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Akshara
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An akshara (Sanskrit: अक्षर, romanized: akṣara, lit. 'imperishable, indestructible, fixed, immutable') is a consonant letter together with any vowel diacritics in a Brahmic script. It is a term used in the traditional grammar of the Sanskrit language and in the Vedanta school of Indian philosophy.
The term derives from अ, a- "not" and क्षर्, kṣar- "melt away, perish". The uniting aspect of its use is the mystical view of language, or shabda, in Hindu tradition, and especially the notion of the syllable as a kind of immutable (or "atomic") substance of both language and truth, most prominently, the mystical syllable Aum, which is given the name of ekākṣara (i.e. eka-akṣara), which can be translated as both "the sole imperishable thing" and as "a single syllable".
Grammatical tradition
[edit]The akshara is the unit of graphemic symbols in the Brahmic scripts. An akshara is more a syllable-like unit for writing which requires the knowledge of syllables and the matra, i.e. the measure of prosodic marking. In writing it prototypically stands for CV, CVV, CCV, CCVV, CCCV, CCCVV, V and VV where "C" stands for a consonant, "V" for a vowel and "VV" for a long vowel. It is usually a sub-syllabic representation which stands for onset, onset plus nucleus and nucleus alone; the coda part of a syllable goes into the next akshara in a word.[1]
Its nature favours the phonological mediation i.e. the non-lexical strategy of reading, which may be interpreted in stages such as the "Visual Analysis System" and proceeding to the "Aksara Recognition System" and then to the "Aksara sound Conversion System" and the "Phonological Assembly System" before ending with the "Response Buffer" prior to reading aloud.[clarification needed][dubious – discuss][2]
Vedanta
[edit]As part of basic instructions of Shiksha and Sanskrit grammar, it is explained that among the Word-entities, both, Aksara and Brahman stand out as especially important because both refer to a special form of ritual word. In the Brahmanas and the Upanishads both come to mean the Absolute. Aksara is a part of the Sacred Word "Om" and possesses a unique and intensified power and dignity. In the Upanishads, in a condensed and intensified form, it signifies the transcendent Principle of all that exists. Its significance is derived from its role as a "syllable", the essential and embryonic core of speech.[3]
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
[edit]The eighth brahmana of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad focuses on the concept of the imperishable (akshara). Verse 3.8.8-9 describe akshara having certain qualities. It is neither physical nor subtle, and it is not defined by physical characteristics such as size, length, or physical traits like blood or fat. It exists beyond shadows, darkness, air, and space, untouched by sensory experiences like taste, smell, sight, or hearing. It does not possess attributes like speech, mind, energy, breath, and form. Akshara is immeasurable, existing without internal or external elements, and is neither a consumer nor consumed. Akshara governs the universe and influences various aspects of existence including the sun, moon, earth, sky, time, rivers, human behavior, and the dependence of gods and ancestors on ritual offerings.[4][5] Verse 3.8.10 emphasizes the significance of understanding this imperishable:[5]
Without knowing this imperishable, Gargi, even if a man were to make offerings, to offer sacrifices, and to perform austerities in this world for many thousands of years, all that would come to naught. Pitiful is the man, Gargi, who departs from this world without knowing this imperishable.
— Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, Chapter 3, Brahmanam 8, Hymn 10
Manduka Upanishad
[edit]The Mandukya Upanishad divides the syllable Aum into three morae (sound units) and a fourth, silent part, known as turiya. It teaches that only the silent part, beyond the three states of consciousness (wakefulness, dream, and deep sleep), is ultimately real. This silent part, linked to akshara, corresponds to Atman, the eternal self.[6]
In Mundaka Upanishad verses 1.1.3-7, Aksara is discussed in the context of the higher knowledge. The lower knowledge (apara vidya) includes knowledge of four Vedas, phonetics, grammar, etymology, meter, astrology, and the knowledge of sacrifices and rituals.[7] The higher knowledge (para vidya) is the means by which one can comprehend the imperishable (Aksara, Brahman).[8]
But the higher knowledge is that through which that imperishable one (aksaram) is known
— Mundaka Upanishad, 1.1.5
Madhavananda, in his commentary on the Brahmopanishad belonging to the Atharvaveda, explains that, as per the Mundaka Upanishad I.7 and II.1-2, the term Aksara signifies Brahman in Its aspect of the manifesting principle. Pippalada suggests that this manifesting Brahman is the thread (Sutram) to be worn instead of the sacrificial thread on the body which should be discarded.[9]
Bhagavad Gita
[edit]Aksara means one who is present everywhere, denotes the name of Shiva and Vishnu, and also that of Brahman, literally it means imperishable, indestructible. Every ritual and fire offering detailed in the Veda is impermanent. In contrast, the term Aum remains everlasting and is called Aksara, the symbol of God, who is the lord of all created things. It is a descriptive synonym of Brahman (Bhagavad Gita VIII.3), who is said to have arisen from Aksara (Bhagavad Gita III.15).[10]
With regard to Vallabha’s view of Aum it is said that Aksara itself is imperishable and appears as souls endowed with Sat and Chit but not as Ananda.[11] For Vallabha, Ananda, which is the first manifestation of God, is the actualisation of the absolute identity and selfness, whereas the second manifestation of God is the Aksara, the impersonal ground from which all determinations arise because it is the substratum of all finite forms that pre-exist but issue forth from it which though by itself is the intermediate form that lacks plenitude.[12]
In verses 15.16 and 15.17, Purushottam is explained as being above kshar and akshar. There are two types of beings within the world: kshar and akshar. All those bound by maya are kshar, whereas the one who is unchanging - forever beyond maya - is akshar. The supreme being is distinct from kshar and akshar. He is called Paramatman.[13]
References
[edit]- ^ Joshi, R. Malatesha; McBride, Catherine (2019-06-11). Handbook of Literacy in Akshara Orthography. Springer. p. 46. ISBN 978-3-030-05977-4.
- ^ Misra (September 2009). Psychology in India Vol.1. Pearson Education India. p. 125. ISBN 9788131717448.
- ^ Arij A.Roest Crollius (1974). Word in Experience. Gregorian Biblical Workshop. pp. 183–5. ISBN 9788876524752.
- ^ Paul Deussen (1905). Sixty Upanisads Of The Veda -part- Ist. p. 463.
- ^ a b The Early Upaniṣads in Sanskrit and English Parallel Texts. p. 91.
- ^ Ramachandra Dattatrya Ranade (1968). A Constructive Survey of Upanishadic Philosophy. Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 246.
- ^ Robert Ernest Hume (1921). The Thirteen Principal Upanishads. Universal Digital Library. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Paul Deussen (1905). Sixty Upanisads Of The Veda -part- Ist. p. 572.
- ^ Swami Madhavananda. Minor Upanishads. Advaita Ashrama. p. 11. Archived from the original on 2018-07-27. Retrieved 2013-02-17.
- ^ Ganga Ram Garg (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World:Ak-Aq. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 308–9. ISBN 9788170223757.
- ^ Veeraswamy Krishnaraj (2002). The Bhagavad Gita:Translation and Commentary. iUniverse. p. 387. ISBN 9780595226788.
- ^ Synthesizing the Vedanta:The Theory of Johanns Sj. Peter Lang. 2006. p. 246. ISBN 9783039107087.
- ^ Paramtattvadas, Sadhu; Paramtattvadas (2017). An introduction to Swaminarayan Hindu theology. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 168. ISBN 978-1-107-15867-2.
Akshara
View on GrokipediaEtymology
Roots and Derivation
The term akshara is etymologically composed of the Sanskrit privative prefix a-, denoting "not" or "without," affixed to the verbal root kṣar, which conveys the senses of "to flow," "to melt away," "to wane," or "to perish."[6][7] This combination yields the core meaning of "imperishable" or "that which does not decay," emphasizing indestructibility in contrast to transience.[8] The root kṣar itself belongs to the first conjugation class in classical Sanskrit but exhibits second-class Vedic forms, such as kṣariti in the present tense.[9] Historical attestation of the root kṣar traces back to the earliest Vedic literature, including the Rigveda, where it appears in verbal forms like akṣaran to describe processes of flowing or melting, often evoking themes of dissolution juxtaposed against enduring stability.[9][10] These usages underscore a conceptual binary between ephemeral change—such as the melting of substances or the waning of natural elements—and the eternal, setting the stage for akshara's oppositional semantics. The derivative noun kṣara, directly from the root, denotes the "perishable" or "melting," serving as the direct antonym to akshara and reinforcing the term's foundational contrast between mutability and immutability.[6][11] This etymological structure briefly extends into Vedantic philosophy, where akshara symbolizes the unchanging Brahman.[8]Semantic Range
The term akshara encompasses a dual semantic range in ancient Indian intellectual traditions, primarily denoting concrete linguistic units alongside abstract metaphysical concepts. In linguistic contexts, akshara signifies a letter of the alphabet or a syllable, representing the fundamental, indivisible building blocks of speech and writing that remain stable across utterances. This core meaning underscores its role as an enduring element in phonetic and grammatical structures. Conversely, in philosophical domains, akshara denotes an imperishable principle, embodying an eternal, unchanging reality that transcends decay and mutability, often equated with the ultimate essence of existence.[12] This semantic duality reflects a notable transition in ancient Indian thought from the concrete—where akshara functions as an alphabetic or syllabic unit—to the abstract, where it evolves into a metaphysical entity symbolizing permanence and the foundational unity of reality. Derived from the prefix a- (negation) and the root kṣar (to perish or decay), the term inherently conveys "that which does not decay," facilitating this conceptual expansion. In philosophical linguistics, such as in grammarian traditions, this shift elevates language from a mere tool of communication to a vehicle for ontological insight, linking phonetic stability to cosmic indestructibility.[12] The influence of this semantic evolution permeates interdisciplinary usage, bridging grammar and philosophy by allowing akshara to serve as a conceptual pivot between empirical analysis of sounds and speculative inquiries into the eternal. This interplay fosters a holistic worldview where linguistic elements mirror metaphysical truths, enabling seamless integration across scholarly domains without rigid boundaries.[12][13]Linguistic Usage
In Sanskrit Grammar
In traditional Sanskrit grammatical theory, particularly within the Paninian framework, akshara refers to an indivisible phonetic unit that typically combines a consonant with an inherent or explicit vowel, forming a syllable such as "ka," which consists of the consonant /k/ and the vowel /a/.[14] This unit serves as the fundamental building block of spoken and structured language, representing the smallest pronounceable segment that carries phonetic integrity without further subdivision in syllabic analysis.[15] A key distinction exists between akshara and varna, where varna denotes an individual phoneme—the atomic sound element, such as a single vowel (/a/) or consonant (/k/)—that cannot be broken down further.[14] In contrast, akshara is a composite structure, often comprising one or more varnas, emphasizing its role as a syllabic entity rather than a mere sound particle; for instance, while /k/ and /a/ are separate varnas, their union forms the akshara /ka/.[15] This differentiation is central to Paninian analysis, as varnas provide the raw phonetic inventory (detailed in the opening Maheshvara Sutras of the Ashtadhyayi), while aksharas enable practical grammatical operations.[14] In Panini's Ashtadhyayi, akshara functions as the primary unit for morphological and phonological processes, notably in sandhi (euphonic combinations), where adjacent aksharas from neighboring words undergo substitution or modification to ensure smooth articulation.[15] For example, rules in the sixth chapter prescribe changes to the final akshara of one word and the initial akshara of the next, such as vowel coalescence, to maintain rhythmic flow in compounds or sentences.[15] Similarly, akshara underpins the concept of prakriti (the base or unaltered form of a word), serving as the stable reference before vikriti (transformations) apply, allowing systematic derivation of inflected forms from roots and affixes.[15] Beyond morphology, akshara plays a crucial role in metrical analysis within Sanskrit prosody (chandas), where verses are structured by counting aksharas per line or foot to determine poetic meters.[16] Traditional meters like the Anushtubh (eight aksharas per quarter) rely on this syllabic count to classify and compose rhythmic poetry, ensuring adherence to Vedic and classical compositional standards.[16] This application highlights akshara's versatility as both a phonological and metrical cornerstone in Paninian linguistics.[16]In Brahmic Scripts
In Brahmic scripts, derived from the ancient Brahmi writing system, the akshara serves as the fundamental graphemic unit, representing a syllabic cluster that combines a consonant with an inherent vowel or a standalone vowel.[5] This structure, known as an abugida or alpha-syllabary, allows for the efficient encoding of phonetic syllables such as consonant-vowel (CV), vowel (V), or more complex forms like consonant-consonant-vowel (CCV).[17] For instance, in Devanagari, the akshara for "ka" is written as क (with an inherent /a/ sound), while adding a vowel sign modifies it to कि for /ki/; similarly, in Tamil, க represents /ka/, and in Bengali, ক denotes /kɔ/.[5][17] The historical evolution of the akshara traces back to the Brahmi script, with its earliest attested forms appearing in the Ashokan inscriptions of the 3rd century BCE, where it functioned as a phonetic syllable to transcribe Prakrit and other regional languages in the Mauryan Empire.[18] These edicts, carved on pillars and rocks across India, demonstrate the akshara's role in standardizing written communication, evolving from simpler linear forms to more cursive variants by the 2nd century BCE that influenced descendant scripts like Gupta and regional adaptations.[18] The concept of akshara as a syllabic unit has grammatical foundations in Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī (c. 4th century BCE), which analyzed the phonetic structures later represented visually in Brahmic scripts.[18] The akshara's syllabic organization has significant implications for literacy and reading processes in languages using Brahmic scripts, as it promotes phonological mediation by mapping orthographic units directly to syllable-like chunks rather than isolated phonemes.[5] This structure facilitates rapid syllable recognition and prosodic processing, such as handling vowel suppression (e.g., schwa deletion in Hindi Devanagari) or resyllabification across aksharas, which supports efficient decoding in skilled readers but requires explicit instruction for beginners to navigate inherent vowels and matras (vowel signs).[5] In educational contexts, this design influences cognitive strategies, emphasizing moraic and syllabic awareness over strict phonemic segmentation, as seen in studies of Hindi and Kannada learners.[17]Philosophical Usage
In Upanishads
In the Upanishads, akshara denotes the imperishable Brahman, the eternal and unchanging reality that forms the foundational essence of creation and existence, often symbolized by the sacred syllable Om as its sonic representation.[19] This concept underscores akshara as the transcendent principle beyond the transient world of phenomena, serving as the ultimate ground of being from which all arises and into which all dissolves.[19] The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (3.8.8-11) elaborates akshara as the unseen governor (adṛṣṭa) of the universe, an omnipresent force that rules over all perishable entities while remaining itself beyond the dualities of name (nāma) and form (rūpa). It is described as neither gross nor minute, neither short nor long, untouched by attributes, and free from injury or decay, pervading all directions and sustaining cosmic order without being perceived by the senses.[19] The text states: "This imperishable (akshara) is the lord of all that is perishable," emphasizing its supreme authority over the manifest world while transcending it entirely.[19] The Māṇḍūkya Upanishad presents akshara as the silent fourth quarter (turīya) of Om, embodying pure consciousness (cit) and the true Self (ātman), distinct from the three states of waking (jāgrat), dreaming (svapna), and deep sleep (suṣupti). In this framework, Om's quarters—A, U, M—correspond to the gross, subtle, and causal realms, while turīya as akshara is the undifferentiated silence underlying them, indivisible and free from all modifications, representing the non-dual Brahman that is the object of direct intuitive realization. This state is neither internal nor external, beyond empirical cognition, and its comprehension leads to liberation by dissolving the illusion of multiplicity.[20]In Bhagavad Gita
In Chapter 15 of the Bhagavad Gita, known as the Purushottama Yoga, Lord Krishna delineates the concept of akshara (the imperishable) as part of a triadic distinction among types of beings to clarify the nature of reality and the path to liberation. In verse 15.16, Krishna states: "There are two classes of beings, the fallible [kshara] and the infallible [akshara]. In the material world every living entity is fallible, and in the spiritual world every living entity is called infallible."[21] Here, kshara refers to all perishable entities in the material realm, encompassing everything from demigods to microbes, which are subject to the cycles of birth, decay, and death due to their association with matter.[22] In contrast, akshara denotes the imperishable living entities—liberated souls or the eternal essence of the self—that remain unchanging and free from material transformation, existing in oneness with the divine.[21] Verse 15.17 further elevates this framework by introducing the Purushottama, the supreme person: "Besides these two, there is the greatest living personality, the Supreme Soul, the imperishable Lord Himself, who has entered the three worlds and is maintaining them."[23] The akshara thus represents the imperishable aspect of the divine, often interpreted as the eternal souls or the unchanging Brahman that transcends the perishable world of samsara. This imperishability underscores an eternal dharma, the unchanging moral and spiritual order that persists amid the flux of material existence, embodying Vishnu's form as the sustainer who remains unaltered by the illusions of change.[23] The kshara-akshara distinction builds briefly on Upanishadic ideas of the perishable and imperishable, synthesizing them into a cosmological view.[23] Within Krishna's broader teachings, the akshara plays a pivotal role in guiding devotees along the paths of knowledge (jnana) and devotion (bhakti). By contrasting the transient kshara with the stable akshara, Krishna encourages discernment through knowledge, enabling seekers to recognize the soul's immortality and detach from material identification, which paves the way for realizing the supreme Purushottama through surrendered devotion. This synthesis integrates analytical insight with loving surrender, affirming that true liberation arises from knowing and adoring the imperishable divine beyond both categories.[24]In Advaita Vedanta
In Advaita Vedanta, the term akshara denotes the nirguna Brahman, the attributeless, eternal absolute reality that transcends all duality and is identical to the Atman, the true self of the individual. Adi Shankara, the foundational exponent of this school, interprets akshara as the imperishable essence beyond the perishable (kshara) realm of phenomena, resolving the apparent duality into non-dual unity where the Atman realizes its oneness with Brahman. This interpretation underscores akshara's role as the unchanging substratum underlying the illusory world of names and forms, free from birth, decay, or modification.[25] In his bhashya on the Bhagavad Gita (15.16–17), Shankara elucidates that kshara represents the bound jiva, conditioned by ignorance (avidya) and subject to transmigration, while akshara signifies the unconditioned Atman, liberated from material limitations through discriminative knowledge. He further identifies the supreme Purushottama in verse 17 as the non-dual Brahman, which encompasses and transcends both kshara and akshara, upholding the universe through its inherent power (maya) yet remaining untouched by it as the omniscient, all-pervading reality.[25][26] This exegesis draws on foundational Upanishadic and Gita usages to affirm akshara's transcendence as the ultimate goal of spiritual inquiry. Shankara's commentaries on the Upanishads reinforce this view, portraying akshara as the self-luminous, formless Brahman beyond even the unmanifested (avyakrita), devoid of prana, mind, or senses, and appearing limited only through superimposition. In the Mundaka Upanishad (2.1.2), he describes it as the bright, all-pervading Purusha, unborn and pure, which serves as the essence of all existence yet eludes empirical grasp.[27] This emphasis on akshara's transcendence highlights its ineffable nature, knowable solely through the negation of the unreal (neti neti). Post-Shankara Advaita thinkers, such as Vachaspati Mishra in his Bhamati commentary on Shankara's works, extended this framework by explicitly linking the realization of akshara—as nirguna Brahman—to jnana, the intuitive knowledge that directly dispels ignorance and reveals the non-dual self. This path of jnana-yoga is presented as the immediate means to embodying akshara, where the seeker transcends dualistic perceptions to abide in the eternal, unchanging reality.[28]References
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B0
- https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%B0#Sanskrit