations of running Big Bang model back to time zero simply stops extrapolating when the limit of valid general relativity is reached. This model by itself fails in several ways. First, the observable universe is much more homogeneous than an extrapolated Big Bang can account for. This problem is called the horizon problem because events on opposite sides of the horizon could not have mixed in the early universe and thus should not be homogeneous now. Second, the expansion of the universe reduces curvature or equivalently increases flatness. Since the universe now is observed to be close to flat, a universe extrapolated back in time would have to be extremely flat. This almost but not quite zero curvature seems unnatural, an issue called the flatness problem. Third, this extrapolation gives poor results when compared to measurements of large scale structure and of the cosmic microwave background (CMB).[8]

Initial state theories

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Several different theories have been proposed as alternative to simple extrapolation of general relativity. The most successful approach is called inflation. In this model the universe goes through a very short phase of intense expansion not predicted by general relativity. The expansion is so immense and fast that all pre-existing particles are diluted and replaced by particles emerging from the field that drove inflation in an process called reheating. An initially homogeneous universe, inflated by an enormous factor explains why we can see homogeneous features across distances which ordinary causality asserts are independent.[8] When combined with the Big Bang and other concepts of cosmology, inflation becomes the consensus or standard model of cosmology, a model which successfully predicts details of large scale structure and the CMB.[citation needed] While inflation has been successful in developing an initial state for Big Bang models, it does not by itself describe the origin of the universe. The rapid expansion erases evidence of physical processes occurring before inflation.[8]

Quantum cosmology

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Sean M. Carroll, who specializes in theoretical cosmology and field theory, explains two competing explanations for the origins of the singularity, which is the center of a space in which a characteristic is limitless[9] (one example is the singularity of a black hole, where gravity is the characteristic that becomes limitless — infinite).

When the universe started to expand, the Big Bang occurred, which evidently began the universe.[citation needed] The other explanation, the Hartle–Hawking state, held by proponents such as Stephen Hawking, asserts that time did not exist when it emerged along with the universe. This assertion implies that the universe does not have a beginning, as time did not exist "prior" to the universe. Hence, it is unclear whether properties such as space or time emerged with the singularity and the known universe.[9][10][clarification needed]

Mythology

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Main article: Creation myth
The Sumerian tablet containing parts of the Eridu Genesis
The Creation of the Four Elements as published by Holland in 1589 from Ovid's book: Metamorphoses

In mythology, creation or cosmogonic myths are narratives describing the beginning of the universe or cosmos.

Some methods of the creation of the universe in mythology include:

Creation myths may be etiological, attempting to provide explanations for the origin of the universe. For instance, Eridu Genesis, the oldest known creation myth, contains an account of the creation of the world in which the universe was created out of a primeval sea (Abzu).[12][13] Creation myths vary, but they may share similar deities or symbols. For instance, the ruler of the gods in Greek mythology, Zeus, is similar to the ruler of the gods in Roman mythology, Jupiter.[14] Another example is the ruler of the gods in Tagalog mythology, Bathala, who is similar to various rulers of certain pantheons within Philippine mythology such as the Bisaya's Kaptan.[15][16]

The representation of the Universe as rooted in Serer religion and Cosmogony

Compared with cosmology

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In the humanities, the distinction between cosmogony and cosmology is blurred. For example, in theology, the cosmological argument for the existence of God (pre-cosmic cosmogonic bearer of personhood) is an appeal to ideas concerning the origin of the universe and is thus cosmogonical.[17] Some religious cosmogonies have an impersonal first cause (for example Taoism).[18]

However, in astronomy, cosmogony can be distinguished from cosmology, which studies the universe and its existence, but does not necessarily inquire into its origins. There is therefore a scientific distinction between cosmological and cosmogonical ideas. Physical cosmology is the science that attempts to explain all observations relevant to the development and characteristics of the universe on its largest scale. Some questions regarding the behaviour of the universe have been described by some physicists and cosmologists as being extra-scientific or metaphysical. Attempted solutions to such questions may include the extrapolation of scientific theories to untested regimes (such as the Planck epoch), or the inclusion of philosophical or religious ideas.[10][17][6]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Cosmogony

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Cosmogony is the study of the origin and initial development of the , including mythological, religious, philosophical, and scientific accounts of its creation and the formation of fundamental structures such as galaxies, , and planetary systems. The term "cosmogony" derives from kosmogonía, combining kósmos (meaning "order" or "") and gónos (from gígnomai, "to be born" or "to become"), literally referring to the "creation of the world." While historically rooted in mythological and philosophical accounts of creation across cultures—such as the Babylonian Enuma Elish or Hesiod's —modern scientific cosmogony is a rigorous branch of grounded in observational evidence and theoretical models. It distinguishes itself from cosmology, which broadly examines the universe's structure, evolution, and fate, by emphasizing the earliest phases of cosmic genesis. In contemporary science, the prevailing model for the universe's origin is , positing expansion from a hot, dense state approximately 13.8 billion years ago (as of 2025), while formation is described by the , with the Solar System originating about 4.6 billion years ago. Cosmogonic theories continue to evolve with advancements in , such as data from the and (as of 2025), which reveal early galaxy formation and exoplanetary systems, refining models of star and planet birth. Ongoing challenges include reconciling with and understanding and dark energy's roles in structure formation. These inquiries illuminate cosmic origins and support searches for habitable worlds.

Introduction

Definition and Etymology

Cosmogony refers to the branch of study or the mythological narratives that address the origin and of the or . It encompasses accounts that explain how the ordered structure of reality emerged from primordial states, whether through scientific models or symbolic traditions. The term "cosmogony" derives from the word kosmogonia, composed of kosmos (meaning "order," "," or "") and gonos or gonia (from gignesthai, "to become" or "to be born," implying creation or generation). Although the earliest surviving cosmogonic text is Hesiod's (c. 700 BCE), which narrates the genesis of the and gods , the specific term kosmogonia first appears in the writings of the Roman-era Greek philosopher (c. 46–119 CE). The scope of cosmogony extends to both scientific inquiries into cosmic origins and mythic or religious accounts that convey creation through symbolic means, distinguishing it from the broader field of cosmology, which examines the universe's overall structure, dynamics, and fate. This dual nature highlights cosmogony's role in exploring foundational questions of existence across disciplines.

Historical Context

The earliest recorded cosmogonic speculations emerged in ancient and , where myths described the origins of the through divine conflicts and primordial elements. The Babylonian Enuma Elish, dating to approximately the 18th to 16th century BCE, portrays the creation as arising from the primordial chaos of Apsu (fresh water) and (salt water), culminating in Marduk's victory over Tiamat and the formation of the heavens and earth from her body. In parallel, Egyptian creation myths, particularly the Heliopolitan cosmology from around the same period, depict the god emerging from the chaotic waters of to self-generate the first divine pair, Shu (air) and (moisture), thereby initiating the structured through successive generations of deities. Greek philosophy marked a pivotal shift toward rational explanations of cosmic origins, moving from mythological narratives to abstract principles. In the 6th century BCE, proposed the —an indefinite, boundless primordial substance—as the source from which opposites like hot and cold arise to form the ordered , emphasizing eternal motion and justice in cosmic processes. Later, in the 4th century BCE, Plato's Timaeus introduced the , a benevolent craftsman who shapes the physical world from pre-existing chaotic matter, modeling it after eternal, perfect Forms to impose order and harmony on the universe. During the medieval period, Islamic and Christian thinkers synthesized these ancient ideas with religious doctrines, integrating philosophical cosmology with scriptural authority. In Islamic thought, (c. 870–950 CE) developed an emanationist model where the First Cause () overflows into a hierarchy of intellects and , generating the material world through necessary causation while preserving divine transcendence. Similarly, in Christian theology, (354–430 CE) interpreted the Genesis creation account allegorically, viewing the six days not as literal time but as logical stages in God's instantaneous formation of all things from formless matter, emphasizing divine eternity over temporal origins. The transition to the scientific era in the 16th and 17th centuries began to prioritize empirical observation over metaphysical speculation, laying the groundwork for a mechanistic understanding of cosmic origins. Nicolaus Copernicus's 1543 heliocentric model in challenged geocentric traditions by positing the sun at the center of planetary motion, simplifying cosmic structure without directly addressing origins but enabling later empirical inquiries. Galileo Galilei's telescopic observations in the early 17th century, detailed in his (1610), provided empirical evidence supporting Copernicanism and revealed the dynamic, non-teleological nature of celestial bodies, shifting focus toward measurable laws. Isaac Newton's (1687) unified these advances with his law of universal gravitation, describing the cosmos as a system governed by mathematical principles, thus transforming cosmogony from divine fiat to potential naturalistic processes.

Scientific Cosmogony

Big Bang Theory

The Big Bang theory posits that the originated from an extremely hot and dense state approximately 13.8 billion years ago, expanding and cooling to form the cosmos observed today. This model describes the universe's evolution from a singularity-like , where all , , , and time were compressed, leading to rapid expansion driven by fundamental physical laws. The theory integrates with in its early phases and has been refined through observations, forming the foundation of the standard Lambda-CDM cosmological model. However, as of 2025, data from the (DESI) provide evidence at approximately 4.2 sigma significance that may evolve over time rather than remaining a constant , potentially requiring refinements to the model. Key stages in the timeline include the Planck epoch, lasting up to about 10−4310^{-43} seconds after the initial expansion, during which quantum gravity effects dominated and the four fundamental forces were unified. This was followed by , a brief period from roughly 10−3610^{-36} to 10−3210^{-32} seconds, where the underwent exponential expansion, smoothing out initial irregularities and setting the stage for large-scale uniformity. Subsequent phases encompass , occurring within the first 1 to 3 minutes as the universe cooled to around 10^9 K, enabling the formation of light nuclei; recombination at approximately 380,000 years, when electrons combined with protons to form neutral atoms, allowing photons to travel freely; and , beginning after recombination as gravitational instabilities amplified density fluctuations into galaxies and larger cosmic structures. Recent (JWST) observations (as of 2025) have identified massive galaxies at redshifts z > 10, earlier than predicted by standard models, posing challenges to our understanding of early . Supporting evidence for the includes the () radiation, a uniform glow of microwaves filling the at 2.725 , discovered serendipitously in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson using a radio antenna at . This radiation represents the cooled remnant of the hot early , with its blackbody spectrum and tiny temperature anisotropies matching predictions from the recombination epoch. further corroborates expansion, stating that the recession velocity vv of galaxies is proportional to their distance dd, given by v=H0dv = H_0 d, where the Hubble constant H0H_0 is approximately 70 km/s/Mpc (as of early 2020s measurements); this relation was first established by in 1929 through observations of stars in nearby galaxies. Additionally, the observed abundances of light elements—about 75% (H), 24% (He), and trace amounts of (Li) and —align closely with predictions from , where these nuclei formed in the first minutes via fusion reactions in the primordial plasma. The modeling of the early universe's expansion relies on Einstein's general theory of relativity, particularly through solutions to the field equations Gμν=8πTμνG_{\mu\nu} = 8\pi T_{\mu\nu} (in ), which relate GμνG_{\mu\nu} to the stress-energy tensor TμνT_{\mu\nu} describing matter and energy distribution. These equations, applied to a homogeneous and isotropic Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker (FLRW) metric, yield the governing the scale factor's evolution and confirm the hot as a consistent dynamical solution.

Alternative Models

The Steady State Theory, proposed independently by and in 1948 and elaborated by in the same year, posits an eternal universe that expands indefinitely while maintaining a constant average density through the continuous creation of matter at a rate of approximately one per cubic meter every few billion years. This model adheres to the perfect cosmological principle, asserting that the universe appears identical at all times and places on large scales, in contrast to the Big Bang's prediction of temporal evolution from a hot, dense initial state. However, observations such as the 1965 discovery of the (CMB) radiation, interpreted as relic heat from an early hot phase, posed severe challenges, as the theory struggled to accommodate this uniform 2.7 K blackbody spectrum without ad hoc modifications. Additionally, the distribution of quasars, which appear more abundant and luminous at higher redshifts (indicating an earlier, denser epoch), demonstrated clear evolutionary changes over cosmic time, directly contradicting the steady-state requirement of uniformity. These empirical discrepancies, combined with the success of predictions for light element abundances, led to the model's abandonment by the late 1960s. Cyclic or oscillating universe models envision a cosmos undergoing infinite sequences of expansion and contraction, with each cycle beginning from a Big Bang-like phase and culminating in a due to . These ideas trace back to Richard Tolman's work in , where he explored solutions to Einstein's field equations for a closed that naturally recollapse after expansion. Such dynamics arise from the derived from , which govern the evolution of the scale factor a(t)a(t) via (a˙a)2=8πG3ρ−kc2a2+Λc23,\left( \frac{\dot{a}}{a} \right)^2 = \frac{8\pi G}{3} \rho - \frac{k c^2}{a^2} + \frac{\Lambda c^2}{3}, where ρ\rho is the total energy density, kk is the curvature parameter, Λ\Lambda is the cosmological constant, and dots denote time derivatives. For a closed universe (k=+1k = +1) with matter domination and negligible Λ\Lambda, recollapse occurs if the density parameter Ω>1\Omega > 1, defined as Ω=8πGρ3H2\Omega = \frac{8\pi G \rho}{3 H^2} with H=a˙/aH = \dot{a}/a, leading to a turnaround when expansion halts and contraction ensues. Tolman demonstrated that entropy increases across cycles would cause each subsequent oscillation to be larger in duration and scale, avoiding thermodynamic paradoxes but raising questions about the universe's ultimate fate. Modern observations as of 2018, including the accelerating expansion driven by dark energy (ΩΛ≈0.7\Omega_\Lambda \approx 0.7) and a nearly flat geometry (Ωk≈0\Omega_k \approx 0), disfavor closed models with Ωm>1\Omega_m > 1 required for oscillation, as current data indicate Ωm≈0.3\Omega_m \approx 0.3. However, 2025 DESI results hinting at evolving dark energy may reopen discussions on cyclic models by altering expansion dynamics. The ekpyrotic model, developed by and in 2001 within the framework of and , proposes that the hot arises from the collision of two s (higher-dimensional membranes) in a compactified extra-dimensional bulk space, rather than a . In this scenario, our resides on one brane, while a parallel "hidden" brane approaches it slowly over trillions of years due to a potential, culminating in a collision that releases to heat the brane and initiate expansion without invoking or a singularity. The model avoids the horizon and flatness problems of standard cosmology by attributing uniformity to the branes' initial homogeneity in the higher-dimensional space. A related cyclic brane model extends this to an infinite of collisions and separations, where a "bounce" phase driven by negative-pressure fields allows reheating and renewed expansion after each encounter, potentially resolving the entropy buildup issue in classical cyclic models. These approaches predict distinct signatures in anisotropies and gravitational waves, such as suppressed low-multipole power or vector modes, but current data from Planck favor inflationary over ekpyrotic tensor spectra. Quantum gravity frameworks, particularly (LQC), an application of to homogeneous cosmologies, replace the singularity with a "" where quantum effects halt contraction and trigger expansion. Pioneered by Martin Bojowald in , LQC quantizes using holonomies and discreteness at the Planck scale (∼10−35\sim 10^{-35} m), leading to an effective Hamiltonian that modifies the with higher-order , such as sin⁡(μc)/μ\sin(\mu c)/\mu replacing the classical connection cc, where μ\mu is a discreteness parameter. For isotropic models with a , this results in a symmetric bounce at high densities (ρ∼0.41ρPl\rho \sim 0.41 \rho_{Pl}), where the universe transitions smoothly from contraction to expansion without singularities, as verified in both effective dynamics and numerical lattice simulations. Subsequent refinements by Abhay Ashtekar and collaborators incorporated anisotropic effects, showing robustness of the bounce against perturbations, though challenges remain in matching late-time observations like without fine-tuning. LQC predicts deviations in primordial power spectra, potentially testable via future CMB polarization data. In 2025, alternative cosmogonic ideas have gained attention amid Big Bang tensions, including proposals that gravitational waves from the early universe drove the formation of galaxies and large-scale structures, potentially replacing or supplementing . These remain speculative and require further observational validation.

Mythological and Religious Cosmogonies

Ancient and Indigenous Traditions

In ancient Mesopotamian cosmogony, the Enuma Elish epic describes the emergence of order from primordial chaos through the god 's triumph over the sea monster . Dating to the late second millennium BCE, the narrative portrays the initial state as a watery abyss where the gods Apsu and mingle, leading to generational conflict among deities. , elevated as the chief god of , slays and uses her divided body to form the heavens and , establishing cosmic structure and assigning roles to other gods. Ancient Egyptian creation myths vary by region but commonly invoke emergence from , the inert primordial waters representing chaos. In the Heliopolitan tradition, the god self-generates from Nun and creates the first divine pair—Shu (air) and (moisture)—through masturbation or spitting, initiating the of gods that further shape the world. A Memphite variant, inscribed on the around 710 BCE, elevates as the primordial creator who conceives all things in his heart and manifests them through speech, preceding and enabling Atum's acts. Norse mythology recounts the world's formation from the void of , a yawning abyss between realms of fire and ice, as detailed in the by (13th century CE, drawing on earlier oral traditions). From this emptiness arises , the primordial giant born of melting rime, who sustains himself on the cosmic cow Audhumla's milk. and his brothers Vili and Ve slay , whose blood becomes the seas and rivers, flesh the , bones the mountains, teeth the rocks, skull the sky, and brains the clouds, thus crafting the ordered cosmos from chaotic potential. Indigenous Australian traditions center on the Dreamtime (Alcheringa or Jukurrpa), an eternal creative era where ancestral beings traverse a featureless, formless to shape the physical world, laws, and social structures. These beings—often serpents, , or other totemic figures—emerge from the or underground, into existence, forming rivers, mountains, and sacred sites while leaving behind their essence in ongoing spiritual connections. Variations exist across language groups, but the cosmogony emphasizes transformation from undifferentiated void to a living, relational environment. Among Native American peoples, the Haudenosaunee () creation narrative features Sky Woman falling from the upper world to a vast watery expanse below, as preserved in oral traditions and early recordings. Animals and birds, including a great turtle, collaborate to form land by piling earth from the seabed onto the turtle's back, where Sky Woman lands and plants the , giving rise to , fauna, and her twin grandsons who further diversify the world—one embodying good, the other destructive forces. This myth underscores themes of communal creation and balance on , representing . These traditions often share motifs of deriving order from chaos, such as dismemberment or emergence, paralleling symbolic patterns in other non-Abrahamic cosmogonies.

Abrahamic and Eastern Religions

In Abrahamic religions, cosmogony centers on the concept of creatio ex nihilo, or creation out of nothing, by a singular, omnipotent God, as articulated in foundational scriptures shared across Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible, likely composed during the 6th century BCE as part of the Priestly source, opens with God creating the heavens and the earth in six sequential days through divine speech: "And God said, 'Let there be light,' and there was light" (Genesis 1:3). This account progresses from formless void to ordered cosmos, culminating in humanity's formation on the sixth day, emphasizing God's sovereign intentionality and the inherent goodness of creation ("And God saw that it was good," repeated throughout Genesis 1). The doctrine of ex nihilo, though not explicit in the text, emerged in early Jewish and Christian theology to affirm God's transcendence over pre-existing matter, distinguishing it from surrounding ancient Near Eastern myths. Islam's Quranic cosmogony parallels this framework, portraying Allah as the sole creator who forms the universe in six days (or periods) through effortless command. Surah Fussilat (41:9-12) details the earth's establishment in two days, its provisioning in four, and the heavens' completion from cosmic smoke into seven layered realms, all in obedience to divine will: "Come [into being], willingly or by compulsion," to which they respond, "We have come willingly." This process underscores Allah's absolute power, often invoked via the phrase "Kun fayakun" ("Be, and it is"), a recurring motif symbolizing instantaneous manifestation without intermediaries or materials (e.g., Quran 2:117, 36:82). Both Genesis and the Quran highlight a linear, purposeful creation ordered for human stewardship, with rest or completion on the seventh day/period, reinforcing themes of divine wisdom and moral order. Hindu cosmogony, rooted in Vedic texts, presents a more ambiguous and cyclical view of origins, evolving from speculative hymns to elaborate Puranic narratives. The Rigveda, composed around 1500 BCE, features the Nasadiya Sukta (Rigveda 10.129), a philosophical hymn pondering emergence from "neither existence nor non-existence," where darkness enveloped darkness and a primal "One" arose through the power of heat, impelled by desire as the first seed of mind. It questions whether even the highest gods know the true origin, evoking uncertainty about creation's source from a formless void. Later Puranas, such as the Vishnu Purana and Shiva Purana (circa 300-1000 CE), expand this into vast cosmic cycles (kalpas) lasting billions of years, governed by the Trimurti: Brahma initiates creation from a cosmic egg or lotus born of Vishnu's navel; Vishnu sustains the universe through preservation; and Shiva dissolves it in periodic pralaya for renewal, reflecting eternal recurrence rather than a singular event. Buddhist traditions eschew a , framing cosmogony as impersonal cycles of arising and cessation within boundless time. The universe unfolds through kalpas—immense eons of formation, stability, decay, and —without beginning or end, as described in texts like the . Core to this is pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination), the principle that all phenomena arise interdependently from causes and conditions, forming a chain of twelve links from ignorance to suffering, rather than from a divine fiat. This process emerges from shunyata (), the ultimate reality devoid of inherent existence, ensuring no eternal creator or absolute origin, but perpetual interdependence. These traditions contrast divine in Abrahamic accounts, where creation manifests God's purposeful will and establishes a covenantal order, with Eastern emphases on emergent, non-theistic processes that highlight impermanence, interdependence, and cosmic flux.

Philosophical and Cultural Perspectives

Pre-Scientific Philosophies

Pre-scientific philosophies on cosmogony emerged as speculative inquiries into the origins and fundamental nature of the , often positing eternal principles or processes without reliance on empirical . These ideas, spanning , Chinese, Indian, and medieval Islamic thought, sought to explain the through rational or metaphysical frameworks, laying groundwork for later scientific developments. Among the Presocratic Greeks, (c. 624–546 BCE) proposed water as the arche—the originating principle—from which all things arise and to which they return, observing water's transformative states in natural phenomena like and nourishment of life. of (c. 535–475 BCE) advanced a dynamic cosmogony centered on as the fundamental substance, embodying constant flux and opposition, where the is an ever-living fire kindled in measures and extinguished in measures, maintaining unity through strife. of Abdera (c. 460–370 BCE), building on , envisioned the universe emerging from indivisible atoms moving eternally through the void, with worlds forming through random collisions and vortices of these imperceptible particles, rejecting divine creation in favor of mechanistic necessity. In ancient , , as articulated in the Daodejing attributed to (c. BCE), describes the as the undifferentiated, eternal source from which the spontaneously emerges, a formless void giving rise to the ten thousand things through a process of natural unfolding without deliberate agency. , meanwhile, posits (Heaven) as an impersonal cosmic force or moral order that generates harmony in the universe, with the ensuring the cyclical renewal of order from an original unity of heaven, earth, and humanity, as reflected in texts like the Analects of (c. 551–479 BCE). Indian philosophy, systematized in texts like the (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), offers a dualistic cosmogony where the manifest world arises from the interaction of —pure, inactive consciousness—and Prakriti—primordial matter endowed with the three gunas (qualities) of , , and tamas—through disequilibrium, evolving into the 23 tattvas (principles) that constitute the , all while remains an eternal witness. Medieval thinkers synthesized these traditions; (384–322 BCE) conceived an eternal without beginning or end, set in by the —a prime, immaterial that actualizes potentiality as the final cause, attracting the through its own without undergoing change. (Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE) adapted Neoplatonic emanation in his metaphysics, positing that the proceeds necessarily from the One (God) as a series of and souls overflowing in a hierarchical chain, where the First emanates from divine essence, giving rise to the and material world without temporal creation.

Modern Interpretations

Existentialist philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Martin Heidegger grappled with the implications of a universe devoid of inherent purpose, interpreting cosmogonic narratives through the lens of human thrownness into an absurd existence. Heidegger's concept of Geworfenheit (thrownness), articulated in Being and Time (1927), posits that humans are projected into a world without foundational meaning, echoing modern scientific views of an emergent cosmos that challenges traditional origin myths by emphasizing contingency over divine intent. Sartre, in Being and Nothingness (1943), extended this to the "absurd," where individuals must fabricate meaning amid a contingent universe, transforming cosmogonic questions from theological certainties to prompts for authentic self-creation in an indifferent reality. These interpretations, influential since the 1940s, underscore how existentialism reframes cosmogony as a site for human freedom rather than cosmic predestination. Process philosophy, pioneered by in the 1920s, reimagines the 's origin as an ongoing "creative advance" rather than a singular event, integrating evolutionary science with a teleological vision of perpetual becoming. In (1929), Whitehead describes reality as composed of "actual occasions" that preh end (feel) the past to generate novelty, portraying cosmogony as a relational process where the evolves through creative synthesis, avoiding static beginnings in favor of dynamic flux. This framework reconciles scientific cosmologies with philosophical purpose by positing as a co-creative lure toward , influencing 20th-century thought on origins as emergent rather than ex nihilo. Whitehead's ideas continue to inform interdisciplinary dialogues, emphasizing the 's inherent over mechanistic . Cosmogonic themes permeate modern culture, particularly in science fiction and environmental movements, where they inspire reflections on cyclical renewal and ecological harmony. Isaac Asimov's Foundation series (1942–1993) draws on cyclic cosmogonic models—such as eternal recurrence in ancient myths—to depict galactic history as predictable waves of decline and rebirth, using "psychohistory" to model societal origins and collapses akin to cosmic epochs. In environmentalism, indigenous cosmogonies are invoked to promote sustainability, with narratives of interconnected origins guiding practices like land stewardship among Native American and Pacific Islander communities, framing the Earth as a living entity demanding reciprocal care. These cultural appropriations highlight cosmogony's role in fostering resilience against modern crises, blending mythic cycles with calls for planetary regeneration. Feminist critiques of cosmogony challenge patriarchal biases in creation myths, reinterpreting them to empower feminine agency and ecological balance. Scholars like Marta Weigle analyze myths where female figures embody chaos to , arguing that such portrayals suppress women's creative power, as seen in Sumerian tales of Tiamat's dismemberment to form the world. Contemporary thinkers reclaim the —initially proposed by in 1972—as a feminist cosmogony, envisioning as a self-regulating, maternal system that counters anthropocentric dominance and integrates goddess archetypes from ancient traditions. This approach, evident in works like Anne Primavesi's Sacred Gaia (2000), transforms origin stories into tools for equity and , emphasizing nurturing over conquest.

Relation to Cosmology

Core Differences

Cosmogony primarily addresses the retrospective question of the 's origins, focusing on the initial conditions and processes that led to its formation, often through narrative accounts in mythological contexts or specific scientific models detailing the "beginning." In contrast, cosmology examines the ongoing structure, evolution, and fundamental laws of the , emphasizing prospective analyses of phenomena such as energy's role in cosmic expansion and the large-scale distribution of galaxies, grounded in observational data and physical principles. This distinction highlights cosmogony's emphasis on singular, foundational events versus cosmology's broader study of the 's current and future dynamics. Etymologically, the term "cosmogony" derives from the Greek kosmogonia, combining kosmos (world or universe) with gonos or gonia (begetting or becoming), underscoring its focus on the genesis or coming-into-being of the cosmos. Cosmology, meanwhile, stems from kosmologia, linking kosmos with logos (discourse or study), reflecting an inquiry into the ordered nature and principles of the existing universe rather than its origin. Historically, cosmogony emerged from ancient myths and philosophical speculations about creation, serving as sacred narratives to explain the world's or primordial states in early civilizations. In divergence, modern cosmology developed in the through the integration of Albert Einstein's general (1915) and , transforming it from metaphysical conjecture into an empirical science reliant on mathematical models and astronomical observations. This shift enabled cosmology to describe the universe's large-scale behavior, such as the expansion inferred from the model, without delving into pre-initial conditions that remain cosmogony's domain.

Points of Intersection

Inflationary cosmology serves as a key point of intersection between cosmogony and cosmology by extending models of the universe's origin to explain observed large-scale uniformity. In 1981, proposed the inflationary model, which posits a brief period of exponential expansion in the early universe driven by a , resolving the —where distant regions appear causally disconnected yet uniform—and the , which requires the universe's density to be finely tuned to remain spatially flat over time. This framework links cosmogonic speculations about the to cosmological observables, such as the large-scale structure and seen today, by predicting a rapid dilution of initial irregularities. Multiverse theories further bridge these fields through , where inflation does not end uniformly but continues indefinitely in patches of , spawning an ensemble of bubble universes with varying physical properties. developed this concept in the 1980s, building on chaotic inflation scenarios where quantum fluctuations perpetually initiate new inflationary regions, leading to a self-reproducing . This cosmogonic multiplicity intersects with cosmology by suggesting that our is one such bubble, with parameters testable against (CMB) data and large-scale structure surveys, thus blending origin hypotheses with empirical predictions. Observational ties between cosmogony and cosmology are evident in the CMB anisotropies, which provide direct windows into physics at energies unattainable in laboratories, informing models of the early 's quantum fluctuations and phase transitions. These tiny temperature variations, mapped with high precision by missions like Planck, encode details of inflationary dynamics and , allowing cosmologists to constrain cosmogonic parameters such as the scalar . Similarly, plays a dual role, with fields like the Higgs contributing to both the and early evolution; the Higgs influences electroweak post-inflation, affecting reheating and the transition from cosmogonic expansion to the hot phase. Recent observational developments as of 2025, such as data from the (DESI), indicate potential evolution in , challenging the constant assumption and prompting revisions to models linking early cosmogony to late-time cosmic acceleration. These findings, combined with the ongoing Hubble tension—discrepancies in measurements of the universe's expansion rate—highlight intersections where cosmogonic initial conditions influence cosmological parameter estimations, fostering new theoretical frameworks. An interdisciplinary overlap arises via the anthropic principle, which connects the fine-tuned origins of the universe to its cosmological constants by arguing that observed values, such as the small positive cosmological constant, are conditioned on the emergence of life-permitting conditions. Steven Weinberg's 1987 analysis demonstrated an anthropic bound on the cosmological constant, suggesting it must be small enough to allow galaxy formation and structure growth, thereby linking speculative cosmogonic fine-tuning to measurable cosmological parameters like the dark energy density. This principle integrates quantum cosmology's probabilistic origins with classical cosmological evolution, offering a framework to interpret why our universe exhibits the precise constants observed.

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