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Lithography
Lithography
Lithography
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A lithograph of Charles Marion Russell's The Custer Fight (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges.
Part of a series on the
History of printing
Techniques
Woodblock printing200
Movable type1040
Intaglio (printmaking)1430
Printing pressc. 1440
Etchingc. 1515
Mezzotint1642
Relief printing1690
Aquatint1772
Lithography1796
Chromolithography1837
Rotary press1843
Hectograph1860
Offset printing1875
Hot metal typesetting1884
Mimeograph1885
Daisy wheel printing1889
Photostat and rectigraph1907
Screen printing1911
Spirit duplicator1923
Dot matrix printing1925
Xerography1938
Spark printing1940
Phototypesetting1949
Inkjet printing1950
Dye-sublimation1957
Laser printing1969
Thermal printingc. 1972
Solid ink printing1972
Thermal-transfer printing1981
3D printing1986
Digital printing1991

Lithography (from Ancient Greek λίθος (líthos) 'stone' and γράφω (gráphō) 'to write')[1] is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water.[2] The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German author and actor Alois Senefelder and was initially used mostly for musical scores and maps.[3][4] Lithography can be used to print text or images onto paper or other suitable material.[5] A lithograph is something printed by lithography, but this term is only used for fine art prints and some other, mostly older, types of printed matter, not for those made by modern commercial lithography.

Traditionally, the image to be printed was drawn with a greasy substance, such as oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth and flat limestone plate. The stone was then treated with a mixture of weak acid and gum arabic ("etch") that made the parts of the stone's surface that were not protected by the grease more hydrophilic (water attracting). For printing, the stone was first moistened. The water adhered only to the etched, hydrophilic areas, making them even more oil-repellant. An oil-based ink was then applied, and would stick only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a blank sheet of paper, producing a printed page. This traditional technique is still used for fine art printmaking.[6]

In modern commercial lithography, the image is transferred or created as a patterned polymer coating applied to a flexible plastic or metal plate.[7] The printing plates, made of stone or metal, can be created by a photographic process, a method that may be referred to as "photolithography" (although the term usually refers to a vaguely similar microelectronics manufacturing process).[8][9] Offset printing or "offset lithography" is an elaboration of lithography in which the ink is transferred from the plate to the paper indirectly by means of a rubber plate or cylinder, rather than by direct contact. This technique keeps the paper dry and allows fully automated high-speed operation. It has mostly replaced traditional lithography for medium- and high-volume printing: since the 1960s, most books and magazines, especially when illustrated in colour, are printed with offset lithography from photographically created metal plates.

As a printing technology, lithography is different from intaglio printing (gravure), wherein a plate is engraved, etched, or stippled to score cavities to contain the printing ink; and woodblock printing or letterpress printing, wherein ink is applied to the raised surfaces of letters or images.

The principle of lithography

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Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the positive part of an image is a water-repelling ("hydrophobic") substance, while the negative image would be water-retaining ("hydrophilic"). Thus, when the plate is introduced to a compatible printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image and the water will clean the negative image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer and more detailed print runs than the older physical methods of printing (e.g., intaglio printing, letterpress printing).

Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder[1] in the Electorate of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a smooth piece of limestone was used (hence the name "lithography": "lithos" (λιθος) is the Ancient Greek word for "stone"). After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, the gum sticking only to the non-oily surface. During printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite.

Lithography on limestone

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Lithography stone and mirror image print of a map of Munich.

Lithography works because of the mutual repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium (hydrophobic) such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible. A wide range of oil-based media is available, but the durability of the image on the stone depends on the lipid content of the material being used, and its ability to withstand water and acid. After the drawing of the image, an aqueous solution of gum arabic, weakly acidified with nitric acid (HNO
3) is applied to the stone. The function of this solution is to create a hydrophilic layer of calcium nitrate salt, Ca(NO
3)
2, and gum arabic on all non-image surfaces.[1] The gum solution penetrates into the pores of the stone, completely surrounding the original image with a hydrophilic layer that will not accept the printing ink. Using lithographic turpentine, the printer then removes any excess of the greasy drawing material, but a hydrophobic molecular film of it remains tightly bonded to the surface of the stone, rejecting the gum arabic and water, but ready to accept the oily ink.[10][11]

When printing, the stone is kept wet with water. The water is naturally attracted to the layer of gum and salt created by the acid wash. Printing ink based on drying oils such as linseed oil and varnish loaded with pigment is then rolled over the surface. The water repels the greasy ink but the hydrophobic areas left by the original drawing material accept it. When the hydrophobic image is loaded with ink, the stone and paper are run through a press that applies even pressure over the surface, transferring the ink to the paper and off the stone.[12]

This very early colour lithograph from 1835 uses large washes of orange and cyan with black ink providing the details.

Senefelder had experimented during the early 19th century with multicolor lithography; in his 1819 book, he predicted that the process would eventually be perfected and used to reproduce paintings.[3] Multi-color printing was introduced by a new process developed by Godefroy Engelmann (France) in 1837 known as chromolithography.[3] A separate stone was used for each color, and a print went through the press separately for each stone. The main challenge was to keep the images aligned (in register). This method lent itself to images consisting of large areas of flat color, and resulted in the characteristic poster designs of this period.[13]

A lithographer at work, 1880.

"Lithography, or printing from soft stone, largely took the place of engraving in the production of English commercial maps after about 1852. It was a quick, cheap process and had been used to print British army maps during the Peninsular War. Most of the commercial maps of the second half of the 19th century were lithographed and unattractive, though accurate enough."[14]

Modern lithographic process

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Main article: Offset printing
1902 Polish lithograph map of the western parts of the Russian Empire. Original size 33 cm × 24 cm (13.0 in × 9.4 in).

High-volume lithography is used to produce posters, maps, books, newspapers, and packaging—just about any smooth, mass-produced item with print and graphics on it. Most books, indeed all types of high-volume text, are printed using offset lithography.[13]

For offset lithography, which depends on photographic processes, flexible aluminum, polyester, mylar or paper printing plates are used instead of stone tablets. Modern printing plates have a brushed or roughened texture and are covered with a photosensitive emulsion. A photographic negative of the desired image is placed in contact with the emulsion and the plate is exposed to ultraviolet light. After development, the emulsion shows a reverse of the negative image, which is thus a duplicate of the original (positive) image. The image on the plate emulsion can also be created by direct laser imaging in a CTP (computer-to-plate) device known as a platesetter. The positive image is the emulsion that remains after imaging. Non-image portions of the emulsion have traditionally been removed by a chemical process, though in recent times, plates have become available that do not require such processing.[13]

Lithography press for printing maps in Munich.
Lithography machine in Bibliotheca Alexandrina.

The plate is affixed to a cylinder on a printing press. Dampening rollers apply water, which covers the blank portions of the plate but is repelled by the emulsion of the image area. Hydrophobic ink, which is repelled by the water and only adheres to the emulsion of the image area, is then applied by the inking rollers.

If this image were transferred directly to paper, it would create a mirror-type image and the paper would become too wet. Instead, the plate rolls against a cylinder covered with a rubber blanket, which squeezes away the water, picks up the ink and transfers it to the paper with uniform pressure. The paper passes between the blanket cylinder and a counter-pressure or impression cylinder and the image is transferred to the paper. Because the image is first transferred, or offset to the rubber blanket cylinder, this reproduction method is known as offset lithography or offset printing.[15]

Many innovations and technical refinements have been made in printing processes and presses over the years, including the development of presses with multiple units (each containing one printing plate) that can print multi-color images in one pass on both sides of the sheet, and presses that accommodate continuous rolls (webs) of paper, known as web presses. Another innovation was the continuous dampening system first introduced by Dahlgren, instead of the old method (conventional dampening) which is still used on older presses, using rollers covered with molleton (cloth) that absorbs the water. This increased control of the water flow to the plate and allowed for better ink and water balance. Recent dampening systems include a "delta effect or vario", which slows the roller in contact with the plate, thus creating a sweeping movement over the ink image to clean impurities known as "hickies".

Archive of lithographic stones in Munich.

This press is also called an ink pyramid because the ink is transferred through several layers of rollers with different purposes. Fast lithographic 'web' printing presses are commonly used in newspaper production.

The advent of desktop publishing made it possible for type and images to be modified easily on personal computers for eventual printing by desktop or commercial presses. The development of digital imagesetters enabled print shops to produce negatives for platemaking directly from digital input, skipping the intermediate step of photographing an actual page layout. The development of the digital platesetter during the late 20th century eliminated film negatives altogether by exposing printing plates directly from digital input, a process known as computer-to-plate printing.

Lithography as an artistic medium

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Further information: List of printmakers
Lithographic image of Bothwell Castle near Glasgow, from 1833

During the early years of the 19th century, lithography had only a limited effect on printmaking, mainly because technical difficulties remained to be overcome. Germany was the main center of production in this period. Godefroy Engelmann, who moved his press from Mulhouse to Paris in 1816, largely succeeded in resolving the technical problems, and during the 1820s lithography was adopted by artists such as Delacroix and Géricault. After early experiments such as Specimens of Polyautography (1803),[16] which had experimental works by a number of British artists including Benjamin West, Henry Fuseli, James Barry, Thomas Barker of Bath, Thomas Stothard, Henry Richard Greville, Richard Cooper, Henry Singleton, and William Henry Pyne, London also became a center, and some of Géricault's prints were in fact produced there. Goya in Bordeaux produced his last series of prints by lithography—The Bulls of Bordeaux of 1828. By the mid-century the initial enthusiasm had somewhat diminished in both countries, although the use of lithography was increasingly favored for commercial applications, which included the prints of Daumier, published in newspapers. Rodolphe Bresdin and Jean-François Millet also continued to practice the medium in France, and Adolph Menzel in Germany. In 1862 the publisher Cadart tried to initiate a portfolio of lithographs by various artists, which was not successful but included several prints by Manet. The revival began during the 1870s, especially in France with artists such as Odilon Redon, Henri Fantin-Latour and Degas producing much of their work in this manner. The need for strictly limited editions to maintain the price had now been realized, and the medium became more accepted.[17][18]

In the 1890s, color lithography gained success in part by the emergence of Jules Chéret, known as the father of the modern poster, whose work went on to inspire a new generation of poster designers and painters, most notably Toulouse-Lautrec, and former student of Chéret, Georges de Feure. By 1900 the medium in both color and monotone was an accepted part of printmaking.[19]

During the 20th century, a group of artists, including Braque, Calder, Chagall, Dufy, Léger, Matisse, Miró, and Picasso, rediscovered the largely undeveloped artform of lithography thanks to the Mourlot Studios, also known as Atelier Mourlot, a Parisian printshop founded in 1852 by the Mourlot family. The Atelier Mourlot originally specialized in the printing of wallpaper; but it was transformed when the founder's grandson, Fernand Mourlot, invited a number of 20th-century artists to explore the complexities of fine art printing. Mourlot encouraged the painters to work directly on lithographic stones in order to create original artworks that could then be executed under the direction of master printers in small editions. The combination of modern artist and master printer resulted in lithographs that were used as posters to promote the artists' work.[20][21]

Grant Wood, George Bellows, Alphonse Mucha, Max Kahn, Pablo Picasso, Eleanor Coen, Jasper Johns, David Hockney, Susan Dorothea White, and Robert Rauschenberg are a few of the artists who have produced most of their prints in the medium. M. C. Escher is considered a master of lithography, and many of his prints were created using this process. More than other printmaking techniques, printmakers in lithography still largely depend on access to good printers, and the development of the medium has been greatly influenced by when and where these have been established.[citation needed] An American scene for lithography was founded by Robert Blackburn in New York City.[22]

As a special form of lithography, the serilith or seriolithograph is a mixed-media original print that combines both lithography and serigraphy (screen printing). In this technique, the artist hand-draws the separations for each process, ensuring a high level of craftsmanship. Seriliths are typically produced as limited-edition fine art prints and are published by artists and publishers around the world. They are widely recognized and collected within the art community.[23]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Lithography

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Lithography is a process that utilizes the immiscibility of oil and water to create images on a flat surface, such as stone or metal, from which multiple reproductions can be made on or other materials. Invented by German actor and playwright in 1796 as a cost-effective alternative to traditional and , it marked a significant advancement in by enabling artists and publishers to produce detailed illustrations, maps, and texts with greater ease and fidelity. The core process begins with the drawing directly onto a polished slab or a prepared metal plate using greasy materials like crayons, pencils, or tusche, a greasy liquid that can be applied with a . The drawn is then fixed by dusting with and , followed by treatment with a solution of and a mild acid, such as , which renders the non-image areas hydrophilic (water-attracting) while preserving the oleophilic (oil-attracting) quality of the design. The plate is dampened with water, which adheres to the blank areas, and then rolled with oil-based , which sticks only to the greasy portions; finally, the inked is transferred to damp using a specialized press, producing a direct and tonal print. This method allows for subtle gradations and textures, distinguishing lithography from or intaglio techniques. Historically, lithography gained commercial traction in the 1820s, spreading rapidly across and for applications in book illustration, advertising posters, and . Early adopters replaced the heavy Bavarian limestone with lighter zinc plates around 1830, enabling more portable and scalable production, while aluminum plates became standard by for even greater durability and size. The development of in the 1830s, which employed separate stones or plates for each color with precise registration, revolutionized and produced vibrant works like those in 19th-century trade cards and books. By the mid-19th century, lithography had democratized image reproduction, influencing fields from fine art—where artists like and Toulouse-Lautrec excelled—to scientific documentation and mass media. In the , the accidental invention of offset lithography by Ira W. Rubel in 1904 transformed the technique into the backbone of modern commercial printing; here, the image is first transferred from the plate to a rubber blanket cylinder before reaching the substrate, reducing wear on the plate and accommodating curved surfaces like newsprint rolls. This variant, enhanced by photomechanical plate-making in the 1960s and computer-to-plate technology in the 1990s, excels in high-volume runs—producing thousands of sheets per hour—with exceptional color consistency and cost efficiency, powering industries such as , , and . While traditional stone lithography persists in artistic contexts for its tactile expressiveness, the broader term "lithography" now also encompasses , a light-sensitive adaptation critical to in manufacturing, where patterns are projected onto photoresist-coated wafers to etch microscale circuits.

History

Invention and Early Development

Alois Senefelder, born in 1771 as the son of a court , pursued a career as a and after his father's death in 1791 left the family in financial straits. By 1796, frustrated with the high costs and delays of traditional printing methods for his theater scripts—such as a printer's offer of only 100 gulden profit contingent on rushed completion before the Easter Fair—Senefelder sought an affordable alternative to etch and reproduce plates himself. Senefelder's breakthrough came accidentally in 1796 while experimenting with chemical etching after failing to engrave copper plates. He turned to Solnhofen limestone slabs, a fine-grained Bavarian stone, treating them with nitric acid (aqua fortis) to create a receptive surface and developing a grease-based ink composed of wax, soap, and lampblack for drawing. This process exploited the immiscibility of oil and water, allowing greasy images to repel dampening solution and attract ink during printing, thus forming a reusable planographic surface without relief or intaglio. By 1798, after refining the technique, Senefelder produced his first experimental prints on this chemical basis, including local maps and musical scores that highlighted lithography's capacity for precise fine lines, subtle tonal gradations, and straightforward reproduction of complex notations. Early adoption of the technique occurred in , where Senefelder partnered with local printers such as composer Franz Gleißner to establish a firm in 1796, producing the first lithographed music sheets as early as 1797. This collaboration expanded in 1800 with the opening of the first commercial lithographic workshop in , equipped with a lever press and training for apprentices, focusing on music and illustrations; nearby, the André brothers—Johann Anton and Friedrich—in Offenbach further propelled commercialization through their music house, which adopted the method for works like scores. Senefelder documented and disseminated the process in his 1818 Vollständiges Lehrbuch der Steindruckerey (A Complete Course of Lithography), dedicated to King , which provided detailed instructions and propelled the technique's spread across Europe despite initial delays from 1816 onward.

Developments in the 19th Century

During the , lithography expanded significantly from its early applications, driven by innovations that enhanced color reproduction and accessibility for commercial use. A pivotal advancement was the introduction of by Godefroy Engelmann in 1837, who received a French for a process that achieved consistent high-quality multi-color printing by registering successive stones for each color layer. This technique revolutionized the production of vibrant images, particularly for maps, book illustrations, and decorative prints, allowing for economical replication of complex visuals that previously required labor-intensive hand-coloring. Key technical refinements further broadened lithography's appeal, including the popularization of transfer lithography, which involved drawing on paper with greasy inks and then transferring the image to a lithographic stone. Although patented by as part of his chemical printing methods in 1803 through an Austrian franchise, this innovation gained widespread adoption mid-century, enabling artists from distant locations to contribute designs without direct stone work and facilitating faster production workflows. The adoption of plates emerged as a major improvement in the early , offering a lighter, more durable alternative to fragile that reduced handling risks and allowed for easier storage and transport of printing surfaces. The period also marked a commercial boom, as lithography became instrumental in creating affordable mass-produced visuals that democratized and information. In , it powered the proliferation of satirical posters and political caricatures, exemplified by Honoré Daumier's biting 1830s lithographs critiquing social and governmental figures, which were distributed via periodicals like La Caricature. Across the Atlantic, the American firm & Ives, established in 1835, capitalized on the technique to produce over 7,500 popular prints depicting everyday scenes, historical events, and landscapes, often hand-colored for broad appeal in covers and affordable home decor. This surge extended to book illustrations and , making cultural content accessible to wider audiences and fueling the growth of urban print shops. The Senefelder family's efforts helped institutionalize these developments internationally; by 1817, they had established lithography workshops in and , training printers and disseminating techniques that spurred local industries. Economically, lithography contributed to the rise of by enabling scalable production, with hosting numerous lithographic presses by 1840 to meet demand for and . However, persistent limitations, such as the fragility of stones prone to cracking under repeated use, constrained output and highlighted the need for ongoing material innovations.

20th and 21st Century Advancements

The invention of offset lithography marked a pivotal advancement in the early , independently developed by American printer Ira Washington Rubel in and German immigrant Caspar Herrmann around the same time. This process utilized a rubber blanket cylinder for indirect image transfer from the plate to the substrate, allowing high-quality printing on larger sheets and rougher paper surfaces that direct lithographic methods could not accommodate effectively. Photomechanical processes further revolutionized lithography during this period, building on halftone screens introduced in the 1890s to enable the reproduction of continuous-tone photographs through dot patterns. These screens were refined in the early , leading to widespread adoption of in commercial printing by the , which integrated photographic negatives directly onto sensitized plates for more precise and scalable image transfer. Following , offset lithography achieved dominance in the 1950s and 1960s as the preferred method for high-volume production, surpassing traditional letterpress due to its versatility and cost-efficiency for color work. The introduction of web-fed offset presses during this era facilitated continuous-roll printing, dramatically increasing speeds and enabling efficient production of newspapers and magazines on a massive scale. The 1990s brought significant digital transitions to lithography, with (CTP) systems emerging as a key innovation that bypassed intermediates by using imaging to expose plates directly from digital files, thereby reducing preparation time and errors. Concurrently, screening was introduced, employing pseudo-random dot distribution for finer, more uniform reproduction that minimized moiré patterns and enhanced image sharpness in . In the 21st century, lithography has integrated for plate optimization, automating image adjustments and to improve consistency and reduce waste in offset workflows. Eco-friendly UV-curable inks have gained prominence for their instant and lower emissions, supporting sustainable high-speed . As of 2025, hybrid digital-offset presses combine inkjet and lithographic units, slashing setup times by up to 50% while enabling for personalized runs.

Principles

Fundamental Principle

Lithography is a method in which are produced from a flat surface, where the and non- areas are chemically treated to remain coplanar, relying on the mutual repulsion of and to separate the . The core exploits the immiscibility of -based and : greasy areas, which attract and repel , contrast with non- areas that retain a thin film of to repel , enabling selective transfer during . This principle originated from the observations of Alois Senefelder in the late 18th century, who discovered that the porous surface of Bavarian limestone effectively retained marks made with a greasy crayon, allowing for the creation of ink-receptive image areas on an otherwise water-attractive stone. In the basic workflow, an image is first prepared on the surface using a greasy medium such as crayon or tusche; the background is then desensitized with a solution of gum arabic and mild acid, which renders non-image areas hydrophilic while fixing the greasy image. The process continues with repeated cycles of dampening the surface with water—adhering to non-image areas—and rolling on oil-based ink, which sticks only to the image areas, followed by pressing paper against the surface to transfer the inked image. Compared to , where raised areas carry ink, or intaglio, which uses incised depressions, lithography's planographic approach allows for the reproduction of continuous tones through varying densities of the greasy medium and captures fine details without the need for depths, facilitating smoother gradients and more precise lines.

Chemical and Physical Basis

The chemical and physical basis of lithography relies on the selective wettability of printing surfaces, where non-image areas are rendered hydrophilic to attract water-based fountain solutions, while image areas are lipophilic to accept oil-based inks. In traditional limestone plates, the primary component is calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), which provides a naturally hydrophilic background due to its polar surface that favors water adhesion. Modern metal plates, typically aluminum, are grained and anodized to form a layer of aluminum oxide (Al₂O₃), enhancing hydrophilicity through its high surface energy and ability to form strong hydrogen bonds with water molecules. The image areas, treated with greasy substances, become lipophilic, repelling water and promoting ink adhesion via van der Waals forces. Desensitizing agents are crucial for maintaining the hydrophilic nature of non-image areas by forming protective films that increase and prevent ink acceptance. , a natural hydrophilic derived from trees, is applied as a on non-image regions, raising the surface tension to around 70-72 mN/m and effectively repelling lipophilic inks with contact angles exceeding 90°. is commonly added to adjust the of the fountain solution to 4-5, optimizing the of and enhancing its adhesion to the plate surface while minimizing emulsification of the ink. Lithographic inks are oleoresinous formulations designed for compatibility with the plate's dual wettability, consisting of pigments (15-30% by weight, such as or organic dyes for color), solvents (e.g., mineral oils), resins (like esters for ), and driers (metal salts like naphthenate to accelerate oxidation). These inks exhibit high , typically in the range of 400-1000 poise at temperatures (around 20-25°C), which ensures controlled flow and prevents excessive spreading on the plate. Tack, the ink's cohesive stickiness measured by its resistance to splitting during transfer, is balanced at 8-12 units on an inkometer scale to facilitate even ink distribution from plate to without scumming or misting. Key physical phenomena underpin the separation of ink and water, including capillary action in the porous structure of substrates like grained aluminum, where nanopores (10-30 nm diameter) draw fountain solution into non-image areas via surface tension-driven flow, maintaining a continuous water film. Contact angle hysteresis further stabilizes this repellency; the advancing contact angle for water on desensitized areas is low (<30°), indicating hydrophilicity that forms a stable water film to reject ink, while the receding angle ensures the water film does not dewet under printing pressures of 1-4 MPa. The wettability of surfaces is quantitatively described by Young's equation, which balances interfacial tensions at the three-phase contact line: cos⁡θ=γSV−γSLγLV\cos \theta = \frac{\gamma_{SV} - \gamma_{SL}}{\gamma_{LV}} where θ\theta is the equilibrium , γSV\gamma_{SV} is the solid-vapor interfacial tension, γSL\gamma_{SL} is the solid-liquid interfacial tension, and γLV\gamma_{LV} is the liquid-vapor interfacial tension. In lithography, image areas exhibit low θ\theta (<30°) for (γLV≈30−40\gamma_{LV} \approx 30-40 mN/m), promoting and , whereas non-image areas show high θ\theta (>100°) for due to the hydrophilic film, ensuring rejection. This equation highlights how subtle changes in interfacial energies dictate the oil-water immiscibility central to the process.

Traditional Processes

Lithography on Limestone

Lithography on , the foundational technique invented by in 1796, relies on fine-grained Bavarian , particularly from the Solnhofen , prized for its smooth, porous texture that holds greasy drawings without absorbing them excessively. These slabs, often sourced from deposits, were typically cut into sizes up to approximately 1 meter by 0.7 meters and weighing around 70 kilograms to balance workability and printing area. Preparation began with grinding the surface flat using abrasives, followed by polishing to a smooth finish, and sometimes light graining with powder and water to enhance subtle for better ink retention in detailed areas. Artists created images by drawing directly onto the prepared stone surface in reverse, using greasy materials that adhered to the limestone's . Solid crayons, composed of or , , , and lampblack, allowed for bold lines and shading, while liquid tusche—a mixture of , , and lampblack dissolved in water or alcohol—enabled fluid washes and fine details. Tonal variations were achieved through techniques such as with the crayon tip for textured effects or applying diluted tusche washes for graduated grays, ensuring the grease penetrated slightly into the stone's pores to form a durable matrix. The etching process fixed the greasy image while desensitizing the background to water. A solution of gum arabic mixed with nitric acid (typically 6-18 drops of acid per ounce of gum, depending on the drawing's grease density) was applied evenly across the stone, allowing the acid to react with the limestone and bond the grease particles chemically. The stone was left to etch for about one hour, then dried thoroughly—often fanned or left overnight—to ensure complete reaction. Excess gum was buffed off with cheesecloth in circular motions, and the surface was lightly re-greased if needed before a final buffing to remove surplus drawing materials without disturbing the fixed image. Printing involved exploiting the oil-water repulsion inherent to the process. The stone was first dampened with a sponge and water, which adhered to the gum-treated background but repelled from the greasy image areas. An ink-laden leather roller, charged with oil-based lithographic ink, was then rolled evenly over the damp surface, depositing ink only onto the image. Dampened paper was placed atop the inked stone and passed under a star-wheel press, where the rotating star wheels applied even pressure to transfer the image directly in a single impression. Limestone stones were reusable but limited to up to several hundred to 1,000 impressions before the weakened or the stone cracked under repeated and exposure. Maintenance included careful storage in dry conditions to prevent cracking, and for revisions, the could be washed out using to dissolve the grease, allowing re-graining and redrawing on the same slab. This continues to be used in as of 2025 for its unique tactile qualities.

Metal Plate Lithography

Metal plate lithography emerged in the early as an adaptation of traditional stone-based processes, with plates adopted around the 1820s-1830s and gaining commercial prominence by the mid-19th century, replacing fragile with more durable and portable metal substrates to enhance scalability for industrial . plates, valued for their resistance and lighter weight compared to stone, enabled easier handling and transport in operations. By the 1890s, aluminum plates were introduced, offering additional advantages such as non-corrosiveness and further reduced weight, which facilitated their integration into high-speed rotary presses. To prepare metal plates for printing, the surface is grained to create a fine texture that holds the and solution effectively. Zinc plates are typically grained using a ball-graining method, where the metal sheet is tumbled with steel balls and an in to produce a uniform, matte finish. Aluminum plates may undergo similar ball graining or electrograining, an electrochemical process that etches the surface for enhanced ink and run length. These grained surfaces, often around 0.5 mm thick for sheets, mimic the porosity of stone while providing greater mechanical strength. Image application on metal plates follows principles akin to those on stone, involving the use of greasy drawing materials like tusche or crayon to create lipophilic areas, but benefits from photomechanical transfers for precision in commercial settings. Direct drawing remains possible, particularly for artistic work, while photomechanical methods allow reproduction of photographic or illustrated originals onto the plate via sensitized emulsions. Deep-etch plates incorporate a thicker emulsion layer during exposure and development, enabling extended durability for print runs of up to 500,000 impressions, far surpassing the limitations of surface plates. Processing metal plates involves more robust than stone to embed the deeply into the metal substrate. After or transfer, the plate is treated with a desensitizing solution, followed by etching using stronger acids such as mixed with , which reacts to form deeper lipophilic layers in the areas while rendering non-image regions hydrophilic. For plates, additional etching agents like solutions may be employed to enhance depth and resistance to wear. Processed plates are then coated with asphaltum, a bituminous protective layer, to shield the during storage and prevent oxidation. Printing with metal plates adapted to mechanical advancements, including cylinder presses that wrapped the plate around a rotating for continuous, high-speed operation, significantly increasing output over flatbed stone presses. Shallow-etch plates, with minimal image depth, suit short runs of under 50,000 impressions where quick setup is prioritized, whereas deep-etch variants provide superior for large-scale production. This versatility supported diverse applications, from newspapers to maps. The primary advantages of metal plates lie in their portability and durability, with thin sheets resisting wear better than stone and enabling mobile printing setups, such as shipboard operations during . Naval vessels like HMS White Bear used plates to produce hydrographic charts via whirler machines, supporting surveys in remote areas without reliance on shore-based facilities. These attributes transformed lithography into a more practical industrial process, bridging traditional artistry with modern efficiency.

Modern Printing Processes

Offset Lithography

Offset lithography, also known as , is a widely used technique that employs an indirect image transfer process to produce high-quality prints on various substrates. In this method, the inked image on a flat printing plate is first transferred to a rubber blanket cylinder, which reverses the image, before being applied to the printing surface. This intermediary step allows for printing on non-planar or textured materials, such as corrugated board, without damaging the plate, as the compressible rubber blanket conforms to surface irregularities. Plate preparation in offset lithography typically involves aluminum sheets that are electrochemically grained and anodized for , then coated with a photosensitive . The plate is exposed to through negatives or positives, depending on the emulsion type, to create the image areas; development removes the non-image , revealing hydrophilic (water-receptive) non-image regions and leaving oleophilic (ink-receptive) image areas. A solution, consisting primarily of mixed with isopropanol (typically 5-15%) and additives like acids, buffers, and to maintain a pH of 3.5-5.5, is applied during to wet the non-image areas and repel oil-based . The press operates using a three-cylinder configuration: the plate cylinder holds the prepared plate and transfers ink to the blanket cylinder, while the impression cylinder presses the substrate against the inked blanket for final transfer. Inking is achieved through a series of distributed rollers—often around 20 per color unit—that ensure even application of viscous (about 0.2-0.4 mils thick) to the plate's image areas, with dampening rollers applying the fountain solution first to prevent ink adhesion elsewhere. Modern sheet-fed offset presses achieve speeds of up to 10,000-18,000 sheets per hour, enabling efficient high-volume production. For color reproduction, offset presses are configured as multi-unit systems, with separate units for each color in the CMYK (, , , ) process, allowing as the substrate passes sequentially through the units. Additional units can incorporate spot colors or varnishes, and perfecting configurations use extra cylinders to print both sides of the sheet in a single pass, enhancing efficiency for duplex jobs. Common troubleshooting issues in offset lithography include scumming, where ink adheres to non-image areas due to imbalances in the ink-water emulsion, often from excessive fountain solution acidity or insufficient dampening. This is typically resolved by adjusting the fountain solution's pH and alcohol content or cleaning the plate with desensitizing agents like . Offset processes are suited for run lengths ranging from about 1,000 sheets for short jobs on sheet-fed presses to millions for long-run web applications, balancing setup costs with high-speed output.

Digital Lithography

Digital lithography represents a shift from analog -based methods to direct in processes, enabling higher efficiency and customization in offset and related workflows. Computer-to-plate (CTP) technology, emerging prominently in the 1990s, uses diodes or LEDs to expose plates directly from digital files, bypassing intermediate steps. This approach employs thermal s for , where light removes or alters plate coatings to create image areas, or violet s for photopolymerization, which hardens photosensitive layers through chemical reactions. By integrating digital workflows, CTP reduces production times and errors associated with handling. The CTP process begins with raster image processor (RIP) software, which converts PDF files into high-resolution raster bitmaps (typically 2400-3600 dpi) to define dot patterns for application. These bitmaps guide the platesetter, where lasers image the plate in approximately 10 minutes for a full set of standard-sized plates. Following imaging, traditional plates undergo chemical development, but processless variants develop on-press through fountain solution interaction, eliminating off-press processing. This streamlines , allowing plates to mount directly on the press for immediate use. Variable data printing enhances digital lithography's flexibility, particularly for short runs and , by enabling on-the-fly changes to content without replating. Inkjet pre-coating systems apply variable elements like addresses or prior to offset transfer, ideal for applications such as mail. Hybrid systems combine digital inkjet with offset lithography, layering static offset prints with variable digital data to achieve high-volume at reduced costs. These methods support efficient production of customized items, merging the quality of lithography with digital speed. As of 2025, advancements in digital lithography include nanographic printing from Landa, which jets billions of water-based nano-ink droplets (nanopigments around 100 nm) onto a heated transfer blanket, forming a dry before substrate contact for sharp, offset-quality results on diverse materials. Electrophotographic hybrids integrate toner-based digital units with lithographic presses, enabling high-resolution variable while minimizing setup waste. Process-free CTP plates, using coatings that activate solely via exposure, further simplify workflows by requiring no chemical developers or rinses. These innovations yield significant environmental benefits, primarily through the elimination of silver halide films, which previously generated hazardous waste from developers and fixers containing high silver concentrations (up to 5,000 ppm). Process-free systems reduce chemical usage and wastewater by over 90% compared to traditional film-based processes, while LED-based violet lasers in CTP imagers lower energy consumption through efficient light emission. Overall, digital lithography cuts prepress solid and hazardous wastes substantially, supporting sustainable printing practices.

Applications

Commercial Printing

Commercial printing relies heavily on offset lithography, which holds approximately 42% of the global commercial printing in 2025 due to its efficiency in high-volume production. This dominance is evident in key sectors such as book publishing, where perfect-bound offset processes enable cost-effective production of long runs for novels and textbooks; magazine printing, utilizing web offset for high-speed, continuous-feed operations; and packaging, often employing flexo-offset hybrids for flexible materials like cartons and labels. Economically, offset lithography excels for print runs exceeding 5,000 units, where fixed setup costs are spread across large quantities, resulting in low per-unit costs for simple items. It delivers superior color reproduction through halftone screens of 175-300 lines per inch (lpi), ensuring sharp images and vibrant hues suitable for marketing materials and product packaging. Specific applications include newspaper production using coldset offset with non-heat-curing inks for absorbent newsprint, allowing rapid, high-volume output on web presses. Label printing on non-porous substrates like metal or employs UV offset, where ultraviolet-cured inks provide durable, scratch-resistant finishes. These processes often integrate with post-press finishing techniques, such as die-cutting for custom shapes in packaging or folding for brochures, enhancing functionality without compromising efficiency. Market trends in 2025 reflect a push toward , with widespread adoption of soy-based inks that reduce emissions and improve recyclability compared to petroleum-based alternatives. Printers are also increasingly using recycled aluminum plates and processless plating technologies to minimize waste and chemical usage in plate preparation. Despite digital 's growth to about 30% of the market, offset lithography maintains a strong position with roughly 42% share, particularly for medium-to-long runs where quality and cost advantages persist. A primary challenge for offset in commercial is competition from on-demand digital presses, which are more economical for short runs under 1,000 units due to lower setup times and no plate requirements, prompting offset providers to focus on for faster turnarounds in larger jobs.

Artistic Medium

Lithography's appeal as an artistic medium lies in its autographic quality, which allows artists to draw directly on the stone surface with greasy crayons or inks, producing painterly effects that closely mimic the fluidity of drawing or painting. This directness fosters a personal, expressive touch, distinguishing it from more rigid printmaking methods like etching. To maintain authenticity and value, fine art lithographs are typically produced in limited editions of 20 to 100 prints, often hand-pulled on studio presses to preserve the artist's intent and the medium's tactile nuances. In artistic practice, proofs are hand-pulled using flatbed presses, where dampened paper is pressed against the inked stone to transfer the image. For color lithography, artists employ multiple stones—one for each color—with complex works requiring up to 30 stones for precise registration and layered hues, enabling vibrant, nuanced compositions. Hybrid techniques, such as seriliths, combine lithography with serigraphy (screen printing) to create mixed-media prints that blend the stone's organic marks with stenciled overlays, expanding creative possibilities. Early adoption in fine art is exemplified by Francisco Goya's Bulls of Bordeaux series (1825), a set of four lithographs that advanced the medium through bold on spectacle and human folly, marking one of the first major artistic uses of lithography. In the 1890s, revolutionized poster art with lithographic works like Moulin Rouge: La Goulue (1891), capturing the vibrancy of Parisian nightlife in dynamic, multi-color compositions that elevated commercial imagery to status. Pablo Picasso extensively explored lithography in the 1930s and 1940s, producing series such as those in magazine (e.g., 1937 onward), where over 100 lithographs delved into cubist fragmentation and form, showcasing the medium's versatility for abstract experimentation. The 20th century saw lithography evolve through experimental workshops, with artists like creating intricate editions in the 1960s–1970s that layered flags and targets to probe perception, and producing introspective lithographs in the 1990s, such as those in The Geldzahler Portfolio (1998), blending personal symbolism with the medium's textural depth. These works highlight lithography's ongoing role in contemporary , fostering innovation in limited-edition formats. Lithographs are prized for their rich texture and ink absorption on high-quality , contributing to their preservation as collectible objects. As of 2025, signed original lithographs by major artists range in market value from $8,000 for entry-level works to over $1 million for rare editions by figures like Picasso, reflecting demand driven by scarcity and historical significance.

Microfabrication and Photolithography

Photolithography represents an adaptation of traditional lithographic principles to , where light is used to expose photosensitive materials known as photoresists on wafers, enabling the creation of intricate for and depositing circuit patterns in devices. This technique has evolved from its planographic roots in to achieve nanoscale resolutions below 10 nm as of 2025, far surpassing the macro-scale patterns of conventional lithography. Unlike greasy inks on printing plates, relies on light-sensitive polymers that undergo chemical changes upon exposure, allowing for precise control in fabricating integrated circuits and other microscale structures. The core process of in begins with coating a with a thin layer of , a light-sensitive , typically applied via to ensure uniform thickness. This is followed by exposure to (UV) or (EUV) light projected through a —a template containing the desired circuit pattern—which selectively alters the photoresist's solubility. Development then removes the exposed (or unexposed, depending on the resist type) regions to reveal the pattern, after which transfers the design into the underlying substrate, and deposition adds conductive or insulating layers to build the device. These steps are repeated multiple times per to create multilayered structures, with each cycle demanding sub-micron alignment accuracy to maintain functionality. Significant advancements in have been driven by the introduction of EUV lithography by ASML in the 2010s, which utilizes 13.5 nm wavelength light to enable patterning at 3-5 nm technology nodes, overcoming the diffraction limits of traditional deep UV systems. For sub-7 nm features, techniques—such as self-aligned double patterning or litho-etch-litho-etch—have been employed to enhance resolution by dividing a single exposure into sequential steps, allowing denser arrangements without immediate reliance on even shorter wavelengths. These innovations, including high-numerical-aperture (NA) EUV tools targeting 0.55 NA, continue to push scaling limits while addressing challenges like defects in pattern fidelity. As of late 2025, high-NA EUV tools are entering production, with initial deployments enabling features below 8 nm. In , is essential for producing integrated circuits such as central processing units (CPUs) and graphics processing units (GPUs), where it defines gates and interconnects at atomic scales. It also enables the fabrication of microelectromechanical systems () devices, integrating mechanical elements like sensors and actuators on chips for applications in accelerometers and . Additionally, patterns electrodes and contacts in solar cells, optimizing absorption and charge collection in photovoltaic . The global lithography equipment market is projected at approximately $46 billion in 2025, propelled by surging demand for AI-optimized chips that require advanced nodes for enhanced computational performance. Key differences from traditional printing lithography lie in the materials and : positive photoresists become soluble upon exposure, while negative resists polymerize and become insoluble, eliminating the need for oil-based inks and enabling selective dissolution in developers. further distinguishes the process by filling the space between the lens and wafer with water, increasing the effective NA to 1.35 to improve resolution through a higher medium. These adaptations prioritize nanoscale precision over bulk reproduction, supporting the exponential growth in device complexity per .

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