Community hub
0 subscribers8 pages, 0 posts
Recent from talks
All channels
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Contribute something
Welcome to the community hub built to collect knowledge and have discussions related to Litsea cubeba.
Nothing was collected or created yet.
Litsea cubeba
View on Wikipediafrom Wikipedia
| May chang | |
|---|---|
| |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Magnoliids |
| Order: | Laurales |
| Family: | Lauraceae |
| Genus: | Litsea |
| Species: | L. cubeba
|
| Binomial name | |
| Litsea cubeba | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
| |
Litsea cubeba is a species of evergreen tree in the family Lauraceae.[2][3] It is a shrub that grows up to 5–12 meters high. It is sometimes referred to by the common names the aromatic litsea, may chang, mountain pepper (山胡椒; pinyin: shānhújiāo), mujiangzi (木姜子; pinyin: mùjiāngzǐ) or douchijiang (豆豉姜; pinyin: dòuchǐjiāng) in Mandarin and maqaw (馬告) by the Atayal of Taiwan. It produces a fruit which is processed for its lemony essential oil. The oil can also be extracted from the leaf, but this is considered to be lower in quality. The timber is sometimes used for making furniture and crafts. Plant parts are also used in medicine.
Distribution
[edit]It is native to Assam, Bangladesh, Borneo, Cambodia, South-Central and Southeast China, East Himalaya, Hainan, Japan, Java, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nansei-shoto, Nepal, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, Tibet, and Vietnam.[2]
Oil extraction
[edit]Essential oil yields from the fruit are 3–5%. The oil's main component is citral, at 70–85% of the oil.[4] It is mainly produced in China from plantations and is marketed as "Litsea cubeba", with production estimates between 500 and 1,500 tonnes of oil per annum. The oil is used as a fragrance (especially in bar soap) and for flavouring in its own right. It is also used as a raw material by the chemical industry for the synthesis of vitamin A and violet-like fragrances.[5]
As a spice
[edit]It is used extensively as a spice by the aboriginal peoples of Taiwan, it is seen as a distinguishing feature of aboriginal cuisine.[6]
References
[edit]- ^ de Kok, R. (2021). "Litsea cubeba". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021 e.T150217538A150219934. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T150217538A150219934.en. Retrieved July 13, 2025.
- ^ a b c "Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers". Plants of the World Online. The Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. n.d. Retrieved July 13, 2025.
- ^ "Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers". Catalogue of Life. Species 2000. n.d. Retrieved July 13, 2025.
- ^ Lawless, J., The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Essential Oils, ISBN 1-85230-661-0
- ^ Litsea cubeba FAO essential oil profile
- ^ Lee, Daphne K. "In New York, Taiwanese Chefs Are Attempting To Define Their Cuisine". vice.com. Vice. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
External links
[edit]
 | This fruit tree–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information. |
 | This Laurales-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by adding missing information. |
Litsea cubeba
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
Taxonomy and botany
Taxonomy
Litsea cubeba is a species within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Magnoliopsida, order Laurales, family Lauraceae, genus Litsea, and species L. cubeba.[5] The accepted binomial nomenclature is Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers., with the basionym Laurus cubeba Lour. published in 1790 and the current combination established by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1806.[5][1] Several synonyms have been applied to this species, reflecting historical taxonomic revisions and regional naming practices. Notable synonyms include Litsea citrata Blume, Lindera citriodora (Siebold & Zucc.) Hemsl., and Benzoin citriodorum Siebold & Zucc., among others such as Actinodaphne citrata (Blume) Hayata and Laurus cubeba Lour.[1][6][7] The genus name Litsea derives from the Chinese (Cantonese) term "lei tsai," meaning "small plum" or referring to a cherry-like plant, latinized in the late 18th century.[8][9] The specific epithet cubeba alludes to the resemblance of its small, pepper-like fruits to those of Piper cubeba L., the cubeb pepper plant, from which the term originates via Arabic and medieval Latin.[10] Within the genus Litsea, which comprises approximately 399 accepted species of evergreen or deciduous trees and shrubs primarily in tropical and subtropical regions, L. cubeba is distinguished by its aromatic foliage and fruits, as well as its dioecious flowering habit where male and female flowers occur on separate plants.[11][12][13]Botanical description
_Litsea cubeba is a member of the Lauraceae family, typically growing as an evergreen or deciduous shrub or small tree reaching 5-12 meters in height, with a straight bole up to 15 cm in diameter. The bark is smooth, greenish on the outside and yellowish inside, often featuring large lenticels and emitting a lemon-like scent. It exhibits a dioecious habit, with male and female reproductive structures on separate plants, and is known for its fast growth, often forming gregarious stands in open areas as a pioneer species.[14][1][2] The leaves are alternate and simple, elliptical to ovate or lanceolate to oblong in shape, measuring 5-10 cm in length and 1.5-3 cm in width, with petioles 6-18 mm long. They are glabrous, shiny dark green above and glaucous below, and release a strong lemony aroma when crushed due to their aromatic glands.[14][2] Flowers are small, 3-5 mm in diameter, yellowish-white, and arranged in axillary umbels or umbelliform racemes of 4-6 flowers on pedicels 3-4 mm long. Male flowers feature 9 stamens in three whorls, while female flowers have 9 staminodes surrounding a superior ovary; inflorescences measure about 1 cm long and appear before or with leaf expansion.[14][2] The fruit is a small, globose drupe or berry, 5-8 mm in diameter, initially green and turning blackish when ripe, with an aromatic pericarp and seated on a slightly thickened, cup-shaped receptacle. It contains a single spherical seed, approximately 3-5 mm in diameter.[14][2] As a perennial pioneer species, Litsea cubeba is deciduous in some regions, particularly under seasonal conditions, with flowering typically occurring in spring (March to April in temperate zones) and fruiting in autumn (August to October). Reproduction is primarily sexual via seeds, which are dispersed by animals or gravity, though viability decreases rapidly after dispersal.[1][15][16]Distribution and ecology
Geographic distribution
_Litsea cubeba is native to East Asia, including southern and central China (such as the provinces of Anhui, Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Hainan, and Tibet), Japan (including the Nansei-shoto islands), and Taiwan.[5] Its range extends to Southeast Asia, encompassing Indonesia (including Borneo, Java, and Sumatra), Malaysia (including the Malay Peninsula and Borneo), Thailand, Vietnam, Myanmar, Laos, and Cambodia.[5] In South Asia, it occurs in India's Assam region, the eastern Himalayas, Nepal, and Bangladesh.[5] The species is typically found in mountainous areas across these regions.[1] The plant has been introduced and is cultivated on a limited scale in subtropical regions outside its native range, such as parts of Australia and the United States, primarily for essential oil production.[17] Litsea cubeba was first documented in regional floras during the 19th century, with its known distribution expanding through trade in aromatic plants used for essential oils.[18] Although not globally endangered, local populations of Litsea cubeba in China face pressures from overharvesting due to its economic value for essential oil extraction.[19] The species is assessed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.[20]Habitat and ecology
_Litsea cubeba thrives in subtropical to temperate mixed forests, often on sunny slopes, valleys, thickets, and sparse woodlands at elevations between 300 and 3,200 meters. It is commonly found in mountainous regions of southern China, such as those south of the Yangtze River, where it inhabits hilly and montane terrains under a subtropical monsoon climate. The species prefers moist, well-drained acidic soils with a pH range of 4.95–6.8 and demonstrates tolerance to barren and drought-prone conditions.[21][22][1][2] As a pioneer species, Litsea cubeba plays a key role in the regeneration of secondary forests, facilitating ecological restoration through its strong adaptability and drought resistance. Its aromatic compounds contribute to insect interactions, providing nectar and pollen resources that support generalist pollinators, including Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera, which visit its small, unspecialized flowers. The plant's competitive growth helps stabilize ecosystems by enhancing biodiversity in recovering habitats.[21][23][24] Litsea cubeba grows alongside other members of the Lauraceae family and in forests dominated by Fagaceae species, though it exhibits negative associations with trees such as Fagus lucida, Quercus variabilis, and Castanopsis lamontii due to niche differentiation. Positive co-occurrences are noted with understory plants like Casearia coriacea and Symplocos costata, contributing to diverse forest understories that may include ferns. These interactions underscore its role in mixed montane communities.[24][22] Wild populations of Litsea cubeba face threats from deforestation and overexploitation, which have led to significant declines in germplasm resources and habitat fragmentation, particularly in montane areas. Climate change exacerbates these pressures by altering precipitation and temperature patterns, potentially shifting suitable habitats northward and impacting high-elevation populations. Conservation efforts are essential to mitigate these risks and preserve its ecological contributions.[21][22][3]Cultivation
Growing conditions
Litsea cubeba thrives in subtropical climates with average temperatures ranging from 15°C to 25°C, where growth is optimal, though it slows in extremes above or below this range.[16] The plant requires annual rainfall of 1,500 to 2,500 mm, evenly distributed throughout the year, to support healthy development, and it is frost-sensitive, limiting cultivation to frost-free regions.[16][15] For soil, Litsea cubeba prefers well-drained, moderately fertile loamy or sandy types enriched with humus, tolerating poorer soils to some extent but performing poorly in waterlogged conditions.[16][22] The ideal pH is slightly acidic to neutral, between 5.0 and 6.5.[16] The plant grows well in full sun to partial shade, receiving 6-8 hours of sunlight daily for best results.[25][26] In orchard cultivation, trees are typically spaced 2-3 meters apart to allow for proper air circulation and growth. Major production occurs in southern China, particularly in provinces like Sichuan and Guangxi, where conditions mimic the plant's native montane habitats.[27][3]Propagation and harvesting
Litsea cubeba is primarily propagated through seeds, which must be sown fresh to achieve optimal germination rates of 70-80% within 20-30 days under controlled conditions.[28] Mechanical scarification or chemical treatments, such as soaking in hydrogen peroxide, can further improve viability by breaking seed dormancy.[28] For clonal reproduction to maintain desirable traits, semi-hardwood cuttings are effective methods, with rooting success enhanced in well-drained soils.[29] As a dioecious species, L. cubeba requires both male and female plants for pollination and fruit set, with cultivation typically incorporating an appropriate sex ratio to ensure reproductive success.[30] Plants typically reach reproductive maturity in 2-3 years.[30][16] Fruits are harvested in autumn once they ripen to black, usually by manual picking of clusters directly from the tree to minimize damage.[31][16] Leaves are collected year-round, often through selective pruning to promote regrowth. Sustainable harvesting practices in wild stands, such as selective collection to avoid overexploitation, are recommended to support population regeneration.Essential oil production
Extraction methods
The primary method for extracting essential oil from Litsea cubeba is steam distillation, also known as hydrodistillation, applied to the fruits, which are the plant part yielding the highest oil content.[32] In this process, steam generated from boiling water passes through the crushed or whole fruits, volatilizing the essential oil components, which are then condensed and separated from the aqueous phase; the procedure typically requires 3 to 6 hours depending on the scale and equipment.[32][33] This method is considered the most efficient traditional technique due to its simplicity and widespread adoption, particularly for producing oil with desirable properties such as high citral content from fruit sources.[32] Alternative extraction approaches include water distillation, often used for leaves, where the plant material is immersed in boiling water to release oils over a similar timeframe but resulting in lower efficiency and yields typically around 0.5% to 1%.[32] Solvent extraction, employing organic solvents like n-hexane or ethanol, is another option applied to resins and other non-volatile extracts from various plant parts, though it is less common for essential oils due to residue concerns and environmental impacts.[32] Emerging green alternatives, such as solvent-free microwave extraction or enzyme-assisted methods, have been developed to reduce extraction time to under 30 minutes while improving overall efficiency, but these remain supplementary to steam distillation in practice.[33] Historically, extraction relied on basic hydrodistillation techniques dating back to early uses in China, where L. cubeba has been processed for centuries; modern industrial production in China, the world's largest producer and exporter of Litsea cubeba essential oil and processing 30,000–40,000 tons of fruit annually, employs continuous distillation systems to scale up the traditional steam process.[33][34] By-products from distillation include the hydrosol (distillation water), which can be utilized in cosmetics for its aromatic properties, and residual kernel or pomace waste, which is valorized for biofuel production through processes like hydrothermal liquefaction.[33]Yield and quality
The essential oil yield from Litsea cubeba fruits typically ranges from 3% to 5% on a dry weight basis via steam distillation, with reported values of 3.14% to 4.56% across different provenances and up to 4.95% under optimized hydrodistillation conditions.[35][36] Yields from leaves are lower, generally 0.5% to 2%, as exemplified by 0.5% in samples from northeastern India.[34] Global production of Litsea cubeba essential oil is estimated at approximately 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes annually as of 2019–2023, predominantly from China where fruit output supports this scale at an average 5% yield.[34][37] Quality of the oil is influenced by fruit maturity, with peak yields and citral content occurring at the black-ripe stage (approximately 139–149 days after anthesis), where oil content reaches 3.88% and citral up to 85.14%.[38] Distillation parameters, such as stepwise hydrodistillation at controlled temperatures (e.g., 98–99°C yielding 84.83% of total oil with optimal neral and geranial levels), affect composition and bioactivity, while prolonged high-temperature steam distillation can induce oxidation and reduce quality.[36][32] Proper storage in cool, dark conditions prevents oxidative degradation of volatile components like citral.[32] Yields vary between cultivated and wild plants, with cultivated varieties often achieving higher outputs due to optimized growing conditions and selection for superior germplasm.[27] Seasonal differences also impact leaf oil content, which is higher in summer (e.g., 0.2% yield) compared to winter.[39] The International Organization for Standardization (ISO 3214:2000) specifies quality requirements for Litsea cubeba oil, including a minimum citral content (neral + geranial) of 74% determined by gas chromatography.[40] Adulteration risks include addition of synthetic citral to inflate citral levels, which can compromise authenticity and therapeutic value.[41]Chemical composition
Essential oil components
The essential oil of Litsea cubeba is predominantly composed of monoterpenes, with citral being the major constituent, typically accounting for 70-85% of the total oil. Citral exists as a mixture of its geometric isomers: geranial (E-citral) at 35-50% and neral (Z-citral) at 30-37%, contributing to the oil's characteristic lemon-like aroma.[42] Other significant monoterpenes include limonene (0.7-24.6%, varying by source and plant part), linalool (1.2-2.4%), and myrcene (0.3-0.8%).[42][43] Trace sesquiterpenes, such as β-caryophyllene (0.1-0.8%) and β-farnesene (trace to 2.3%), constitute less than 5% of the oil and impart subtle woody notes.[42] The chemical profile is analyzed primarily through gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), which identifies and quantifies over 90% of the volatile components based on retention indices and mass spectra.[42][43] Composition varies significantly by plant part, with fruits yielding the highest citral content (up to 81.6%), while leaves are richer in sabinene (12.5%) and cineole (47.6%)—though leaf oil exhibits chemotypic variation, with some samples dominated by linalool (up to 67.4%)—and stems or bark feature higher limonene (up to 24.6%).[42][43][44][45][46] Regional and seasonal factors, such as those observed across Chinese provinces, further influence proportions, with total monoterpenes ranging from 94.4-98.4%.[43] High citral levels in fruit-derived oils are associated with premium quality for industrial applications.| Plant Part | Key Components (% of total oil) | Source |
|---|---|---|
| Fruit | Geranial (45.9%), Neral (35.7%), Limonene (5%) | [43] |
| Leaf | Cineole (47.6%), Sabinene (12.5%), Limonene (2.5%) | [44] |
| Stem | Limonene (21.1%), Eucalyptol (22%) | [45] |