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Kerma
Kerma was the capital city of the Kerma culture, which was founded in present-day Sudan before 3500 BC. Kerma is one of the largest archaeological sites in ancient Nubia. It has produced decades of extensive excavations and research, including thousands of graves and tombs and the residential quarters of the main city surrounding the Western, or Lower, Deffufa.
The locale that is now Kerma was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 8350 BC, during the Mesolithic. Between 5550 BC and 5150 BC, the site was mostly abandoned, possibly due to decreased Nile flow during this time interval. A second hiatus in occupation occurred between 4050 BC and 3450 BC, likely as a result of minimal flow from the White Nile. Around 3000 BC, agriculture developed and a cultural tradition began around Kerma. Kerma later developed into a large urban center that was built around a large adobe temple known as the Western Deffufa, which was built after 1750 BC. A state society formed between 2550 BC and 1550 BC, with a significant decrease in cattle breeding being evidenced by the archaeological record around 1750 BC. Evidence for copper metallurgy appears from c. 2200–2000 BC. As a capital city and location of royal burials, Kerma sheds light on the complex social structure present in this society.
By 1700 BC, Kerma was host to a population of at least 10,000 people. Different to those of ancient Egypt in theme and composition, Kerma's artefacts are characterized by extensive amounts of blue faience, which the Kermans developed techniques to work with independently of Egypt, and by their work with glazed quartzite and architectural inlays.
Kerma contains a cemetery with over 30,000 graves. The cemetery shows a general pattern of larger graves ringed by smaller ones, suggesting social stratification. The site includes at its southern boundary burial mounds, with four extending upwards of 90 metres (300 feet) in diameter. These are believed to be the graves of the city's final kings, some of which contain motifs and artwork reflecting Egyptian deities such as Horus. Generally, influence from Egypt may be observed in numerous burials, especially with regards to material evidence such as pottery and grave goods. For example, Second Intermediate Egyptian ceramics from Avaris, such as Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware, have been discovered within Kerma burials. In addition, artifacts such as scarab seals and amulets are prolific, indicating extensive trade with ancient Egypt as well as an exchange of cultural ideas. After the sacking of Kerma, the cemetery was used to host the kings of the 25th or "Napatan" dynasty of the Kingdom of Kush from Upper (Southern) Nubia.
Some scholars note an animistic tradition rather than a polytheistic one in pre-New Kingdom Kerma, in contrast to the later Napatan and Meroitic periods: animals depicted during the Classical Kerma period do not show anthropomorphic features like their Egyptian counterparts, and mesas like Jebel Barkal were treated in animistic fashion, After the New Kingdom Egyptian takeover of Upper Nubia, anthropomorphic deities came to prominence. This cultural exchange was bidirectional, as New Kingdom Egyptians began to treat Jebel Barkal as a sacred site, a tradition they likely learned from the indigenous Kerma culture.
Early archaeology at Kerma started with an Egyptian and Sudanese survey by George Reisner, an American with joint appointments at Harvard University and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Reisner later led these two institutions in the so-called "Harvard-Boston" expedition during three field seasons at Kerma (1913–1916). He worked in Egypt and Sudan for 25 years, 1907–1932.
As Kerma was one of the earliest sites to be excavated in this region, Reisner's contributions to the region's archaeology are fundamental. A basic chronology of Kerman culture was established based on the work of Reisner's Harvard-Boston expedition; this provided the scaffolding for all other findings in the region. Reisner's precise excavation techniques, site reports, and other publications made later reinterpretation of his results possible.
The Lower/Western Deffufa (a massive tomb structure) was found closer to the river (19°36'2"N, 30°24'37"E); the Upper/Eastern Deffufa is a few kilometers away from the river in a cemetery (19°36'15"N, 30°26'41"E). The deceased in most burials were slightly flexed, lying on their sides. Reisner saw many links to ancient Egyptian culture through his architectural techniques and the dimensions of the Lower/Western Deffufa's base (52.3 m × 26.7 m, or 150 × 100 Egyptian cubits). He assumed it was a fort. He did not conduct further excavations of the settlement suspected to surround the Lower Deffuffa.
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Kerma
Kerma was the capital city of the Kerma culture, which was founded in present-day Sudan before 3500 BC. Kerma is one of the largest archaeological sites in ancient Nubia. It has produced decades of extensive excavations and research, including thousands of graves and tombs and the residential quarters of the main city surrounding the Western, or Lower, Deffufa.
The locale that is now Kerma was first settled by hunter-gatherers around 8350 BC, during the Mesolithic. Between 5550 BC and 5150 BC, the site was mostly abandoned, possibly due to decreased Nile flow during this time interval. A second hiatus in occupation occurred between 4050 BC and 3450 BC, likely as a result of minimal flow from the White Nile. Around 3000 BC, agriculture developed and a cultural tradition began around Kerma. Kerma later developed into a large urban center that was built around a large adobe temple known as the Western Deffufa, which was built after 1750 BC. A state society formed between 2550 BC and 1550 BC, with a significant decrease in cattle breeding being evidenced by the archaeological record around 1750 BC. Evidence for copper metallurgy appears from c. 2200–2000 BC. As a capital city and location of royal burials, Kerma sheds light on the complex social structure present in this society.
By 1700 BC, Kerma was host to a population of at least 10,000 people. Different to those of ancient Egypt in theme and composition, Kerma's artefacts are characterized by extensive amounts of blue faience, which the Kermans developed techniques to work with independently of Egypt, and by their work with glazed quartzite and architectural inlays.
Kerma contains a cemetery with over 30,000 graves. The cemetery shows a general pattern of larger graves ringed by smaller ones, suggesting social stratification. The site includes at its southern boundary burial mounds, with four extending upwards of 90 metres (300 feet) in diameter. These are believed to be the graves of the city's final kings, some of which contain motifs and artwork reflecting Egyptian deities such as Horus. Generally, influence from Egypt may be observed in numerous burials, especially with regards to material evidence such as pottery and grave goods. For example, Second Intermediate Egyptian ceramics from Avaris, such as Tell el-Yahudiyeh Ware, have been discovered within Kerma burials. In addition, artifacts such as scarab seals and amulets are prolific, indicating extensive trade with ancient Egypt as well as an exchange of cultural ideas. After the sacking of Kerma, the cemetery was used to host the kings of the 25th or "Napatan" dynasty of the Kingdom of Kush from Upper (Southern) Nubia.
Some scholars note an animistic tradition rather than a polytheistic one in pre-New Kingdom Kerma, in contrast to the later Napatan and Meroitic periods: animals depicted during the Classical Kerma period do not show anthropomorphic features like their Egyptian counterparts, and mesas like Jebel Barkal were treated in animistic fashion, After the New Kingdom Egyptian takeover of Upper Nubia, anthropomorphic deities came to prominence. This cultural exchange was bidirectional, as New Kingdom Egyptians began to treat Jebel Barkal as a sacred site, a tradition they likely learned from the indigenous Kerma culture.
Early archaeology at Kerma started with an Egyptian and Sudanese survey by George Reisner, an American with joint appointments at Harvard University and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Reisner later led these two institutions in the so-called "Harvard-Boston" expedition during three field seasons at Kerma (1913–1916). He worked in Egypt and Sudan for 25 years, 1907–1932.
As Kerma was one of the earliest sites to be excavated in this region, Reisner's contributions to the region's archaeology are fundamental. A basic chronology of Kerman culture was established based on the work of Reisner's Harvard-Boston expedition; this provided the scaffolding for all other findings in the region. Reisner's precise excavation techniques, site reports, and other publications made later reinterpretation of his results possible.
The Lower/Western Deffufa (a massive tomb structure) was found closer to the river (19°36'2"N, 30°24'37"E); the Upper/Eastern Deffufa is a few kilometers away from the river in a cemetery (19°36'15"N, 30°26'41"E). The deceased in most burials were slightly flexed, lying on their sides. Reisner saw many links to ancient Egyptian culture through his architectural techniques and the dimensions of the Lower/Western Deffufa's base (52.3 m × 26.7 m, or 150 × 100 Egyptian cubits). He assumed it was a fort. He did not conduct further excavations of the settlement suspected to surround the Lower Deffuffa.