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Indian classical music
Concepts
Melakarta ragas of Carnatic music. While ragas in Hindustani music are divided into thaats, ragas in Carnatic music are divided into melakartas.

A raga[a][b] (/ˈrɑːɡə/ RAH-gə; IAST: rāga, Sanskrit: [ɾäːɡɐ]; lit. 'colouring', 'tingeing' or 'dyeing')[1][2] is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a melodic mode.[3] It is central to classical Indian music.[4] Each raga consists of an array of melodic structures with musical motifs; and, from the perspective of the Indian tradition, the resulting music has the ability to "colour the mind" as it engages the emotions of the audience.[1][2][4]

Each raga provides the musician with a musical framework within which to improvise.[3][5][6] Improvisation by the musician involves creating sequences of notes allowed by the raga in keeping with rules specific to the raga. Ragas range from small ragas like Bahar and Sahana that are not much more than songs to big ragas like Malkauns, Darbari and Yaman, which have great scope for improvisation and for which performances can last over an hour. Ragas may change over time, with an example being Marwa, the primary development of which has been going down into the lower octave, in contrast with the traditional middle octave.[7] Each raga traditionally has an emotional significance and symbolic associations such as with season, time and mood.[3] Ragas are considered a means in the Indian musical tradition for evoking specific feelings in listeners. Hundreds of ragas are recognized in the classical tradition, of which about 30 are common,[3][6] and each raga has its "own unique melodic personality".[8]

There are two main classical music traditions, Hindustani (North Indian) and Carnatic (South Indian), and the concept of raga is shared by both.[5] Raga is also found in Sikh traditions such as in Guru Granth Sahib, the primary scripture of Sikhism.[9] Similarly, it is a part of the qawwali tradition in Sufi Islamic communities of South Asia.[10] Some popular Indian film songs and ghazals use ragas in their composition.[11]

Every raga has a svara (a note or named pitch) called shadja, or adhara sadja, whose pitch may be chosen arbitrarily by the performer. This is taken to mark the beginning and end of the saptak (loosely, octave). The raga also contains an adhista, which is either the svara Ma or the svara Pa. The adhista divides the octave into two parts or anga – the purvanga, which contains lower notes, and the uttaranga, which contains higher notes. Every raga has a vadi and a samvadi. The vadi is the most prominent svara, which means that an improvising musician emphasizes or pays more attention to the vadi than to other notes. The samvadi is consonant with the vadi (always from the anga that does not contain the vadi) and is the second most prominent svara in the raga.[clarification needed]

Terminology

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The Sanskrit word rāga (Sanskrit: राग) has Indian roots, as the Indo-European root *reg- connotes 'to dye'. Cognates are found in Greek, Persian, Khwarezmian, Kurdish. The words "red" and "rado" are also related.[12] According to Monier Monier-Williams, the term comes from a Sanskrit word for "the act of colouring or dyeing", or simply a "colour, hue, tint, dye".[13] The term also connotes an emotional state referring to a "feeling, affection, desire, interest, joy or delight", particularly related to passion, love, or sympathy for a subject or something.[14] In the context of ancient Indian music, the term refers to a harmonious note, melody, formula, building block of music available to a musician to construct a state of experience in the audience.[13]

The word appears in the ancient Principal Upanishads of Hinduism, as well as the Bhagavad Gita.[15] For example, verse 3.5 of the Maitri Upanishad and verse 2.2.9 of the Mundaka Upanishad contain the word rāga. The Mundaka Upanishad uses it in its discussion of soul (Atman-Brahman) and matter (Prakriti), with the sense that the soul does not "colour, dye, stain, tint" the matter.[16] The Maitri Upanishad uses the term in the sense of "passion, inner quality, psychological state".[15][17] The term rāga is also found in ancient texts of Buddhism where it connotes "passion, sensuality, lust, desire" for pleasurable experiences as one of three impurities of a character.[18][19] Alternatively, rāga is used in Buddhist texts in the sense of "color, dye, hue".[18][19][20]

Raga groups are called thaat.[21]
Raga groups are called thaat.[21]

The term rāga in the modern connotation of a melodic format occurs in the Brihaddeshi by Mataṅga Muni dated c. 8th century,[22] or possibly 9th century.[23] The Brihaddeshi describes rāga as "a combination of tones which, with beautiful illuminating graces, pleases the people in general".[24]

According to Emmie te Nijenhuis, a professor in Indian musicology, the Dattilam section of Brihaddeshi has survived into the modern times, but the details of ancient music scholars mentioned in the extant text suggest a more established tradition by the time this text was composed.[22] The same essential idea and prototypical framework is found in ancient Hindu texts, such as the Naradiyasiksa and the classic Sanskrit work Natya Shastra by Bharata Muni, whose chronology has been estimated to sometime between 500 BCE and 500 CE,[25] probably between 200 BCE and 200 CE.[26]

Bharata describes a series of empirical experiments he did with the Veena, then compared what he heard, noting the relationship of fifth intervals as a function of intentionally induced change to the instrument's tuning. Bharata states that certain combinations of notes are pleasant, and certain others are not so. His methods of experimenting with the instrument triggered further work by ancient Indian scholars, leading to the development of successive permutations, as well as theories of musical note inter-relationships, interlocking scales and how this makes the listener feel.[23] Bharata discusses Bhairava, Kaushika, Hindola, Dipaka, SrI-rāga, and Megha. Bharata states that these can to trigger a certain affection and the ability to "color the emotional state" in the audience.[13][23] His encyclopedic Natya Shastra links his studies on music to the performance arts, and it has been influential in Indian performance arts tradition.[27][28]

The other ancient text, Naradiyasiksa dated to be from the 1st century BCE, discusses secular and religious music, compares the respective musical notes.[29] This is earliest known text that reverentially names each musical note to be a deity, describing it in terms of varna ('colours') and other motifs such as parts of fingers, an approach that is conceptually similar to the 12th century Guidonian hand in European music.[29] The study that mathematically arranges rhythms and modes (rāga) has been called prastāra ('matrix').(Khan 1996, p. 89, Quote: "… the Sanskrit word prastāra, … means mathematical arrangement of rhythms and modes. In the Indian system of music there are about the 500 modes and 300 different rhythms which are used in everyday music. The modes are called Ragas.")[30]

In the ancient texts of Hinduism, the term for the technical mode part of rāga was jati. Later, jati evolved to mean quantitative class of scales, while rāga evolved to become a more sophisticated concept that included the experience of the audience.[31] A figurative sense of the word as 'passion, love, desire, delight' is also found in the Mahabharata. The specialized sense of 'loveliness, beauty', especially of voice or song, emerges in classical Sanskrit, used by Kalidasa and in the Panchatantra.[32]

History and significance

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Indian classical music has ancient roots and developed to serve both spiritual (moksha) and entertainment (kama) purposes. Conceptions of sound can be traced back to the Vedic period. Sound is thought to carry a metaphysical power, thus the memorisation of Vedic texts also required precise intonation.[33]

Raga, along with performance arts such as dance and music, has long been an integral part of Hinduism. Most Hindus do not regard music as merely entertainment but as a spiritual practice and path to moksha (liberation).[34][35][36] In this tradition, ragas are believed to have an inherent natural existence that is discovered rather than invented by artists.[37] Music resonates with human beings because it reflects the hidden harmonies of the ultimate creation.[37] Ancient texts such as the Sama Veda (~1000 BCE), which also arranges the Rigveda to melodic patterns,[38] are entirely structured according to melodic themes.[34][39] The ragas were envisioned by the Hindus as a manifestation of the divine, with each musical note treated as a god or goddess with complex personality.[29]

During the Bhakti movement of Hinduism, which dates to about the middle of 1st millennium CE, ragas became an integral part of the musical expression of spirituality. Bhajan and kirtan were composed and performed by the early pioneers in South India. A bhajan is a free-form devotional composition based on melodic rāgas.[40][41] A kirtan, on the other hand, is a more structured team performance, typically with a call and response musical structure, resembling an intimate conversation. It includes two or more musical instruments,[42][43] and incorporates various ragas such as those associated with Hindu gods like Shiva (Bhairav) or Krishna (Hindola).[44]

The early 13th century Sanskrit text Sangitaratnakara, by Sarngadeva patronized by King Sighana of the Yadava dynasty in the North-Central Deccan region (today a part of Maharashtra), mentions and discusses 253 ragas. This is one of the most comprehensive surviving historic treatises on the structure, technique, and reasoning behind ragas.[45][46][47]

The tradition of incorporating rāga into spiritual music is also found in Jainism[48] and in Sikhism.[49] In the Sikh scripture, the texts are set to specific raga and are sung according to the rules of that raga.[50][51] According to Pashaura Singh, a professor of Sikh and Punjabi studies, the rāga and tāla of ancient Indian traditions were carefully selected and integrated by the Sikh Gurus into their hymns. They also picked from the "standard instruments used in Hindu musical traditions" for singing kirtans in Sikhism.[51]

During the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent, particularly in and after the 15th century, the mystical Islamic tradition of Sufism developed devotional songs and music called qawwali. It incorporated elements of rāga and tāla.[52][53]

The Buddha discouraged music intended for entertainment among monks seeking higher spiritual attainment, but instead encouraged chanting of sacred hymns.[54] The various canonical Tripitaka texts of Buddhism, for example, outline the Dasha-shila or ten precepts for those following the Buddhist monastic order. Among these is the precept advising monks to "abstain from dancing, singing, music and worldly spectacles".[55][56] Buddhism does not forbid music or dance for Buddhist lay followers, but its emphasis has been on chants rather than on musical raga.[54]

Description

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A raga is sometimes explained as a melodic rule set that a musician works with, but according to Dorottya Fabian and others, this is now generally accepted among music scholars to be an explanation that is too simplistic. According to them, a raga of the ancient Indian tradition can be compared to the concept of non-constructible set in language for human communication, in a manner described by Frederik Kortlandt and George van Driem;[57] audiences familiar with raga recognize and evaluate performances of them intuitively.

Two Indian musicians performing a rāga duet called Jugalbandi

The attempt to appreciate, understand and explain rāga among European scholars started in the early colonial period.[58] In 1784, Jones translated it as "mode" of European music tradition, but Willard corrected him in 1834 with the statement that a raga is both modet and tune. In 1933, states José Luiz Martinez – a professor of music, Stern refined this explanation to "the raga is more fixed than mode, less fixed than the melody, beyond the mode and short of melody, and richer both than a given mode or a given melody; it is mode with added multiple specialities".[58]

The raga is a central concept of Indian music, predominant in its expression, yet the concept has no direct Western translation. According to Walter Kaufmann, though a remarkable and prominent feature of Indian music, a definition of rāga cannot be offered in one or two sentences.[59] A raga is a fusion of technical and ideational ideas found in music, and may be roughly described as a musical entity that includes note intonation, relative duration and order, in a manner similar to how words flexibly form phrases to create an atmosphere of expression.[60] In some cases, certain rules are considered obligatory, in others optional. The raga allows flexibility, where the artist may rely on simple expression, or may add ornamentations yet express the same essential message but evoke a different intensity of mood.[60]

A raga has a given set of notes, on a scale, ordered in melodies with musical motifs.[6] A musician playing a raga, states Bruno Nettl, may traditionally use just these notes but is free to emphasize or improvise certain degrees of the scale.[6] The Indian tradition suggests a certain sequencing of how the musician moves from note to note for each raga, in order for the performance to create a rasa ('mood, atmosphere, essence, inner feeling') that is unique to each raga. A raga can be written on a scale. Theoretically, thousands of ragas are possibly given five or more notes, but in practical use, the classical tradition has refined and typically relies on several hundred.[6] For most artists, their basic perfected repertoire has some forty to fifty ragas.[61] Ragas in Indian classical music is intimately related to tala or guidance about "division of time", with each unit called a matra ('beat; mora').[62]

A raga is not a tune, because the same raga can yield an infinite number of tunes.[63] A raga is not a scale, because many ragas can be based on the same scale.[58][63] A raga, according to Bruno Nettl and other music scholars, is a concept similar to a mode, something between the domains of tune and scale, and it is best conceptualized as a "unique array of melodic features, mapped to and organized for a unique aesthetic sentiment in the listener".[63] The goal of a raga and its artist is to create rasa with music, as classical Indian dance does with performance arts. In the Indian tradition, classical dances are performed with music set to various ragas.[64]

Joep Bor of the Rotterdam Conservatory of Music defined rāga as a "tonal framework for composition and improvisation."[65] Nazir Jairazbhoy, chairman of UCLA's department of ethnomusicology, characterized ragas as separated by scale, line of ascent and descent, transilience, emphasized notes and register, and intonation and ornaments.[66]

Raga-Ragini system

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For illustrations of ragas and raginis, see Ragamala paintings.

Rāginī (रागिनी) is a term for the "feminine" counterpart of a "masculine" rāga.[67] These are envisioned to parallel the god-goddess themes in Hinduism, and described variously by different medieval Indian music scholars. For example, the Sangita-darpana text of 15th-century Damodara Misra proposes six ragas with thirty ragini, creating a system of thirty six, a system that became popular in Rajasthan.[68] In the north Himalayan regions such as Himachal Pradesh, the music scholars such as 16th century Mesakarna expanded this system to include eight descendants to each raga, thereby creating a system of eighty four. After the 16th-century, the system expanded still further.[68]

In Sangita-darpana, the Bhairava raga is associated with the following raginis: Bhairavi, Punyaki, Bilawali, Aslekhi, Bangali. In the Meskarna system, the masculine and feminine musical notes are combined to produce putra ragas called Harakh, Pancham, Disakh, Bangal, Madhu, Madhava, Lalit, Bilawal.[69]

This system is no longer in use today because the 'related' ragas had very little or no similarity and the raga-ragini classification did not agree with various other schemes.

Ragas and their symbolism

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The North Indian raga system is also called Hindustani, while the South Indian system is commonly referred to as Carnatic. The North Indian system suggests a particular time of a day or a season, in the belief that the human state of psyche and mind are affected by the seasons and by daily biological cycles and nature's rhythms. The South Indian system is closer to the text, and places less emphasis on time or season.[70][71]

The symbolic role of classical music through raga has been both aesthetic indulgence and the spiritual purifying of one's mind (yoga). The former is encouraged in Kama literature (such as Kamasutra), while the latter appears in Yoga literature with concepts such as "Nada-Brahman" (metaphysical Brahman of sound).[72][73][74] Hindola raga, for example, is considered a manifestation of Kama (god of love), typically through Krishna. Hindola is also linked to the festival of dola,[72] which is more commonly known as "spring festival of colors" or Holi. This idea of aesthetic symbolism has also been expressed in Hindu temple reliefs and carvings, as well as painting collections such as the ragamala.[73]

In ancient and medieval Indian literature, the raga are described as manifestation and symbolism for gods and goddesses. Music is discussed as equivalent to the ritual yajna sacrifice, with pentatonic and hexatonic notes such as "ni-dha-pa-ma-ga-ri" as Agnistoma, "ri-ni-dha-pa-ma-ga as Asvamedha, and so on.[72]

During the Middle Ages, music scholars of India began associating each raga with seasons. The 11th-century Nanyadeva, for example, recommends that Hindola raga is best in spring, Pancama in summer, Sadjagrama and Takka during the monsoons, Bhinnasadja in early winter, and Kaisika in late winter.[75] In the 13th century, Sarngadeva went further and associated raga with rhythms of each day and night. He associated pure and simple ragas to early morning, mixed and more complex ragas to late morning, skillful ragas to noon, love-themed and passionate ragas to evening, and universal ragasl to night.[76]

Raga and Yoga Sutras

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In the Yoga Sutras II.7, rāga is defined as the desire for pleasure based on remembering past experiences of pleasure. Memory triggers the wish to repeat those experiences, leading to attachment. Ego is seen as the root of this attachment, and memory is necessary for attachment to form. Even when not consciously remembered, past impressions can unconsciously draw the mind toward objects of pleasure.[77]

Raga and mathematics

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According to Cris Forster, mathematical studies on systematizing and analyzing South Indian raga began in the 16th century.[78] Computational studies of rāgas is an active area of musicology.[79][80]

Notations

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Although notes are an important part of raga practice, they alone do not make the raga. A raga is more than a scale, and many ragas share the same scale. The underlying scale may have four, five, six or seven tones, called svaras. The svara concept is found in the ancient Natya Shastra in Chapter 28. It calls the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit as Śruti,[81] with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows,[82]

तत्र स्वराः –
षड्‍जश्‍च ऋषभश्‍चैव गान्धारो मध्यमस्तथा ।
पञ्‍चमो धैवतश्‍चैव सप्तमोऽथ निषादवान् ॥ २१॥

— Natya Shastra, 28.21[83][84]

These seven degrees are shared by both major rāga system, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic).[85] The solfege (sargam) is learnt in abbreviated form: sa, ri (Carnatic) or re (Hindustani), ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa. Of these, the first that is "sa", and the fifth that is "pa", are considered anchors that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavors that differs between the two major systems.[85]

Svara in North Indian system of Rāga[86][87]
Svara
(Long) 		Sadja
(षड्ज) 		Rishabha
(ऋषभ) 		Gandhara
(गान्धार) 		Madhyama
(मध्यम) 		Pañcham
(पञ्चम) 		Dhaivata
(धैवत) 		Nishada
(निषाद)
Svara
(Short) 		Sa
(सा) 		Re
(रे) 		Ga
(ग) 		Ma
(म) 		Pa
(प) 		Dha
(ध) 		Ni
(नि)
12 Varieties (names) C (sadja) D♭ (komal re),
D (suddha re) 		E♭ (komal ga),
E (suddha ga) 		F (suddha ma),
F♯ (tivra ma) 		G (pancama) A♭ (komal dha),
A (suddha dha) 		B♭ (komal ni),
B (suddha ni)
Svara in South Indian system of rāga[87]
Svara
(Long) 		Shadjam
(षड्ज) 		Risabham
(ऋषभ) 		Gandharam
(गान्धार) 		Madhyamam
(मध्यम) 		Pañcamam
(पञ्चम) 		Dhaivatam
(धैवत) 		Nishadam
(निषाद)
Svara
(Short) 		Sa
(सा) 		Ri
(री) 		Ga
(ग) 		Ma
(म) 		Pa
(प) 		Dha
(ध) 		Ni
(नि)
16 Varieties (names) C (sadja) D♭ (suddha ri),
D♯ (satsruti ri),
D♮ (catussruti ri) 		E♭ (sadarana ga),
Edouble flat (suddha ga),
E♮ (antara ga) 		F♯ (prati ma),
F♮ (suddha ma) 		G (pancama) A♭ (suddha dha),
A♯ (satsruti dha),
A♮ (catussruti dha) 		B♭ (kaisiki ni),
Bdouble flat (suddha ni),
B♮ (kakali ni)

The music theory in the Natyashastra, states Maurice Winternitz, centers around three themes – sound, rhythm and prosody applied to musical texts.[88] The text asserts that the octave has 22 srutis or micro-intervals of musical tones or 1,200 cents.[81] Ancient Greek system is also very close to it, states Emmie te Nijenhuis, with the difference that each sruti computes to 54.5 cents, while the Greek enharmonic quarter-tone system computes to 55 cents.[81] The text discusses gramas (scales) and murchanas (modes), mentioning three scales of seven modes (21 total), some Greek modes are also like them .[89] However, the Gandhara-grama is just mentioned in Natyashastra, while its discussion largely focuses on two scales, fourteen modes and eight four tanas (notes).[90][91][92] The text also discusses which scales are best for different forms of performance arts.[89]

These musical elements are organized into scales (mela), and the South Indian raga system works with 72 scales, as first discussed by Caturdandi prakashika.[87] They are divided into two groups, purvanga and uttaranga, depending on the nature of the lower tetrachord. The anga itself has six cycles (cakra), where the purvanga or lower tetrachord is anchored, while there are six permutations of uttaranga suggested to the artist.[87] After this system was developed, the Indian classical music scholars have developed additional ragas for all the scales. The North Indian style is closer to the Western diatonic modes, and built upon the foundation developed by Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande using ten Thaat: kalyan, bilaval, khamaj, kafi, asavari, bhairavi, bhairav, purvi, marva and todi.[93] Some ragas are common to both systems and have same names, such as kalyan performed by either is recognizably the same.[94] Some ragas are common to both systems but have different names, such as malkos of Hindustani system is recognizably the same as hindolam of Carnatic system. However, some rāgas are named the same in the two systems, but they are different, such as todi.[94]

Recently, a 32 thaat system was presented in a book Nai Vaigyanik Paddhati to correct the classification of North Indian-style ragas.[citation needed]

Ragas containing four svaras are called surtara (सुरतर; 'tetratonic') ragas; those with five svaras are called audava (औडव; 'pentatonic') ragas; those with six are called shādava (षाडव; hextonic'); and those with seven are called sampurna (संपूर्ण; 'complete, heptatonic'). The number of svaras may differ in the ascending and descending like the Bhimpalasi raga, which has five notes in the ascending and seven notes in descending or Khamaj with six notes in the ascending and seven in the descending. Ragas differ in their ascending or descending movements. Those that do not follow the strict ascending or descending order of svaras are called vakra (वक्र; 'crooked') ragas.[citation needed]

Carnatic raga

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Main article: Carnatic raga

In Carnatic music, the principal ragas are called Melakarthas, which literally means "lord of the scale". It is also called Asraya raga—meaning 'shelter-giving raga', or Janaka raga—meaning 'father raga'.[95]

A thaata in the South Indian tradition are groups of derivative rāgas, which are called Janya ('begotten') ragas or Asrita ('sheltered)' ragas.[95] However, these terms are approximate and interim phrases during learning, as the relationships between the two layers are neither fixed nor has unique parent–child relationship.[95]

Janaka ragas are grouped together using a scheme called Katapayadi sutra and are organised as Melakarta ragas. A Melakarta raga is one which has all seven notes in both the ārōhanam ('ascending scale') and avarōhanam ('descending scale'). Some Melakarta ragas are Harikambhoji, Kalyani, Kharaharapriya, Mayamalavagowla, Sankarabharanam, and Hanumatodi.[96][97] Janya ragas are derived from Janaka ragas, using a combination of the swarams (usually a subset of swarams) from the parent raga. Some janya ragas are Abheri, Abhogi, Bhairavi, Hindolam, Mohanam and Kambhoji.[96][97]

In the 21st century, few composers have discovered new ragas. Dr. M. Balamuralikrishna who has created raga in three notes[98] Ragas such as Mahathi, Lavangi, Sidhdhi, Sumukham that he created have only four notes.[99]

A list of janaka ragas would include Kanakangi, Ratnangi, Ganamurthi, Vanaspathi, Manavathi, Thanarupi, Senavathi, Hanumatodi, Dhenuka, Natakapriya, Kokilapriya, Rupavati, Gayakapriya, Vakulabharanam, Mayamalavagowla, Chakravakam, Suryakantam, Hatakambari, Jhankaradhvani, Natabhairavi, Keeravani, Kharaharapriya, Gourimanohari, Varunapriya, Mararanjani, Charukesi, Sarasangi, Harikambhoji, Sankarabharanam, Naganandini, Yagapriya, Ragavardhini, Gangeyabhushani, Vagadheeswari, Shulini, Chalanata, Salagam, Jalarnavam, Jhalavarali, Navaneetam, Pavani.

Training

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Classical music has been transmitted through music schools or through Guru–Shishya parampara ('teacher–student tradition') through an oral tradition and practice. Some are known as gharana (houses), and their performances are staged through sabhas (music organizations).[100][101] Each gharana has freely improvised over time, and differences in the rendering of each raga is discernible. In the Indian musical schooling tradition, the small group of students lived near or with the teacher, the teacher treated them as family members providing food and boarding, and a student learnt various aspects of music thereby continuing the musical knowledge of their guru.[102] The tradition survives in parts of India, and many musicians can trace their guru lineage.[103]

Persian râk

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The music concept of râk[clarification needed] or rang ('colour') in Persian is probably a pronunciation of rāga. According to Hormoz Farhat, it is unclear how this term came to Persia, as it has no meaning in the modern Persian language and the concept of rāga is unknown in Persia.[104][105]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Raga

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A raga is a melodic framework central to , comprising a specific set of pitches organized by rules of ascent (arohana) and descent (avarohana), which serves as the basis for and evokes distinct emotions in listeners. The term "raga," derived from the word meaning "color" or "passion," reflects its role in "coloring" the mind with particular moods or rasas, such as devotion, romance, or longing. Unlike Western scales, a raga is not merely a sequence of notes but a distinct entity defined by its selected swaras (notes), their hierarchical importance (e.g., vadi as the king note and samvadi as the queen note), and ornamental rules that guide melodic elaboration. Indian classical music divides into two primary traditions—Hindustani in the north and Carnatic in the south—each employing ragas as their melodic foundation, though with variations in nomenclature, structure, and repertoire. In Hindustani music, ragas are often classified under ten parental scales called thaats and are traditionally associated with specific times of day or seasons to enhance their emotional resonance, such as morning ragas like Bhairav for devotion or evening ones like Yaman for serenity. Carnatic ragas, while sharing many with Hindustani counterparts, emphasize stricter adherence to melodic patterns (svarajati and varnam) and incorporate more complex rhythmic interplay. Performances built around a raga typically unfold in three stages: an unaccompanied alap to explore the raga's essence slowly, a composed section (gat or kriti) introducing rhythm via tala (metric cycles), and fast improvisational sections (jhora or jhala) showcasing virtuosity. This improvisational nature allows musicians to interpret the raga uniquely while adhering to its rules, fostering a deep connection between performer, instrument (e.g., sitar, sarod, or voice), and audience. Over centuries, thousands of ragas have evolved, with around 200 commonly performed today, influencing not only classical traditions but also global fusion genres like raga rock.

Terminology and Etymology

Definition and Core Concepts

In , a raga serves as a melodic framework that guides , comprising a specific sequence of notes arranged in ascending () and descending (avarohana) patterns, with an emphasis on evoking distinct emotional states known as rasa. This structure allows performers to explore variations while adhering to the raga's unique identity, distinguishing it from fixed compositions by prioritizing expressive depth over rigid notation. Unlike Western scales, which are primarily harmonic building blocks, a raga incorporates rules for ornamentation, phrasing, and mood to "color" the listener's mind, as implied by its root meaning "to " or "to tint." Central to the raga's construction are the swaras, the fundamental notes that form its core: Sa (shadj), Re (rishabh), Ga (gandhar), Ma (madhyam), Pa (pancham), Dha (dhaivat), and Ni (nishad). These seven notes, often modified with microtonal variations (such as flat or sharp forms), provide the tonal palette, but a raga selects and emphasizes a subset to create its distinct flavor, avoiding a mere . Importantly, raga focuses solely on and , separate from tala, the cyclical rhythmic framework that organizes beats and pulses to underpin performances without dictating the melodic path. The emotional essence of a raga is illustrated in examples like Bhairav, a morning raga whose soft, meditative phrases with flat tones mirror the tranquil serenity of dawn, fostering a sense of solemn peace and introspection. This evocative quality traces back to ancient foundations, with early conceptualizations in texts like the Natya Shastra, which links melodic forms to aesthetic sentiments. Through such elements, raga embodies the improvisational heart of Indian classical traditions, enabling endless artistic interpretation within defined boundaries.

Linguistic and Cultural Origins

The term rāga derives from the Sanskrit root rañj, meaning "to color" or "to tint," which in a musical context signifies the and infusion of specific emotions into the listener's mind. This etymological sense underscores the idea of rāga as a melodic framework that "dyes" or emotionally shades the psyche, distinguishing it from mere scales by its affective dimension. In ancient , rāga carries a different but resonant connotation, referring to attachment, passion, or desire as one of the kleśas (afflictions) that bind the soul to the material world. The Bhagavad Gītā, for instance, uses rāga multiple times to denote this emotional entanglement, such as in verses describing freedom from attachment (e.g., 2.56, 2.64, 3.34) as essential for and spiritual progress. While the philosophical rāga represents an obstacle to transcendence, its musical counterpart harnesses similar emotional intensity to cultivate aesthetic experience, creating a conceptual parallel without direct overlap. The terminology evolved from the melodic intonations of Vedic chants, particularly in the Sāmaveda, the earliest scriptural source emphasizing musical recitation with concepts like udātta (high pitch) and svarita (neutral tone) as foundational elements. These early practices gave rise to precursors such as grāma (primary scales organizing notes) and mūrchhanā (ascending-descending modulations derived from grāma), which structured tonal frameworks in pre-classical treatises and anticipated the more nuanced rāga system. By the time of classical texts, these terms had refined into a lexicon bridging ritual chant and performative art. The first documented musical application of rāga appears in Bharata Muni's Nāṭya Śāstra (c. 200 BCE–200 CE), where it denotes a "tonal color" used to evoke rasa (aesthetic emotion), linking linguistic roots to performative essence.

Historical Development

Ancient Foundations in Texts

The earliest documented references to melodic structures in Indian music appear in the , one of the four composed between approximately 1500 and 500 BCE, where hymns from the are set to specific chants known as samans, representing proto-melodic modes used in ritual performances. These samans employed variations in pitch and to invoke spiritual resonance, laying foundational principles for later musical frameworks without explicit scales. A significant advancement occurred in the , attributed to Bharata Muni and dated to around 200 BCE to 200 CE, which introduced the concept of jatis—classified melodic forms serving as precursors to ragas—alongside the building blocks of gramas (parent scales) and murcchanas (permutations of notes derived from those scales). Gramas, such as the Shadja and Madhyama, provided the scalar foundations with seven notes each, while murcchanas generated ascending and descending sequences to create diverse melodic patterns, totaling fourteen such permutations across two gramas (Shadja and Madhyama). Jatis, numbering ten primary types like Oudichya and Andhri, incorporated regional and emotional variations, emphasizing ten griya (tenors) and seven sthaya (tessituras) to define melodic character. Subsequent texts built on these foundations. Notably, Matanga Muni's Brihaddeshi (c. 6th–8th century CE) first defined raga as a combination of notes that "colors" the mind with specific emotions, classifying them into categories like shuddha and gandhara ragas, and listing examples such as Shadvala and Malavagaula. In ancient South India, temple rituals from the early centuries CE onward integrated these Vedic and Shastric elements, with music performed during daily worship and festivals in structures like the rock-cut temples of the Pallavas (c. 600–900 CE), where chants and instrumental accompaniments influenced the evolution of melodic modes tied to devotional practices. Recent archaeological evidence from the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1300 BCE) supports even earlier proto-musical traditions, including terracotta artifacts depicting drummers and flutes, and a 2025 discovery of third-millennium BCE copper cymbals in Oman linked to Indus trade networks, suggesting organized percussion and melodic instruments in ritual contexts. By the 13th century, Sarngadeva's Sangita Ratnakara formalized raga as a distinct entity, synthesizing earlier jatis and murcchanas into structured melodic frameworks with defined ascents (arohana), descents (avarohana), and characteristic phrases, cataloging 264 ragas while preserving ancient theoretical underpinnings.

Evolution in Medieval and Colonial Periods

During the medieval period, Indian classical music saw significant advancements in raga theory and classification, particularly through the 13th-century treatise Sangita Ratnakara by Sarangadeva. This text systematically outlined a ten-fold classification of ragas, dividing them into marga (classical or foundational) types—such as grama ragas, upa ragas, ragas, bhasha, vibhasha, and antara bhasha—and desi (regional) types, including raganga, uparaga, ragopanga, and ganakrida. Sarangadeva described 264 distinct ragas, emphasizing their structural components like ascent (aroha) and descent (avroha), and linking them to emotional and temporal contexts, which laid the groundwork for later raga families or melodic lineages. By the 16th century, Indian classical music began to diverge into the Hindustani (northern) and Carnatic (southern) traditions, influenced by regional patronage and cultural exchanges. In the north, the Mughal courts integrated Persian musical elements, such as modal structures (maqams), into existing raga frameworks, fostering hybrid forms that emphasized improvisation and emotional depth. This period marked the emergence of distinct gharanas (schools) in Hindustani music, while Carnatic music retained a stronger continuity with ancient sangita practices, focusing on composed forms and rhythmic complexity. The split was accelerated by the political fragmentation following the Delhi Sultanate and the rise of Mughal rule, which isolated northern developments from southern temple-based traditions. A pivotal figure in this evolution was (c. 1500–1586), the renowned musician in Emperor 's court, who is credited with composing several influential ragas that blended Indian and Persian sensibilities. Notable among these are (a night raga evoking devotion), Miyan ki Todi (a morning raga with introspective qualities), and Miyan ki Malhar (a rain raga), which incorporated gliding notes (meend) and expanded the melodic vocabulary of Hindustani music. Tansen's work under not only elevated court music but also symbolized cultural synthesis, as Persian influences from Mughal patronage—such as symmetrical phrasing and drone-based accompaniment—enriched raga elaboration without supplanting core Indian principles. His legacy helped establish the , one of the oldest Hindustani vocal lineages. In the colonial era, British engagement with Indian music shifted from indifference to sporadic documentation, particularly in the , as part of broader ethnomusicological efforts to catalog colonial subjects. Administrators and scholars like William Jones and later figures such as N. Augustus Willard produced treatises and notations attempting to transcribe ragas using Western staff notation, though these often misrepresented microtonal nuances and improvisational essence. This period saw suppression of in public spheres due to Victorian moral codes viewing it as decadent, yet it spurred revival movements among Indian elites. (1860–1936), a key reformer, developed the thaat system in the early to standardize Hindustani raga classification into ten parent scales (e.g., , , ), drawing from medieval texts but adapting them for modern pedagogy and notation, which facilitated teaching and preserved diversity amid colonial disruptions. Recent scholarship highlights the role of early 20th-century 78 RPM gramophone recordings in standardizing raga interpretations during the colonial twilight and independence era. These shellac discs, produced by companies like HMV from the 1900s to 1950s, captured performances by masters such as Abdul Karim Khan and Kesarbai Kerkar, fixing improvisational phrases (pakads) and tempos in audible form, which helped disseminate uniform versions across regions and influenced gharana styles. Studies from the 2020s, including archival analyses, underscore how these recordings bridged oral traditions with mechanical reproduction, aiding post-colonial revival by providing verifiable references for ragas like Yaman and Bhimpalasi, though they also inadvertently prioritized commercial appeal over fluidity.

Core Components

Melodic Framework (Swaras and Scales)

In , the melodic framework of a raga is built upon swaras, the fundamental musical notes that form the basis of scales and melodies. The seven primary swaras, known as sapta swaras, are Shadja (Sa), Rishabha (Re), , Madhyama (Ma), Panchama (Pa), Dhaivata (Dha), and Nishada (Ni). These notes span an , or , and Sa serves as the fixed tonic, providing a reference point for all others. Swaras incorporate microtonal variations derived from shrutis, the smallest perceptible intervals in the . Ancient texts describe 22 shrutis per , allowing for nuanced pitch inflections beyond the Western system; the sapta swaras are selected and positioned within these shrutis to create expressive scales. In practice, Hindustani and Carnatic traditions use 12 distinct swara positions: the seven shuddha (natural) forms, plus komal (flat or lowered) variants for Re, Ga, Dha, and Ni, and a tivra (sharp or raised) variant for Ma. Komal swaras are denoted by lowercase letters (e.g., re, ga), while tivra Ma is marked as Ma# or uppercase. These alterations enable the subtle emotional depth characteristic of ragas. Hindustani music organizes ragas under ten s, parent scales proposed by musicologist in the early 20th century to classify melodic structures systematically. Each is a using seven s, with variations in komal and tivra forms to derive specific ragas. The are derived from combinations of the 12 positions, prioritizing shuddha notes as a baseline while incorporating alterations for diversity. Below is a table summarizing the ten and their compositions (where uppercase denotes shuddha, lowercase komal, and M# tivra):
ThaatArohana SwarasKey Characteristics
S R G M# P D N SEvening ragas; tivra Ma emphasized.
BilawalS R G M P D N SAll shuddha; bright, major-like scale.
S R G M P D n SKomal Ni; semi-classical associations.
S R g M P D n SKomal Ga and Ni; folk-influenced.
S R g M P d n SKomal Ga, Dha, Ni; morning ragas.
S r g M P d n SAll variable swaras komal; devotional.
BhairavS r G M P d N SKomal Re and Dha; dawn evocation.
MarwaS r G M# P D N SKomal Re; tivra Ma; intense.
PoorviS r G M# P d N SKomal Re and Dha; tivra Ma; profound.
S r g M# P d N SKomal Re, Ga, Dha; complex variations.
These thaats serve as melodic templates, with ragas often omitting or emphasizing certain notes within them. In , the equivalent system is the scheme, comprising 72 parent ragas codified by Venkatamakhin in his 17th-century Chaturdandi Prakasika. This system generates scales through systematic permutations of the variable swaras (Ri/Ga, Dha/Ni) across four forms each, combined with two forms of Ma (shuddha M1 or ), while fixing Sa and Pa as invariants. The 72 melakartas are divided into 12 (groups of six), with the first 36 using shuddha Ma and the latter 36 using Ma; each chakra advances the Ri/Ga and Dha/Ni pairs sequentially to ensure unique combinations. For instance, the first melakarta, (Chakra 1), uses the lowest forms: S R1 G1 M1 P D1 N1 S. This derivation adheres to rules ensuring heptatonic completeness, symmetry in ascent and descent, and avoidance of redundant overlaps, forming the foundation for thousands of janya (derived) ragas. Arohana (ascending scale) and avarohana (descending scale) define the directional flow of swaras in a raga, often differing to incorporate characteristic phrases or avoid certain notes. These patterns outline the raga's structure, guiding improvisation while allowing for gamakas (ornamentations). For example, in Yaman raga (from Kalyan thaat), the arohana is Ni Re Ga Ma# (tivra) Dha Ni Sa', and the avarohana is Sa' Ni Dha Pa Ma# Ga Re Sa, emphasizing the tivra Ma for a sense of ascent and resolution. Komal and tivra swaras add expressive tension, while andolan—the gentle or around a swara—enhances melodic fluidity, particularly on sustained notes like Ga or Dha in many ragas. This technique, a form of gamaka, imparts emotional nuance without altering pitch position. Characteristic notes within these frameworks further refine identity, though their emphatic use builds on the core scale.

Characteristic Elements (Vadi, Pakad, and Phrases)

In Hindustani classical music, the vadi swara represents the dominant or king note of a raga, serving as the primary tonal center that receives the most emphasis during performance and defines the raga's core identity. The samvadi swara, or consonant note, acts as the secondary supporter, typically positioned at an interval of a fifth or fourth from the vadi to create harmonic consonance and reinforce the raga's structure. These notes are selected from the raga's parent scale and are crucial for establishing the raga's gravitational pull, with the vadi often appearing prominently in the middle register during elaboration. For instance, in Raga Yaman, the vadi is Ga (Gandhar), lending a sense of elevation and serenity, while the samvadi is Ni (Nishad), providing complementary stability at the upper tetrachord. The pakad, or , consists of a short, distinctive sequence of notes that encapsulates the raga's unique melodic contour and allows immediate recognition by listeners and performers. Closely related is the chalan, which extends the pakad into a broader movement pattern outlining the raga's typical ascending () and descending (avaroha) paths, guiding while preserving the raga's essence. These elements build upon the underlying scale by emphasizing specific note transitions and avoiding linear scalar motion, thus imparting the raga's characteristic flavor. In Raga , a common pakad is n S M P g R S, often rendered with a gentle descent back to Sa, highlighting the raga's introspective quality through its fluid, stepwise phrasing. Gamakas and meends are essential ornamentations that infuse expressiveness into the raga's notes, differentiating it from mere scalar recitation by adding subtle oscillations and glides. A meend involves a smooth, gliding transition between notes, creating a seamless that enhances melodic continuity, while a gamak refers to rapid oscillations or shakes around a note, imparting vibrancy and emotional depth specific to the raga's tradition. These alankaras (decorations) are not uniform across ragas; for example, Raga Yaman employs elongated meends on Ga and Ni to evoke its poised elegance, whereas Bhimpalasi favors subtle gamaks on komal Ga for a poignant, yearning effect. A key aspect of these characteristic elements is their role in circumventing vivadi swaras, or dissonant notes, which are pitches outside the raga's approved set that could introduce harmonic tension or discord. By centering phrases around vadi-samvadi pairs and adhering to pakad-guided movements, performers avoid vivadi notes—such as certain komal or tivra variants not belonging to the raga—to maintain purity and consonance, ensuring the raga's structural integrity. This selective emphasis on compatible notes within the scale framework underscores the raga's distinct sonic personality.

Performance and Forms

Improvisational Techniques

In Hindustani classical music, raga performances center on structured , where musicians creatively expand the raga's melodic framework through sequential forms that progress from non-metric exploration to rhythmic elaboration. The primary forms are the , jor, jhala, and gat, each building upon the previous to unfold the raga systematically. The initiates the performance as an unmetered prelude, allowing the performer to methodically introduce the raga's swaras and key phrases at a slow pace, without percussion accompaniment, to delineate the raga's contour through sustained notes and microtonal variations. This section emphasizes linear melodic development, often subdivided into vilambit (slow) and madhya (medium) laya, fostering a sense of expansion before rhythmic elements enter. Following the alap, the jor introduces a steady without defined tala, accelerating the note flow while maintaining improvisational freedom to intensify the raga's texture through repetitive motifs and subtle dynamic shifts. The jhala then heightens this into rapid, continuous strumming or plucking—typically on string instruments—creating a dense, resonant layer that bridges the non-metric phase to the composed core, often resolving key phrases with emphatic repetitions. The gat constitutes the metered centerpiece, featuring a pre-composed theme (the gat or ) aligned with a tala cycle, such as , around which the performer improvises elaborations to demonstrate mastery of the raga. Performed in escalating tempos—vilambit (slow), madhya (medium), and drut (fast)—the gat allows integration of advanced techniques, transforming the fixed structure into a dynamic exposition. Key improvisational techniques within the gat include taan, which consists of swift, continuous note sequences in ascending or descending patterns, executed at high speeds to traverse the raga's scale while adhering to its rules. Bol-taan extends this by incorporating rhythmic syllables (bols) from tabla vocabulary, enabling syllabic articulation of fast passages that blend melody with percussive phrasing, particularly in vocal renditions. Layakari involves manipulating the temporal relationship to the tala, such as rendering phrases in double, triple, or half speed, to create intricate polyrhythmic variations without altering the core melody. These techniques adapt across vocal and instrumental contexts: in vocal styles like , improvisation remains austere and phrase-oriented within the gat, prioritizing textual bol elaboration; khayal, by contrast, favors expansive bol-taan and taan for fluid, ornamented expression. Instrumental interpretations on the or translate these via idiomatic gestures, such as meend (glides) in alap-like sections and plucked taans in the gat, simulating vocal inflections while exploiting the instrument's for rhythmic layakari. A raga's unfolding exemplifies this progression: commencing in the deliberate, pulse-free alap to evoke the scale's architecture, it gains momentum through the jor's pulse and jhala's velocity, before the gat's tala-bound framework accelerates across tempos, culminating in virtuosic taans and layakari that densely interweave the raga's phrases. For instance, in a sitar rendition, the transition might span 20-30 minutes from alap's sparse notes to drut gat's rapid taans, ensuring each phase reinforces the raga's integrity. In the Carnatic tradition, raga performances also emphasize , known as manodharma sangita, which forms a significant portion of concerts. A typical exposition begins with alapana, an unaccompanied, unmetered elaboration of the raga's structure, exploring its swaras, motifs, and emotional essence through slow, phrase-based development. This is often followed by tanam, a rhythmic yet tala-free section using solfege syllables like "ta-nam" to build intensity at medium . The core composed form, such as a kriti or , introduces tala and lyrics, around which improvisations occur. Key techniques include neraval, where a chosen line from the composition is elaborated while preserving its rhythmic and melodic integrity, and kalpana swaras (or swara kalpana), rapid note sequences in the raga that may extend to multiple ragas (ragamalika). The ragam-tanam-pallavi (RTP) is a prominent form showcasing extensive , combining alapana, tanam, and a pallavi (thematic ) with variations in speed and tala. These elements allow performers to demonstrate creativity within the raga's constraints, often on voice, , or .

Temporal and Emotional Associations

In , the samay theory prescribes specific times of day or seasons for performing ragas, believed to align with natural rhythms and amplify their emotional resonance. This temporal framework divides the day into prahars (approximately six-hour periods) and associates ragas with dawn, morning, afternoon, evening, or night, while some are tied to seasons like or winter. For instance, Raga Bhairav is traditionally rendered in the early morning to evoke devotion and , drawing from its austere scale that mirrors the calm of sunrise. Similarly, Raga Megh is performed during the rainy season, its descending phrases simulating the patter of and fostering a sense of relief and coolness. In the Carnatic tradition, temporal associations with specific times of day are less rigidly observed, though some ragas retain traditional preferences and seasonal ties, such as those evoking rain during monsoons. Performances generally occur flexibly across concert schedules without strict adherence to prahars. The emotional associations of ragas are rooted in the rasa theory from the Natyashastra, which identifies nine primary emotions—shringara (romance), hasya (humor), karuna (), raudra (anger), veera (heroism), bhayanaka (fear), bibhatsa (disgust), adbhuta (wonder), and (peace)—that music aims to evoke through melodic structures. Ragas are selected to stir these rasas, with performers adhering to temporal guidelines to heighten the effect; for example, Raga Yaman, associated with the evening prahar, embodies shringara rasa through its graceful ascents and lingering notes that suggest longing and beauty. Raga , suited to late night, conveys karuna or with its haunting , evoking melancholy and spiritual yearning. These links ensure that the raga's inherent mood aligns with the listener's psychological state at that time. Raganga classifications group ragas into families sharing similar moods or rasas, such as the Bhairav ang for devotional and morning-oriented expressions or the ang for lighter, romantic sentiments often tied to afternoons. This system underscores the cultural role of ragas in daily rituals, festivals, and therapeutic practices, where performing a raga like during festivals invokes shanta rasa to celebrate renewal and . Adherence to these associations preserves the tradition's aesthetic depth, guiding musicians to create immersive experiences that resonate with both performer and audience.

Symbolic and Philosophical Dimensions

Raga-Ragini Classification

The Raga-Ragini classification represents a traditional hierarchical system in Indian classical music, particularly within the Hindustani tradition, where principal ragas are conceptualized as male figures (ragas) and their derivatives as female consorts (raginis). Different treatises present variations in the exact number and names of ragas and raginis, reflecting regional and temporal differences in the tradition. This framework typically organizes six primary ragas—Bhairav, Malkauns, Hindol, Deepak, Shri, and Megh—each associated with five raginis, resulting in a total of 30 melodic forms. For instance, the Bhairav raga, evoking dawn and devotion, includes several raginis, each deriving melodic structures from the parent raga while introducing subtle variations. Historical depictions of this system emerged prominently in the 16th and 17th centuries through Ragamala miniature paintings, which visually personified ragas and raginis as deities, heroes, or heroines engaged in narrative scenes. These illustrations, often produced in Rajasthani and Pahari courts, portrayed ragas as regal male figures and raginis as graceful women in settings that reflected the raga's mood, such as a solitary heroine in a forest for a melancholic ragini. A notable example is the 17th-century Ragamala series from the Deogarh school, where Bhairav is depicted as a meditative ascetic, underscoring the system's integration of music with . The symbolism in the Raga-Ragini system draws on familial and gendered metaphors, with ragas as patriarchal heads and raginis as subordinate yet expressive entities, mirroring social structures of the time and emphasizing relational harmony in melody. This anthropomorphic approach extended to include ragaputras (sons) and ragaputris (daughters-in-law) in some treatises, forming extended "families" that symbolized the proliferation of melodic variants from core forms. The classification's foundation in emotional symbolism allowed ragas to evoke specific rasas, such as shringara (romantic love) for certain raginis. In modern contexts, the Raga-Ragini system has largely declined in practical musical classification, supplanted by thaats and melodic scales since the , rendering it a historical artifact rather than a performing tool. However, it experiences revival through artistic reinterpretations, with contemporary exhibitions and digital reproductions of preserving and adapting its iconography for cultural education and visual arts. In , ragas are deeply intertwined with emotional symbolism, drawing from the ancient concept of rasa—the aesthetic essence or flavor that evokes specific sentiments in the listener. For instance, certain ragas are associated with karuna rasa, representing and sorrow; Raga Puriya Dhanashri, with its descending phrases emphasizing the komal dhaivat and sharp madhyam, stirs feelings of and longing, mirroring themes of loss and empathy in traditional interpretations. Similarly, Raga evokes a profound sense of melancholy and devotion, aligning with karuna through its pentatonic structure and nocturnal mood, fostering introspection and emotional release. These mappings are not arbitrary but rooted in the Natya Shastra's framework, where musical modes serve as vehicles for universal human experiences, allowing performers and audiences to transcend literal narratives toward pure emotional resonance. Ragas also embody seasonal symbolism, reflecting nature's rhythms to enhance their evocative power and philosophical depth. Raga Yaman, performed in the early evening, symbolizes the calm transition from day to dusk, evoking serenity, romance, and quiet devotion through its balanced scalar ascent and graceful ornamentations. This temporal alignment with twilight hours draws from environmental inspirations, where the raga's melodic flow mirrors the soothing hush of fading light, promoting harmony with natural cycles. Other examples include monsoon-associated ragas like Megh, which capture the pathos of rain through fluid, descending glides, symbolizing renewal amid melancholy. These associations underscore ragas as microcosms of the cosmos, where seasonal contexts amplify their ability to attune the mind to broader existential patterns. Philosophically, the term raga in Patanjali's Yoga Sutras (c. 400 CE) refers to mental colorings or attachments that obscure pure awareness, paralleling how musical ragas "color" the consciousness with specific emotional hues during meditation. This conceptual overlap positions musical ragas as tools for exploring and transcending these colorings, transforming attachment into mindful awareness. In Nada Yoga—the yogic path of inner sound—ragas facilitate meditation by aligning vibrations with the s, the subtle energy centers along the spine. For example, the sustained drones and melodic contours of ragas like Bhairav resonate with the (root) chakra, promoting grounding and stability, while higher-register explorations in ragas such as Yaman target the (heart) chakra for emotional balance. Such practices, as described in traditional texts, use raga-based chanting to harmonize , the vital life force, by channeling sound vibrations to dissolve blockages and enhance vital energy flow. The further elucidates this through Nada Yoga techniques, where focused listening to internal sounds awakens , leading to heightened states of concentration and vitality. By integrating raga meditation, practitioners regulate 's movement through the nadis (energy channels), fostering physical and subtle equilibrium without external aids. Recent studies in the 2020s have begun bridging these traditional insights with modern practices, showing that raga immersion enhances emotional regulation and reduces stress. For instance, exposure to Raga over six days significantly lowered anxiety and in participants, supporting its role in contemplative routines. Similarly, explorations of ragas in frameworks highlight their potential to cultivate present-moment , integrating ancient symbolism with contemporary therapeutic applications.

Scientific and Mathematical Perspectives

Mathematical Modeling of Ragas

Mathematical modeling of ragas involves formal representations of their melodic structures using concepts from acoustics, , and computational algorithms, enabling quantitative analysis and generation of raga variants. These models approximate the microtonal intervals (shrutis) inherent in ragas, which are not captured by Western , and facilitate comparisons between ragas or automated identification. Such approaches draw from , particularly post-2010 developments that integrate for raga analysis. One foundational formulation represents the 22-shruti system through interval ratios derived from principles, dividing the into 22 microtones with specific frequency ratios relative to the tonic (Sa = 1). For instance, the ratio from Sa to the first komal Re (Komal Rishabh) is often modeled as 256/243, corresponding to a Pythagorean diatonic of approximately 90 cents, while subsequent shrutis follow ratios like 16/15 for the next interval. These ratios are derived from ancient treatises and modern mathematical reconstructions, ensuring consonance in raga scales. Graph theory provides a structural model for arohana (ascending scale) and avarohana (descending scale) by representing notes as vertices and permissible transitions as directed edges in a digraph. In this framework, a raga's scale becomes a path or walk in the graph, with cycles capturing repetitive phrases; for example, the allied ragas Bhupali and Deshkar are compared by constructing multi-graphs from note transition probabilities in performances, using weight matrices to quantify differences via mean absolute deviations. This approach highlights grammatical similarities, such as shared note sets, while distinguishing subtle path constraints. Algorithms for raga similarity often employ on feature vectors derived from note frequencies or pitch distributions to measure melodic proximity. For two ragas represented by vectors v1\mathbf{v_1} and v2\mathbf{v_2} of normalized note frequencies, the similarity is computed as d=∑i=1n(v1i−v2i)2d = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n} (v_{1i} - v_{2i})^2}
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