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Protohistory is the period between prehistory and written history, during which a culture or civilization has not yet developed writing, but other cultures that have developed writing have noted the existence of those pre-literate groups in their own writings.

Protohistoric may also refer to the transition period between the advent of literacy in a society and the writings of the first historians. The preservation of oral traditions may complicate matters, as they can provide a secondary historical source for even earlier events. Colonial sites involving a literate group and a nonliterate group are also studied as protohistoric situations.

The term can also refer to a period in which fragmentary or external historical documents, not necessarily including a developed writing system, have been found. For instance, the Proto–Three Kingdoms of Korea, the Yayoi,[1] recorded by the Chinese, and the Mississippian groups, recorded by early European explorers, are protohistoric.

Use of term

[edit]

In The Oxford Illustrated History of Prehistoric Europe,[2] an article[3] by Timothy Taylor stated:

Because of the existence in some but not all societies of historical writing during the first millennium BC, the period has often been termed 'protohistoric' instead of prehistoric. Of course, the understanding of the past gained through archaeology is broadly different in nature to understanding derived from historical texts. Having both sorts of evidence is a boon and a challenge.

— Timothy Taylor, The Oxford Illustrated Prehistory of Europe

In the abstract of a later paper on "slavery in the first millennium Aegean, Carpatho-Balkan and Pontic regions",[4] Taylor, primarily an archaeologist, stated,

I have taken the rather unusual step of trusting what the classical authors tell us they knew.

— Timothy Taylor, The Archaeology of Slavery

For other examples, see also the writings of Brian M. Fagan on the protohistory of North America[5] and the work of Muhammed Abdul Nayeem on that of the Arabian Peninsula.[6]

Chronology

[edit]

As with prehistory, determining when a culture may be considered prehistoric or protohistoric is sometimes difficult for anthropologists. Data varies considerably from culture to culture, region to region, and even from one system of reckoning dates to another.

In its simplest form, protohistory follows the same chronology as prehistory and is based on the technological advancement of a particular people with regard to metallurgy:

Civilizations and peoples

[edit]

The best-known protohistoric civilizations and ethnic groups are those for whom the term was originally coined: the barbarian tribes mentioned by European and Asian writers. Many protohistoric peoples also feature in prehistory and in history:

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Protohistory

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Protohistory refers to the transitional period between and written , during which a society or culture lacks its own developed but is contemporaneously documented in the texts of literate neighboring civilizations or through emerging but often undeciphered scripts. This phase is characterized by the interplay of —such as artifacts, settlements, and burials—with limited external textual evidence, allowing archaeologists to reconstruct social, , economic, and environmental processes where direct historical records are absent or incomplete. Protohistory differs from , which encompasses the earliest human past without any written records or reliable oral traditions, and from proper, which features ample contemporary written accounts produced by the society itself. As a subfield of , protohistory employs interdisciplinary methods, including excavation, analysis, scientific techniques, and integration of with natural sciences, to bridge gaps between archaeological data and sparse textual sources. Key challenges in protohistoric studies involve reconciling inconsistencies between and biased external narratives, often critiqued for evolutionary assumptions or colonialist perspectives that privilege written records over indigenous . The term has been applied across diverse global contexts, such as societies in documented by Mediterranean traders, the during early European , and the Harappan civilization, known through its undeciphered script. Protohistory typically provides critical insights into human development beyond the limitations of written . For example, in Central and , it often includes the through the early medieval period, while in the , aspects of the Late Bronze Age. Its study contributes to broader understandings of cultural transitions, migrations, and interactions, informing fields like heritage preservation, museum curation, and academic research.

Definition and Scope

Etymology and Terminology

The term "protohistory" derives from the Greek roots prōtos, meaning "first" or "foremost," and historia, referring to "inquiry" or "knowledge gained through investigation." This etymological foundation underscores its role as a preliminary or antecedent stage to full historical documentation. The term itself emerged in the 19th century, first appearing in French as la protohistorique to describe a transitional era between prehistoric and historical periods, reflecting the growing integration of archaeology with textual analysis during that era's scholarly developments. In its primary definition, protohistory denotes a transitional phase between —characterized by the absence of any written records—and , defined by the presence of indigenous writing systems, where knowledge of a derives from external literate sources rather than its own . This period highlights cultures that interacted with literate neighbors, allowing partial reconstruction through foreign accounts, yet lacking internal scripts for self-representation. Usage of the term varies, with a narrow sense originally applied to contexts like , where non-literate barbarian societies were described in classical Greek and Roman texts, marking the onset of protohistoric inquiry in European archaeology. In a broader sense, it encompasses any society without indigenous writing but referenced in external records, extending to diverse global regions such as ancient or . Scholarly debates center on the necessity of contemporary external records for classifying a period as protohistoric, versus acceptance of later accounts that may introduce temporal distortions or biases. For instance, Herodotus's 5th-century BCE descriptions of earlier societies have been critiqued for their non-contemporaneity, complicating the alignment of textual and material evidence and prompting calls for stricter criteria on source reliability.

Distinction from Prehistory and History

Protohistory occupies a transitional position between and , defined by the absence of an indigenous writing system within the society under study, coupled with the availability of contemporary written accounts from external, neighboring literate cultures that document its existence and activities. This criterion distinguishes protohistory as a phase where material culture and archaeological evidence are supplemented by outsider textual references, providing limited but valuable historical context without self-generated literacy. In contrast to prehistory, which encompasses periods relying exclusively on non-textual evidence such as artifacts, tools, and structural remains to reconstruct societal dynamics, protohistory introduces external written insights that allow for more nuanced interpretations of cultural practices, , and interactions, though these remain indirect and non-indigenous. Prehistoric reconstruction depends entirely on physical traces and environmental data, often leading to broader inferences about daily life and development, whereas protohistoric analysis benefits from correlative textual mentions that can align archaeological findings with specific events or chronologies mentioned in foreign records. Unlike history, which is characterized by the presence of indigenous written records enabling self-documentation, internal narratives, and administrative details from within the society, protohistory lacks this autonomous , resulting in perspectives that are inherently external and potentially biased by the observers' cultural lenses or agendas. Historical periods feature primary sources like inscriptions, chronicles, and legal texts produced by the society itself, fostering a more comprehensive and emic understanding, while protohistoric accounts derive from secondary, etic descriptions in the writings of literate neighbors, which may emphasize conflict, , or economic interests over accurate portrayal. Classification challenges arise in cases of partial or proto-literate systems, such as pictographic or symbolic notations that do not constitute full writing, which can blur the boundary between protohistory and emerging by suggesting rudimentary record-keeping without alphabetic or syllabic complexity. Additionally, the role of oral traditions in protohistoric societies complicates delineation, as these verbal histories may preserve detailed knowledge transmittable across generations but lack material fixity, potentially overlapping with prehistoric reliance on non-written transmission while influencing external textual interpretations. Such ambiguities underscore the need for integrated methodologies that weigh archaeological, textual, and ethnographic evidence to avoid rigid .

Chronological and Regional Frameworks

Global Chronological Overview

The emergence of the earliest protohistoric phases worldwide is closely tied to the invention of writing systems in ancient and around 3200 BCE, which enabled literate societies to document interactions with adjacent non-literate communities through administrative records, trade accounts, and early historical narratives. In , script developed at sites like for economic purposes, marking the transition from prehistory for neighboring groups in the that lacked their own writing but were referenced in these texts. Similarly, in , proto-hieroglyphic inscriptions appeared at Abydos around 3320–3200 BCE on tags and seals, influencing protohistoric documentation of contacts with non-literate societies in and the via shared administrative practices. These developments initiated protohistory not as an isolated cultural phase but as a relational one, where external literate records began to illuminate the activities of illiterate neighbors. Major global periods of protohistory align with key technological and societal transitions, beginning with the (c. 3000–1200 BCE), during which the expansion of , urban centers, and long-distance trade networks in the and Mediterranean amplified literate influences on surrounding non-writing cultures. This era saw protohistoric interactions intensify as empires like those in and the Valley recorded encounters with peripheral groups, fostering a broader web of documented exchanges. The subsequent expansions (c. 1200–500 BCE) further globalized these dynamics, with the diffusion of iron technology and imperial growth—such as Assyrian and Persian conquests—extending written references to diverse non-literate societies across and . In later phases, protohistoric interfaces persisted into , extending up to around 1500 CE in remote areas like the and , where European exploratory records first captured indigenous societies without their own scripts. The chronology of protohistory varies significantly due to the uneven spread of literacy, driven primarily by trade routes that exchanged not only goods but also scribal , conquests that imposed administrative writing on subjugated peoples, and migrations that carried scripts across cultural boundaries. For instance, maritime and overland trade from the facilitated contacts with regions like , where was adapted, and the Indus Valley (referred to as in Mesopotamian records), while conquests by literate powers accelerated the timeline in affected areas. This variability hinges on the timing of initial external contacts, creating asynchronous protohistoric episodes rather than a uniform global sequence. Contemporary scholarly consensus frames protohistory as an event-based phenomenon rather than a rigidly defined era, contingent on the onset and nature of literate interactions, with durations varying widely by region depending on the pace of cultural exchanges and technological adoptions. This perspective emphasizes its fluidity, rejecting teleological views of progress from prehistory to history in favor of contextual analyses of evidence integration.

Regional Variations in Protohistory

Protohistory exhibits significant regional variations, shaped by the timing and nature of contacts between non-literate societies and literate neighbors, which determine when external records begin to document these cultures. While a global framework might place protohistory broadly between the late and early historical periods, local geographies, trade routes, and cultural exchanges lead to divergent chronologies and characteristics across continents. These differences highlight how isolation or proximity to literate empires influenced the duration and intensity of protohistoric phases, often extending or compressing the period before full historical documentation emerged. In , protohistory is typically associated with the interactions between Celtic and and the literate civilizations of and , spanning approximately 800 BCE to 500 CE. This relatively short duration reflects the rapid spread of and Roman administrative influence, which incorporated many northern European groups into historical records through Greek ethnographies and Roman chronicles. For instance, Scythian, Thracian, and Dacian societies in eastern Europe are documented in Herodotus's accounts from the 5th century BCE onward, while Celtic tribes in and appear in Julius Caesar's by the 1st century BCE. The proximity to Mediterranean shortened the protohistoric interval compared to more isolated regions, emphasizing military and trade contacts as key vectors for documentation. In Asia, particularly South and Southeast Asia, protohistoric periods often extend longer, from around 500 BCE to 1500 CE, due to the gradual influence of Indian and Chinese scripts on indigenous non-literate tribes and chiefdoms. In South Asia, tribal groups in peripheral regions, such as those in the Deccan or northeastern hills, entered protohistory through mentions in Vedic and later Sanskrit texts, as well as foreign accounts like Greek and Persian records, while adopting elements of Brahmi-derived scripts over centuries. In Southeast Asia, Indianization transformed animistic societies into protohistoric states via maritime trade, introducing Sanskrit inscriptions and Hindu-Buddhist governance from the 1st century CE onward, as seen in the kingdoms of Funan (1st–6th centuries CE) and Srivijaya (7th–13th centuries CE). Chinese records, such as dynastic annals, further documented these interactions, extending the phase until local adoption of scripts like Khmer or Javanese by the 15th century. This prolonged timeline stems from the diffuse nature of cultural diffusion across archipelagos and highlands, where scripts influenced elites before widespread literacy. African and American variations feature later onsets, reflecting greater geographical isolation until colonial or trade contacts. In sub-Saharan Africa, protohistory begins around 800 CE with Arab and Islamic traders along the East African coast and , extending to 1800 CE in interior regions, as non-literate societies like the or Hausa are recorded in geographies and traveler accounts such as Ibn Battuta's (14th century). These contacts introduced Arabic script and Islamic administration, gradually documenting oral cultures through external literate sources. In the , protohistory aligns with European colonization from 1492 CE to about 1800 CE, when indigenous groups without writing systems were described in Spanish, Portuguese, and English chronicles, such as Hernán Cortés's letters on the or accounts of North American Plains tribes. This phase captures the peri-colonial dynamics, including resistance and adaptation, before many groups developed hybrid historical records. The later starts in both regions underscore the role of oceanic barriers and overland distances in delaying literate interactions. These variations arise from factors like geographical isolation, migration patterns, and colonial encounters, which dictated the pace of external documentation. For example, continental interiors in and the delayed contacts compared to Europe's Mediterranean proximity, while Asian maritime networks facilitated prolonged exchanges. Traditional chronologies often reflect , prioritizing Roman-era benchmarks and marginalizing non-Western timelines, thus biasing global frameworks toward shorter European protohistories.

Methods of Investigation

Archaeological Techniques

Archaeological techniques in protohistory primarily involve systematic excavation to uncover and analyze material remains from settlements, burial sites, and associated deposits, allowing researchers to infer social structures, economic systems, and technological advancements without direct reliance on written records. Excavations typically employ stratigraphic methods to carefully remove layers of soil and sediment, preserving the context of artifacts such as tools, dwellings, and refuse pits that reveal patterns of daily life and community organization. For instance, the examination of settlement layouts and burial goods provides insights into hierarchical societies and ritual practices, while trade goods like exotic shells or beads highlight economic networks and resource exchange. These techniques emphasize meticulous recording of spatial relationships to reconstruct how protohistoric communities adapted to environmental and cultural changes./02%3A_Methods-_Cultural_and_Archaeological/2.02%3A_Archaeological_Research_Methods) Key evidence types include pottery styles, which vary in decoration and form to indicate and cultural interactions; metalwork artifacts, such as tools and ornaments crafted from or , that demonstrate advancements in and alloying; and fortifications like earthworks or stone enclosures, which suggest defensive strategies possibly influenced by external threats or alliances. Imported goods, including ceramics or metals from distant regions, serve as proxies for contacts with literate societies, signaling trade routes and during protohistoric transitions. Analysis of these materials often incorporates archaeometric approaches, such as compositional studies of pottery clays or trace element analysis of metals, to trace origins and production techniques. These artifacts collectively enable the mapping of economic specialization and in periods lacking indigenous texts. Dating protohistoric layers relies on a combination of relative and absolute methods tailored to the material evidence. establishes chronological sequences by observing superposition of deposits, where lower layers predate upper ones, providing a framework for site formation processes. applies to organic remains like or from settlements and burials, offering dates within a typically spanning decades to centuries for the protohistoric era. complements this by analyzing tree-ring patterns in wooden structures or artifacts, yielding precise annual resolutions where preservation allows, particularly in temperate regions. These methods together anchor protohistoric timelines, though calibration curves adjust for atmospheric variations in radiocarbon levels. A primary limitation of these techniques is the inherent ambiguity in interpreting artifacts solely through material properties, as the absence of indigenous texts obscures intentions, beliefs, and nuanced social dynamics, leading to potential overreliance on analogies from ethnographic or historical parallels. Additionally, integrating findings with sparse external historical records poses challenges, as temporal mismatches between archaeological layers and textual mentions can complicate correlations without multidisciplinary synthesis. Preservation biases further restrict evidence, with perishable organics often absent, skewing reconstructions toward durable items like pottery and metal. Despite these constraints, ongoing refinements in non-destructive analyses mitigate some interpretive gaps.

Integration with Historical Records

Protohistory relies on external written records from literate societies to illuminate cultures without their own scripts, such as annals, trade logs, and traveler accounts produced by empires like . These sources, often generated by observers from dominant powers, provide glimpses into interactions with "barbarian" groups in regions like and the , detailing military encounters, economic exchanges, and cultural perceptions. For instance, Roman administrative records and ethnographic descriptions in works by authors like and document barbarian tribes' and social structures, offering chronological anchors absent in purely archaeological data. The integration process involves cross-referencing these textual accounts with archaeological evidence to verify and contextualize information, particularly addressing inherent biases in conqueror narratives. Roman texts frequently exaggerate ferocity or primitiveness to justify expansion, as seen in descriptions of Germanic tribes during the 1st century BCE campaigns; however, excavations at sites like Waldgirmes in reveal sophisticated and Roman-style , contradicting portrayals of chaos and validating selective trade integrations rather than wholesale . This methodological synthesis, combining documentary analysis with artifactual data such as hoards and fortifications, refines understandings of protohistoric dynamics by mitigating textual distortions and highlighting mutual influences. Linguistic approaches further enhance this integration by examining loanwords and toponyms in external records to trace cultural exchanges and migrations. For example, Indo-European toponyms preserved in and Roman texts, such as those denoting riverine features in pre-Roman , serve as relics indicating interactions between proto-languages and indigenous substrates, revealing patterns of borrowing that reflect trade routes and settlements. Analysis of these elements, through , reconstructs unattested proto-languages and maps exchanges, as in the adoption of Celtic-derived terms in Latin for northern geography. Ethical considerations in this integration emphasize addressing colonial biases embedded in historical records and advancing efforts in interpretation. Many texts stem from imperial viewpoints that marginalize non-literate societies, perpetuating stereotypes of inferiority; modern scholarship counters this by prioritizing indigenous oral traditions and collaborative archaeologies to reframe narratives, as in reevaluating colonial-era accounts of Native American protohistory through community-led validations. This approach promotes equitable knowledge production, ensuring interpretations respect cultural and dismantle Eurocentric frameworks.

Notable Protohistoric Civilizations

European Examples

In Europe, protohistory is particularly well-documented due to the proximity of emerging classical civilizations in the Mediterranean, which provided external written accounts of interactions with northern and central an societies. These records, combined with archaeological evidence, illuminate the transition from to for groups like the , Germanic tribes, and Norse peoples, often through , warfare, and cultural exchanges. The Roman Empire's expansion northward played a pivotal role, incorporating or confronting these societies and generating detailed historical narratives that supplement indigenous . The (c. 800–450 BCE) and the succeeding (c. 450 BCE–1st century BCE) represent key Celtic protohistoric societies in central and , known primarily through Greek and Roman trade records and archaeological finds. Named after major sites in , the marked the Early with the adoption of iron technology, which facilitated advanced metalworking and elite status displays in burials featuring wagons, weapons, and imported luxury goods like Greek wine amphorae. These elite tumuli, such as those at in , contained Etruscan and Mediterranean artifacts, indicating extensive trade networks that connected Celtic elites to Greek colonies in the west and Roman precursors in . The , centered in the Marne Valley and region, expanded Celtic influence with distinctive curvilinear art styles on swords and jewelry, while historical accounts from Greek authors like and later Roman sources describe Celtic mercenaries serving in Mediterranean armies and raiding expeditions into and around 279 BCE. This period's protohistoric character is evident in the blend of rich grave goods—demonstrating social hierarchy and iron-based economies—and external ethnographies that portray as fierce warriors engaging in cross-Alpine commerce. Germanic tribes, active from around 100 BCE to 500 CE along the Roman frontiers, exemplify protohistory through Roman literary descriptions and conflict records, transitioning from oral traditions to partial literacy under imperial influence. Tacitus' Germania (98 CE), a key ethnographic text, details tribal customs, governance by chieftains, and religious practices among groups like the Suebi and Cherusci, based on earlier Roman intelligence and direct observations. These accounts are corroborated by archaeological evidence of fortified settlements and weapons from sites like Feddersen Wierde in northern Germany, reflecting a warrior society with iron tools and amber trade routes to the Baltic. Migrations intensified during the late Roman period, with tribes such as the Goths and Vandals crossing the Rhine in 406 CE amid climate pressures and Hunnic incursions, leading to sustained frontier conflicts like the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (9 CE), where Arminius ambushed Roman legions. Roman expansion, including the construction of the Limes Germanicus barrier, documented these interactions in annals by Cassius Dio and Ammianus Marcellinus, highlighting Germanic adoption of Roman goods like coins and glassware while maintaining distinct tribal identities. The Norse and Slavic peoples during the (c. 793–1066 CE) illustrate protohistory at Europe's northern and eastern edges, with contacts recorded by Byzantine and chroniclers alongside that verge on literacy. Norse seafarers, originating from , established trade and raiding networks reaching , where Varangian guards served in the imperial army from the , as noted in the and Byzantine texts like those of . Interactions with occurred via the , where Ibn Fadlan's 922 CE account describes Rus' (Norse-led) merchants in Slavic territories, exchanging furs and slaves for silver dirhams at Bulgar markets. on stones like the in (9th century) record voyages and memorials, providing semi-literate glimpses into Norse society, while Slavic groups appear in these external sources as intermediaries in eastern exchanges. These records underscore the protohistoric fluidity, with Norse and Slavic polities emerging through Mediterranean-proximate documentation that captured their maritime expansions and cultural fusions. A distinctive feature of European protohistory is the abundance of external written sources owing to geographic closeness to the Mediterranean world, enabling Greek, Roman, Byzantine, and observers to chronicle events that might otherwise remain archaeological. Roman expansion further amplified this, as conquests and diplomacies along the and generated , inscriptions, and treaties that preserved details of societal structures, economies, and conflicts for these groups.

Asian and Middle Eastern Examples

In and the , protohistory is exemplified by nomadic and semi-nomadic groups whose cultures are illuminated through interactions with literate empires, providing indirect historical records without their own written traditions. The and related steppe nomads, active from approximately 800 to 300 BCE, represent a quintessential case of such Eurasian pastoralists. These horse-riding warriors, originating from the Pontic-Caspian steppes and extending eastward to , are described in Achaemenid Persian sources as formidable adversaries during Darius I's campaigns around 513 BCE, where they employed leveraging their skills. Chinese texts, such as Sima Qian's Shiji (c. 100 BCE), further depict eastern branches like the Sai () as nomadic herders trading horses and furs with the , highlighting their role in early precursors. Archaeological evidence from burials—earthen mounds up to 18 meters high containing elite interments with gold artifacts, weapons, and sacrificed horses—underscores their hierarchical society and practices, as seen in sites like Arzhan 1 (9th–8th century BCE) in and Issyk (6th–5th century BCE) in . These burials, often with and enclosures, reveal a of mobility and wealth accumulation through raiding and exchange, bridging and the literate worlds of Persia and . Southeast Asian hill tribes, spanning roughly 500 BCE to 1500 CE, illustrate protohistoric dynamics in monsoon-influenced regions, where indigenous groups were referenced in the inscriptions of emerging Indianized kingdoms. Populations such as the Pnongs, Samre, Kmir, Rade, and Mois, often retreating to mountainous interiors, appear in Khmer and Cham as peripheral communities or laborers, described as "men of mountain solitudes" in 13th-century Angkorian texts like those of Chou Ta-kuan. These records from kingdoms like (1st–6th centuries CE) and (2nd–15th centuries CE) portray the tribes as interacting through tribute or enslavement, with and inscriptions (e.g., Bhadravarman I's 4th-century edicts) noting their subordination amid expanding wet-rice polities. The adoption of wet-rice among these groups was accelerated via maritime networks linking and from the 1st century CE, introducing advanced irrigation and cultivation techniques evident in sites like Oc Eo in , where Chinese accounts by K’ang T’ai ( CE) describe multi-year harvests sustained by deltaic farming. This technological diffusion, facilitated by Indian traders and settlers, transformed subsistence patterns in riverine lowlands while hill tribes retained semi-isolated agro-pastoral economies, as inferred from archaeological parallels in the Irrawaddy and basins. Pre-Islamic Arabian tribes from about 500 BCE to 600 CE embody protohistoric nomadic life in arid trade corridors, documented through and South Arabian inscriptions that reference groups. The , emerging as a semi-nomadic in the BCE, controlled caravan routes ferrying and spices from to the Mediterranean, with their rock-cut inscriptions at and Madain Saleh (e.g., 1st-century BCE dedications) alluding to alliances and conflicts with raiders like the Saracens. South Arabian kingdoms such as Saba and Himyar left epigraphy (c. 500 BCE–300 CE) recording interactions with nomadic tribes, including protection pacts for caravan security amid raids on incense routes spanning the Rub' al-Khali desert. These networks, reliant on , facilitated economic integration with settled oases, as evidenced by Assyrian and later Roman accounts of tribute from groups like the , though direct tribal literacy remained absent until Islamic consolidation. Unique to Asian and Middle Eastern protohistory are the pervasive nomadic influences and linkages that prolonged transitional periods due to delayed literacy among mobile populations. Steppe nomads like the shaped highland geographies through transhumant herding patterns from 750 to 4,000 meters elevation, predating formalized routes by centuries and enabling cultural exchanges with sedentary empires. In Arabia and , caravan and maritime networks similarly embedded illiterate tribes within literate economies, extending protohistoric spans as oral traditions persisted alongside external records until regional literacies (e.g., Khmer scripts or adoption) emerged around the CE. This interplay fostered hybrid societies, where nomadic mobility drove innovation in and without immediate written self-representation.

African and American Examples

In , the (c. 800–1200 CE) exemplifies protohistory through external accounts that document its role as a hub, particularly in gold and salt, without relying on indigenous written records. The 11th-century geographer described the capital as a fortified city with a Muslim quarter adjacent to the royal palace, where the king, surrounded by guards and advisors, oversaw tribute from states, highlighting the empire's centralized authority and economic prosperity. These accounts, derived from Berber and traders, portray Ghana's military strength, with the ruler mobilizing up to 200,000 troops, though archaeological evidence from sites like corroborates the dual urban layout but suggests a more integrated Muslim presence than implied. The subsequent Mali Empire (c. 1200–1600 CE) further illustrates protohistoric dynamics via similar external documentation combined with oral traditions. Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta's 1354 account details the court of Mansa Sulayman in the capital of Niani, noting the ruler's piety, lavish festivals, and the empire's vast extent from the Atlantic to the Bend, sustained by gold trade that made a dominant force in West African commerce. Oral traditions, preserved by professional historians among the Mande peoples, supplement these records by recounting the empire's founding under and its expansion through conquests, providing genealogical and cultural continuity absent in written sources. Together, these elements reveal Mali's sophisticated administration and Islamic influences, though narratives emphasize indigenous perspectives on and . In the Americas, the Mississippian culture (c. 1000–1500 CE) in North America represents a protohistoric society known primarily through early European chronicles that intersect with archaeological findings of mound-building and intensive maize agriculture. Hernando de Soto's 1539–1543 expedition encountered Mississippian chiefdoms in the Southeast, as recorded in chronicles by Rodrigo Rangel and Luys Hernández de Biedma, which describe hierarchical polities with palisaded towns, elite residences on platform mounds, and polities like Coosa and Apalachee exacting tribute in deerskins and corn. These accounts highlight the culture's reliance on maize-based farming, which supported population densities up to 10,000 in centers like Cahokia, evidenced by over 100 earthen mounds and fortified villages. However, the chronicles' Eurocentric lens often exaggerates indigenous hostility and understates social complexity, biasing interpretations toward conflict over diplomacy. Mesoamerican polities, such as the Tarascan (Purépecha) state (c. 1200–1530 CE), are documented in Aztec records that capture pre-conquest interactions, particularly resistance to imperial expansion. The Relación de Michoacán, compiled from Tarascan oral testimonies in the 1540s but drawing on earlier Aztec sources like the , details the Tarascan kingdom's copper-working, lake-based , and military defeats of Aztec incursions at the frontier near Lake Pátzcuaro, maintaining through bronze weaponry and centralized rule under cazonci kings. Aztec tribute lists in the record failed campaigns against Tarascan territories, underscoring the polity's strategic alliances and metallurgical expertise that thwarted expansion. Indigenous oral histories, including Purépecha narratives of origin and warfare, supplement these biased external views by emphasizing ecological adaptations and cultural resilience against Aztec hegemony. Unique to African and American protohistory is the pervasive in colonial-era documentation, which often framed indigenous societies through lenses of or inferiority, as seen in Arab traders' portrayals of African rulers as despotic despite evidence of equitable systems, and Spanish chroniclers' depictions of Mississippian chiefs as tyrannical to justify . Indigenous oral histories play a crucial role in countering these distortions, as epics in and Mesoamerican lienzo paintings preserve accounts of sovereignty and environmental knowledge that external records overlook, enabling a more balanced reconstruction of these societies.

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  33. https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/scythians/
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  35. https://thericejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1007/s12284-011-9078-7
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  37. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/globalization-in-prehistory/nomads-and-caravan-trade-in-the-syrian-desert/772FDF4FE892373EB3543B889D0082A9
  38. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28277506/
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  40. https://chssp.ucdavis.edu/sites/g/files/dgvnsk8426/files/inline-files/Mali.pdf
  41. https://www.uapress.ua.edu/9780817384616/the-de-soto-chronicles-2-volume-set/
  42. https://heritage.ky.gov/Documents/TheArchaeologyofKYAnUpdateVol2.pdf
  43. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26308182
  44. https://etd.ohiolink.edu/acprod/odb_etd/ws/send_file/send?accession=toledo1503004991079327&disposition=inline
  45. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2802176
  46. https://www.academia.edu/6098121/Zborover_2014_Dissertation_Decolonizing_Historical_Archaeology_in_Southern_Oaxaca_Mexico
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