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Red-fruited raspberries
European Rubus idaeus raspberry fruits on the plant
Halved raspberry (left) and blackberry (right); torus does not remain when the fruit is picked in the former but does in the latter

The raspberry is the edible fruit of several plant species in the genus Rubus of the rose family, most of which are in the subgenus Idaeobatus.[1] The name also applies to these plants themselves. Raspberries are perennial with woody stems.[2]

World production of raspberries in 2023 was 940,979 tonnes, led by Russia with 23% of the total. Raspberries are cultivated across northern Europe and North America and are consumed in various ways, including as whole fruit and in preserves, cakes, ice cream, and liqueurs.[3]

Description

[edit]

A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, developing from the numerous distinct carpels of a single flower.[4] Each carpel then grows into individual drupelets, which, taken together, form the body of a single raspberry fruit. As with blackberries, each drupelet contains a seed. What distinguishes the raspberry from its blackberry relatives is whether or not the torus (receptacle or stem) "picks with" (i.e., stays with) the fruit. When picking a blackberry fruit, the torus stays with the fruit. With a raspberry, the torus remains on the plant, leaving a hollow core in the raspberry fruit.[5]

An individual raspberry weighs 3–5 g (1⁄8–3⁄16 oz) and is made up of around 100 drupelets.[6] A raspberry bush can yield several hundred berries a year.[citation needed]

Raspberries thrive in well-drained soil with a pH between 6 and 7 with ample organic matter to assist in retaining water.[7] Raspberries need ample sun and water for optimal development. While moisture is essential, wet and heavy soils or excess irrigation can bring on Phytophthora root rot, which is one of the most serious pest problems faced by the red raspberry. As a cultivated plant in moist, temperate regions, it is easy to grow and tends to spread unless pruned. Escaped raspberries frequently appear as garden weeds, spread by seeds found in bird droppings.[citation needed]

Raspberries are grown for the fresh fruit market and for commercial processing into individually quick frozen (IQF) fruit, purée, juice, or dried fruit used in a variety of grocery products such as raspberry pie.

Etymology

[edit]

Raspberry is a compound word from rasp and berry first in print in 1602.[8] Rasp in this sense derives from raspise, "a sweet rose-colored wine" (mid-15th century), from the Anglo-Latin vinum raspeys. The speculation that it is derived from a Germanic word like the English rasp, so a "rough berry", based upon its appearance is a possible folk etymology according to Etymonline.[9] The word rasp is still used for the fruit in the north of England and in Scotland. It was first in print in 1555.[10]

Species

[edit]
The fruit of four species of raspberry. Clockwise from top left: boulder raspberry, Korean raspberry, Australian native raspberry, and Mauritius raspberry.
Purple-fruited raspberry hybrid

Examples of raspberry species in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:

Several species of Rubus, also called raspberries, are classified in other subgenera, including:

Cultivation

[edit]
Flower

Various kinds of raspberries can be cultivated from hardiness zones 3 to 9.[11] Raspberries are traditionally planted in the winter as dormant canes, although planting of tender, plug plants produced by tissue culture has become much more common. A specialized production system called "long cane production" involves growing canes for a year in a northern climate such as Scotland or Oregon or Washington, where the chilling requirement for proper bud break is attained, or attained earlier than the ultimate place of planting. These canes are then dug, roots and all, to be replanted in warmer climates such as Spain, where they quickly flower and produce a very early season crop. Plants are typically planted 2–6 per meter in fertile, well drained soil; raspberries are usually planted in raised beds/ridges, if there is any question about root rot problems.[citation needed]

All cultivars of raspberries have perennial roots, but many do not have perennial shoots. In fact, most raspberries have shoots that are biennial (meaning shoots grow in the first growing season and fruits grow on those shoots during the second growing season).[12] The flowers can be a major nectar source for honeybees and other pollinators.[citation needed]

Raspberries are vigorous and can be locally invasive. They propagate using basal shoots (also known as suckers), extended underground shoots that develop roots and individual plants. They can sucker new canes some distance from the main plant. For this reason, raspberries spread well, and can take over gardens if left unchecked. Raspberries are often propagated using cuttings, and will root readily in moist soil conditions.

The fruit is harvested when it comes off the receptacle easily and has turned a deep color (red, black, purple, or golden yellow, depending on the species and cultivar). This is when the fruits are ripest and sweetest.

High tunnel bramble production offers the opportunity to bridge gaps in availability during late fall and late spring. Furthermore, high tunnels allow less hardy floricane-fruiting raspberries to overwinter in climates where they would not otherwise survive. In the tunnel, plants are established at close spacing usually prior to tunnel construction.[13]

Cultivars

[edit]

Major cultivars

[edit]
Yellow cultivar

Raspberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world. Many of the most important modern commercial red raspberry cultivars derive from hybrids between R. idaeus and R. strigosus.[11] Some botanists consider the Eurasian and American red raspberries to belong to a single, circumboreal species, Rubus idaeus, with the European plants then classified as either R. idaeus subsp. idaeus or R. idaeus var. idaeus, and the native North American red raspberries classified as either R. idaeus subsp. strigosus, or R. idaeus var. strigosus. Recent breeding has resulted in cultivars that are thornless and more strongly upright, not needing staking.[citation needed]

The black raspberry, Rubus occidentalis, is also cultivated, providing both fresh and frozen fruit, as well as jams, preserves, and other products, all with that species' distinctive flavor.

Purple raspberries have been produced by horticultural hybridization of red and black raspberries, and have also been found in the wild in a few places (for example, in Vermont) where the American red and the black raspberries both grow naturally. Commercial production of purple-fruited raspberries is rare.

Blue raspberry is a local name used in Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada,[14] for the cultivar 'Columbian', a hybrid (purple raspberry) of R. strigosus and R. occidentalis.[15] Blue raspberry can also refer to the whitebark raspberry, R. leucodermis.[citation needed]

Both the red and the black raspberry species have albino-like pale-yellow natural or horticultural variants, resulting from presence of recessive genes that impede production of anthocyanin pigments.[16] Fruits from such plants are called golden raspberries or yellow raspberries; despite their similar appearance, they retain the distinctive flavor of their respective species (red or black). Most pale-fruited raspberries commercially sold in the eastern United States are derivatives of red raspberries. Yellow-fruited variants of the black raspberry are sometimes grown in home gardens.

Red raspberries have also been crossed with various species in other subgenera of the genus Rubus, resulting in a number of hybrids, the first of which was the loganberry. Later notable hybrids include the olallieberry, boysenberry, marionberry, and tayberry; all are multi-generational hybrids. Hybridization between the familiar cultivated red raspberries and a few Asiatic species of Rubus has also been achieved.

Selected cultivars

[edit]

Numerous raspberry cultivars have been selected.

Two types of raspberry are available for commercial and domestic cultivation; the summer-bearing type produces an abundance of fruit on second-year canes (floricanes) within a relatively short period in midsummer, and double or "everbearing" plants, which also bear some fruit on first-year canes (primocanes) in the late summer and fall, as well as the summer crop on second-year canes. Those marked (AGM) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Red, early summer fruiting
[edit]
  • Boyne
  • Cascade Dawn
  • Fertödi Venus
  • Glen Clova
  • Glen Moy (AGM)[17]
  • Killarney
  • Latham
  • Malahat
  • Malling Exploit
  • Malling Jewel (AGM)[18]
  • Prelude [19]
  • Rubin Bulgarski
  • Titan
  • Willamette
Red, mid-summer fruiting
[edit]
  • Cuthbert
  • Glen Ample (AGM)[20]
  • Lloyd George
  • Meeker
  • Newburgh
  • Ripley
  • Skeena
  • Cowichan
  • Chemainus
  • Saanich
Red, late summer fruiting
[edit]
  • Cascade Delight
  • Coho
  • Fertödi Rubina
  • Glen Magna (AGM)[21]
  • Leo (AGM)[22]
  • Malling Admiral (AGM)[23]
  • Octavia
  • Schoenemann
  • Tulameen (AGM)[24]
Red primocane, autumn fruiting
[edit]
  • Amity
  • Augusta
  • Autumn Bliss (AGM)[25]
  • Joan J. (Thornless)
  • Caroline
  • Fertödi Kétszertermö
  • Heritage
  • Imara
  • Joan J[26]
  • Josephine
  • Kwanza
  • Kweli
  • Mapema
  • Polka (AGM)[27]
  • Rafiki
  • Ripley
  • Summit
  • Zeva Herbsternte
Yellow primocane, autumn fruiting
[edit]
  • Anne
  • Fallgold
  • Fertödi Aranyfürt
  • Goldenwest
  • Golden Queen
  • Honey Queen
  • Jambo
  • Kiwi Gold
Purple (hybrids between black and red raspberries)
[edit]
  • Brandywine
  • Glencoe
  • Royalty
Black
[edit]
Main article: Rubus occidentalis
  • Black Hawk
  • Bristol
  • Cumberland
  • Jewel
  • Logan
  • Morrison
  • Munger
  • Ohio Everbearer
  • Scepter
Dwarf cultivars
[edit]
  • Ruby Beauty = 'Nr7'[28]

Diseases and pests

[edit]

Raspberries are sometimes eaten by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species (butterflies and moths). More serious are the raspberry beetle (in Europe)[29] and the raspberry fruitworm (in North America),[30] whose larvae can damage raspberries.

Botrytis cinerea, or gray mold, is a common fungal infection of raspberries and other soft fruit under wet conditions. It is seen as a gray mold growing on the raspberries, and particularly affects fruit which are bruised, as the bruises provide an easy entrance point for the spores.

Raspberry plants should not be planted where potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, or bulbs have previously been grown, without prior fumigation of the soil. These crops are hosts for the disease Verticillium wilt, a fungus that can stay in the soil for many years and can infest the raspberry crop.

Raspberry production
2023, tonnes
 Russia 219,338
 Mexico 190,412
 Serbia 98,674
 Poland 96,100
 United States 62,640
World 940,979
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[31]

Animals

[edit]

Raspberries, among other plants with high sugar content like peaches, are prime targets for the Japanese beetle, which relies heavily on these sources as its main food resource. The voracious feeding habits of Japanese beetles not only pose a direct threat to raspberry plants but also increase the risk of transmitting various plant diseases. This dual impact can significantly undermine agricultural productivity, making it crucial for raspberry growers to implement effective pest management strategies to mitigate the damage caused by Japanese beetle infestations.[32][33]

Production

[edit]

In 2023, world production of raspberries was 940,979 tonnes, led by Russia with 23% of the total (table). Other major producers were Mexico, Serbia, and Poland.

Nutrition

[edit]
Raspberries, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy220 kJ (53 kcal)
11.94 g
Sugars4.42 g
Dietary fiber6.5 g
0.65 g
1.2 g
Vitamins and minerals
VitaminsQuantity
%DV†
Thiamine (B1)
3%
0.032 mg
Riboflavin (B2)
3%
0.038 mg
Niacin (B3)
4%
0.598 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)
7%
0.329 mg
Vitamin B6
3%
0.055 mg
Folate (B9)
5%
21 μg
Choline
2%
12.3 mg
Vitamin C
29%
26.2 mg
Vitamin E
6%
0.87 mg
Vitamin K
7%
7.8 μg
MineralsQuantity
%DV†
Calcium
2%
25 mg
Iron
4%
0.69 mg
Magnesium
5%
22 mg
Manganese
29%
0.67 mg
Phosphorus
2%
29 mg
Potassium
5%
151 mg
Zinc
4%
0.42 mg
Other constituentsQuantity
Water85.8 g
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[34] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[35]

Raw raspberries are 86% water, 12% carbohydrates, and have about 1% each of protein and fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raspberries supply 53 kilocalories and 6.5 grams of dietary fiber. Raspberries are a rich source of vitamin C (29% of the Daily Value, DV), manganese (29% DV), and dietary fiber (6.5 grams), but otherwise have low content of micronutrients (table).

Phytochemicals

[edit]

Raspberries contain phytochemicals, such as anthocyanin pigments, ellagic acid, ellagitannins, quercetin, gallic acid, cyanidins, pelargonidins, catechins, kaempferol and salicylic acid.[36][37] Yellow raspberries and others with pale-colored fruits are lower in anthocyanin content.[36] Both yellow and red raspberries contain carotenoids, mostly lutein esters, but these are masked by anthocyanins in red raspberries.[38]

Leaves

[edit]

Raspberry leaves can be used fresh or dried in herbal teas, providing an astringent flavor. In herbal and traditional medicine, raspberry leaves are used for some remedies, although there is no scientifically valid evidence to support their medicinal use.[39]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Raspberry

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The raspberry is an edible aggregate fruit produced by various species in the genus Rubus of the Rosaceae family, characterized by its cluster of small, fleshy drupelets surrounding a hollow core that detaches easily upon harvest. Most commonly associated with the red raspberry (Rubus idaeus), which includes European (R. idaeus var. idaeus) and American (R. idaeus var. strigosus) varieties, the fruit is a perennial shrub's product, with biennial canes that are vegetative in the first year and fruit-bearing in the second. Renowned for its vibrant red, black, purple, or yellow hues and sweet-tart flavor, the raspberry has been gathered from the wild since prehistoric times and is now a globally cultivated crop valued for fresh eating, desserts, preserves, and beverages. As of 2025, major global producers include Russia, Mexico, Serbia, the United States, and Poland. Originating in Europe and northern Asia, raspberries were first documented in herbal texts by Roman times and systematically cultivated in medieval European monasteries, with archaeological evidence of consumption dating back over 4,000 years. By the 19th century, selective breeding expanded varieties, leading to major production hubs in North America; the United States is a leading producer of processed raspberries, with Washington state accounting for about 95% of U.S. processed output through large-scale commercial farms, though it imports most fresh supply from Mexico. Cultivation involves well-drained, acidic soils and temperate climates, with plants propagated via root suckers or tissue culture to manage diseases like verticillium wilt; raspberries are harvested from summer-bearing types (yielding once on second-year canes) or everbearing/primocane-fruiting types (producing on first-year growth for extended seasons). Raspberries encompass several types beyond the dominant red: black raspberries (Rubus occidentalis) feature deeper flavor and are native to eastern ; purple varieties arise from red-black hybrids; and yellow types, often mutations of red, offer milder taste. Nutritionally, a one-cup serving of fresh red raspberries provides approximately 64 calories, 8 grams of fiber (32% of daily value), 32% of daily , and significant , while being rich in antioxidants like and anthocyanins that support anti-inflammatory effects, cardiovascular health, and potential cancer risk reduction. Beyond direct consumption, raspberries are processed into frozen products, juices, and nutraceuticals, contributing to an industry valued at billions annually due to their role in promoting digestive health and metabolic benefits.

Taxonomy and botany

Description

The raspberry is a characterized by biennial canes that emerge from a persistent , typically reaching heights of up to 2 meters. These canes are upright to arching, often armed with thorns along their stems, and bear compound leaves consisting of 3 to 7 serrated leaflets arranged pinnately. The leaflets are green on the upper surface and whitish or grayish on the undersides due to a covering of fine hairs, providing a distinctive appearance to the foliage. The fruit of the raspberry is an aggregate of numerous small drupelets, each derived from a single ovary, forming a coherent cluster that measures about 1 to 2 cm in diameter. These drupelets enclose a hollow central core, which remains attached to the plant's receptacle when the mature fruit is harvested, distinguishing it from berries like blackberries. The color of the fruit varies from red to black depending on the variety, with the juicy, separable drupelets contributing to its characteristic texture. Flowering occurs in summer, producing small hermaphroditic blooms that are white to pink, typically featuring five petals and attracting insect pollinators such as bees. Following pollination, the fruit develops and ripens in approximately 30 to 40 days, transitioning from green to its full color as the drupelets swell and soften. Raspberries exhibit a sensory profile ranging from tart to sweet in flavor, with a juicy, tender texture that releases easily from the core. The distinctive aroma arises primarily from volatile compounds, including ionones, which contribute floral and fruity notes central to the fruit's appeal.

Etymology

The word "raspberry" entered English as a compound of "rasp" and "berry," with the earliest printed use appearing in 1602. It derives from the Middle English term raspis berry (circa 1440), which likely stems from raspise, a sweet rose-colored wine from the mid-15th century, itself borrowed from Anglo-Latin vinum raspeys of uncertain origin. One longstanding interpretation links "rasp" to the Old English verb meaning "to grate" or "scrape," evoking the fruit's rough, textured surface composed of small drupelets, though this may represent folk etymology rather than direct derivation. The term reflects the fruit's association with the genus Rubus, a Latin word denoting bramble bushes, underscoring its botanical ties to thorny, wild-growing plants. In other European languages, names for the raspberry often trace back to Germanic roots emphasizing its brambly habitat. The French framboise, used since the 15th century, originates from Old French and derives from Frankish brāmabasi, a variant of Proto-West Germanic brāmabēsi meaning "bramble berry," akin to terms for blackberry and highlighting the plant's shared lineage in the Rubus genus. Similarly, the German Himbeere (from Middle High German himber) combines elements suggesting a "home berry" or humble wild fruit, while Dutch framboos and related forms echo the Frankish influence, illustrating how linguistic evolution across the region preserved the fruit's image as a rustic, entangled growth. Historically, references to the raspberry appear in medieval European texts under Latinized names tied to its wild identity, evolving from ancient traditions into more standardized by the . Early botanical works, such as those compiling Roman and Greek knowledge, described it within the broader Rubus category without a specific , but by the , English and French terms solidified in agricultural and culinary contexts. In , raspberry brambles carried symbolic weight, with thorny switches hung above doorways in Scottish Highland traditions to ward off the and protect households from malevolent forces.

Species

Raspberries are classified within the genus L. of the family , subfamily Rosoideae, and specifically belong to the subgenus Idaeobatus Focke, which encompasses characterized by aggregate fruits that separate from the receptacle upon maturity. The genus is highly diverse, comprising approximately 700 distributed primarily in the Northern Hemisphere's temperate and subtropical regions, though exact counts vary due to ongoing taxonomic revisions and the inclusion of microspecies. Within Idaeobatus, exhibit a basic chromosome number of x = 7 and are predominantly diploid (2n = 14), though levels across the subgenus and related Rubus taxa range from diploid to octoploid, contributing to genetic complexity and hybridization potential. The primary cultivated raspberry species is L., known as the red raspberry, with two main subspecies: R. idaeus subsp. idaeus, native to and northwestern , and R. idaeus subsp. strigosus (Michx.) Focke, native to from southward to . Modern cultivars of R. idaeus are primarily derived from hybrids of these subspecies, reflecting their wide adaptability and economic importance. Other significant wild species in Idaeobatus include Torr. & A. Gray (blackcap or whitebark raspberry), endemic to western where it occurs in diverse habitats from coastal ranges to high-elevation forests, and L. (black raspberry), native to eastern and central from southern to the . Genetic diversity in raspberries is influenced by natural hybridization and , leading to varietal distinctions such as summer-bearing types that produce fruit on floricanes (second-year canes) and everbearing (or primocane-fruiting) types that bear on primocanes (first-year canes). These traits arise from within R. idaeus lineages, enhancing yield and season extension while maintaining the subgenus's core diploid genome size of around 240 Mb.

Cultivation

Growing conditions

Raspberry plants thrive in well-drained y soils, such as sandy or clay , that are rich in to support healthy development and uptake. These soils should be slightly acidic, with an optimal range of 5.5 to 6.5, as this acidity facilitates the availability of essential micronutrients like iron and prevents issues such as . Raspberries are best suited to temperate climates, requiring 800 to 1,400 chilling hours—accumulated at temperatures at or below 7°C (45°F)—to break and promote uniform bud break and fruiting. They perform optimally in full sun, receiving at least 6 to 8 hours of direct daily to maximize , berry quality, and yield. While mature plants exhibit cold hardiness, tolerating winter temperatures down to -20°C (-4°F) or lower once fully acclimated, their spring blooms are highly sensitive to , which can damage flowers and reduce fruit set if temperatures drop below -2°C (28°F) during . Propagation typically occurs through root divisions or suckers taken from established plants, or via root cuttings, with planting ideally timed for early spring or fall to allow root establishment before . Plants should be spaced 0.6 to 1 meter (2 to 3 feet) apart within rows that are 1.5 to 3 meters (5 to 10 feet) apart, depending on the growth habit, to ensure adequate air circulation and light penetration. Trellising is essential for support, using systems like T-trellises with wires spaced 0.5 to 0.6 meters (20 to 24 inches) apart along sturdy posts set 6 meters (20 feet) apart, to keep canes upright and facilitate harvesting. Consistent moisture is critical, with plants requiring 25 to 50 millimeters (1 to 2 inches) of per week during the , particularly from bloom through fruit development, to prevent crumbling and support cane vigor— is preferred to minimize foliar wetting. Fertilization involves balanced NPK formulations, such as 10-10-10, applied at rates of about 0.45 kilograms (1 pound) per 9 square meters (100 square feet) pre-planting, with follow-up applications based on tests to avoid excesses that could promote excessive vegetative growth over fruiting. Mulching with 10 centimeters (4 inches) of organic materials like or wood chips around the base helps retain , suppress weeds, and regulate while gradually enriching the as it decomposes.

Cultivars

Raspberry breeding has evolved significantly since the early 19th century, with deliberate hybridization efforts beginning around 1800 to enhance desirable traits in wild species. Large-scale commercial production and systematic selection programs emerged during this period, particularly in Europe and North America, focusing on improving yield and fruit quality. Key breeding initiatives include those at the Scottish Crop Research Institute (now part of the James Hutton Institute), which has developed numerous cultivars since the mid-20th century, and the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which has contributed to red, black, and hybrid raspberry improvement through extensive germplasm evaluation and crossing programs. Raspberry cultivars are primarily categorized by fruit color and growth habit, with red types derived mainly from being the most widely cultivated for their bright color and tart-sweet flavor. Everbearing red varieties like 'Heritage', which produce two crops per season on primocanes and floricanes, are popular for extended harvest periods. Black raspberries, from , include cultivars such as 'Bristol', valued for their richer, more robust taste and darker hue. Purple and yellow hybrids result from crosses between red and black types or albino mutations in red varieties; for instance, 'Royalty' is a purple raspberry offering a blend of flavors from its parentage. Breeding programs prioritize traits such as disease resistance to pathogens like root rot and viral infections, alongside larger fruit size—typically 3 to 5 grams per composed of 75 to 100 drupelets—for better market appeal. is enhanced through selection for firmer drupelets that resist crumbling and decay, while flavor profiles are refined for balanced sweetness and acidity, with black types notably higher in anthocyanins for benefits. Notable cultivars exemplify these advancements: 'Tulameen', a mid-season variety, produces exceptionally large berries averaging over 5 grams each, prized for their firmness and vivid color in fresh markets. 'Red Guard' (also known as 'Krasnaya Gvardiya'), a Russian-bred remontant red raspberry, features giant fruits averaging 10-15 g (up to 18 g and 4-5 cm long) with an elongated-conical shape, even surface, bright red or dark raspberry color with glossy sheen, small tightly packed drupelets, dry separation, non-crushing texture suitable for transport, and ability to retain freshness for days. 'Glen Ample', a high-yielding summer-bearing raspberry from Scottish breeding, can deliver up to 3.8 kilograms of per under optimal conditions, setting benchmarks for . Recent advancements as of 2025 include the release of new cultivars such as 'Cascade Legacy' (WSU 2188), a floricane-fruiting red raspberry with improved yield and quality from Washington State University, and Cornell University's 'Crimson Beauty' and 'Crimson Blush', everbearing varieties with enhanced flavor and disease tolerance. Additionally, genome editing techniques are being pioneered to accelerate improvements in elite cultivars for traits like pest resistance and climate adaptability.

Diseases and pests

Raspberry plants are susceptible to several major diseases that can significantly impact growth and productivity. Anthracnose, caused by the Elsinoë veneta, manifests as purple-brown lesions on canes, leaves, and , potentially leading to cane death and reduced vigor in severe cases. , induced by the soilborne Verticillium dahliae, results in , stunted growth, yellowing leaves, and wilting canes, particularly affecting black raspberries more severely than red varieties. Viral infections, such as raspberry bushy dwarf (RBDV), cause stunting, mottled leaves, and crumbly , often transmitted by and leading to chronic declines in plant health. root rot, caused by Phytophthora rubi and related species, leads to root decay, crown lesions, and plant collapse in wet soils, with unmanaged infections causing yield losses up to 50%. Common pests include insects like Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica), which skeletonize foliage and damage fruit by chewing irregular holes, and such as the large raspberry aphid (Amphorophora agathonica), which feed on sap and serve as vectors for viruses including RBDV and raspberry mosaic complex. Birds, such as and cedar waxwings, peck at ripening berries, while mammals like voles girdle stems and deer browse foliage and canes, both contributing to fruit loss and structural damage. Effective management integrates cultural, chemical, biological, and genetic approaches. Cultural practices include to break cycles, sanitation by removing infected debris, and improving drainage to mitigate root rots. Chemical controls involve fungicides like applied during bloom for anthracnose and Botrytis prevention, alongside targeted insecticides for pests, though resistance and safety must be considered. Biological methods utilize predatory such as beetles and lacewings to suppress populations naturally. Planting resistant cultivars, such as those tolerant to or feeding, further reduces vulnerability without extensive interventions.

Production

Global output

Global raspberry production reached approximately 941,000 metric tons in 2023, up from 948,000 metric tons in 2022 and substantially higher than about 355,000 metric tons in 2000, driven by rising demand for fresh and frozen berries. This growth aligns with horticultural intensification and market globalization, with volumes more than doubling over two decades. Average yields worldwide range from 5 to 10 tons per under conventional open-field systems, though intensive protected cultivation can achieve up to 20 tons per via environmental controls and pest management. Recent shifts toward and high-tunnel production have increased output in regions like and by extending seasons and reducing weather risks, with annual gains up to 20% in some areas. Climate change poses challenges, including heat stress leading to smaller berries and lower quality during extreme temperatures. Export patterns show raspberries serving both fresh and processed markets, with about 60% of output used for jams, juices, and frozen products, while the rest goes to fresh consumption; top producers like Russia, Mexico, and Serbia dominate both segments.

Major producers

Russia led global raspberry production with approximately 219,000 metric tons in 2023, mainly from temperate-region fields yielding high outputs. Mexico ranked second, producing around 190,000 metric tons in 2023, relying heavily on greenhouse systems for year-round harvests and weather protection. Serbia placed third, with about 99,000 metric tons in 2023, incorporating wild genetics into cultivars for resilience, though output declined from 116,000 metric tons in 2022 due to drought. The United States produced roughly 80,000 metric tons in 2023, with over 95% of processed output from Washington State. In , is the largest producer, outputting about 96,000 metric tons in 2023 using organic and conventional methods to supply premium markets. North American farms, particularly in the , use mechanized harvesting for efficiency during peaks. In , focuses on off-season exports from May to November under Mediterranean conditions. Raspberry production underpins value chains from to and , with frozen and processed exports prevailing. In , it creates thousands of seasonal jobs, supporting rural areas via picking and packing, though recent droughts have strained output. The imported around 200,000 metric tons annually as of 2023, mostly frozen, to meet year-round demand. Challenges include tariffs, such as US-Mexico agricultural pacts, and labor shortages at . In , heightens risks in irrigated areas.

Nutrition and uses

Nutritional profile

Raspberries are a low-calorie , offering approximately 52 kcal per 100 g of fresh raw berries. They are low in , with 0.65 g per 100 g, and provide moderate at 11.9 g per 100 g, including 6.5 g of that contributes to their low net carbohydrate content. Protein is present in small amounts, at 1.2 g per 100 g. In terms of vitamins, raspberries are a good source of , supplying 26 mg per 100 g, which meets about 29% of the daily value (DV). They also contain at 7.8 µg per 100 g and at 21 µg per 100 g, supporting various metabolic functions. Key minerals in raspberries include , at 0.67 mg per 100 g (29% DV), and magnesium at 22 mg per 100 g. Smaller amounts of (151 mg per 100 g) and iron (0.69 mg per 100 g) are also present, contributing to balance and oxygen transport. Nutritional profiles show minimal differences between fresh and frozen raspberries, as freezing at peak ripeness preserves most vitamins and minerals with negligible loss. Black raspberries tend to have higher levels of certain antioxidants compared to red varieties, though macronutrient and basic compositions remain similar. Dried raspberries, commonly freeze-dried to preserve nutrients and flavor, have a concentrated nutritional profile due to water removal. Per 100 g, freeze-dried raspberries provide approximately 371 kcal, 0 g total fat (0 g saturated), 80 g total carbohydrates (37 g sugars, 34 g dietary fiber), and 8.6 g protein. They contain no cholesterol or added salt. Notable micronutrients include 786 mg potassium (about 17% DV), 157 mg calcium (12% DV), and 5.71 mg iron (32% DV). A typical serving size of 35 g (about 1 package or 1 cup) provides 130 kcal, 28 g carbohydrates (13 g sugars, 12 g dietary fiber), 3 g protein, and 0 g fat.
NutrientAmount per 100 g (raw)% Daily Value
Calories52 kcal-
Total 0.65 g1%
Carbohydrates11.9 g4%
6.5 g23%
Protein1.2 g2%
26 mg29%
7.8 µg7%
21 µg5%
0.67 mg29%
Magnesium22 mg5%
151 mg3%
Iron0.69 mg4%

Phytochemicals

Raspberries are rich in ellagitannins, a class of hydrolyzable that represent a primary group of bioactive polyphenols in the . These compounds, such as sanguiin H-6, typically occur at concentrations ranging from 36 to 75 mg per 100 g of fresh weight in raspberry varieties, depending on the . Sanguiin H-6 is the predominant ellagitannin, often comprising a significant portion of the total ellagitannin content, which can reach up to 111 mg per 100 g in raspberries. Another key class is , responsible for the fruit's pigmentation, with cyanidin-3-glucoside being a major component in varieties at levels up to approximately 20 mg per 100 g fresh weight, contributing to total anthocyanin contents of around 92 mg per 100 g. Ellagic acid serves as a key derived from the of ellagitannins during or , present in free form at low concentrations in fresh raspberries but increasing upon breakdown of precursor compounds. , including , are also found, though at trace levels of about 0.02 mg per 100 g fresh weight, alongside , which acts as a water-soluble . Black raspberries exhibit notably higher concentrations, often 200–300 mg per 100 g or more, compared to red varieties, highlighting varietal differences in profiles. influences these levels, with peak concentrations typically occurring at full maturity, while like can lead to approximately 30% loss of anthocyanins due to extraction inefficiencies and degradation. Quantification of these phytochemicals commonly employs (HPLC), which separates and measures compounds like ellagitannins and based on their retention times and UV absorbance. Stability during storage varies; frozen raspberries maintain ellagitannin and levels effectively for up to a year at -18°C to -20°C, with minimal degradation, whereas storage accelerates losses. Freeze-drying preserves these compounds better than other methods, retaining over 90% of initial concentrations in some cases.

Culinary and medicinal applications

Raspberries are commonly consumed fresh for their sweet-tart flavor, often eaten raw or incorporated into salads and yogurt. In desserts, they feature prominently in pies, where wild raspberries have historically been a staple ingredient in North American baking traditions. Jams are prepared using a 1:1 ratio of fruit to sugar by weight, allowing the natural pectin in raspberries to aid in setting without added thickeners. Beverages incorporating raspberries include syrups for cocktails and lemonades, valued for their balanced ripe flavor, as well as liqueurs such as crème de framboise, a French-style infusion of macerated raspberries in alcohol that yields a vibrant, peppery taste. For year-round availability, raspberries are processed by quick-freezing shortly after harvest, preserving their quality; in the United States, approximately 90% of frozen raspberries originate from Washington state farms. In commercial processing, a significant portion of U.S. raspberry output is directed toward frozen products and , with 2024 production totaling 181 million pounds overall. Raspberries are also used in , such as muffins where fresh or frozen berries are folded into the batter to add moisture and flavor. Historically, Native American tribes like the Chippewa and Omaha used raspberry root bark and leaves to brew teas treating and , leveraging the plant's properties. In European traditions, raspberry juice mixed with served as a remedy to reduce fevers, while young shoots were employed for flu-like symptoms including fever. Modern research highlights the anti-inflammatory potential of ellagitannins in raspberries, with studies showing that polyphenol-enriched extracts can protect cartilage and modulate arthritis severity in animal models. Bioaccessible ellagitannin derivatives from raspberries have demonstrated anti-neuroinflammatory effects in cellular assays. Raspberries exhibit low allergenicity, with allergies being uncommon despite reports of occasional hypersensitivity reactions. However, conventional raspberries often contain pesticide residues, such as pyrimethanil, with over 50% of samples containing detectable residues and approximately 21% exceeding regulatory limits in a study from north-eastern Poland (2005-2010). However, EU-wide monitoring in 2022 found that only 1.6% of analyzed food samples exceeded MRLs.

Ecology and history

Habitat and ecology

Wild raspberries, particularly , are native to the temperate zones of the , spanning , , and northern . They commonly inhabit woodland edges, clearings, meadows, and areas with disturbed soils such as roadsides, abandoned fields, and riparian zones. These plants prefer well-drained loamy soils but tolerate a range of conditions, including sandy or rocky substrates, and occur from up to elevations of approximately 2,500 meters, though some populations extend higher in mountainous regions like the Rockies. In contrast to cultivated varieties grown in managed orchards, wild raspberries thrive in natural, often ephemeral habitats shaped by disturbance. Ecologically, wild raspberries act as in successional processes, rapidly colonizing disturbed sites following events like , , or landslides to stabilize soils and facilitate . They peak in abundance 2–4 years post-disturbance before declining as shade-tolerant trees establish, with viable banks persisting for 60–100 years or more to enable future recruitment. Fruits serve as a vital source for , including birds such as robins and , and mammals like black bears and coyotes, which consume substantial quantities during summer and fall to support energy needs and . Additionally, the plants provide cover for small mammals and nesting sites for birds, though their browse value is low for larger herbivores. Raspberries contribute to biodiversity by attracting pollinators, primarily bees, which visit numerous flowers per plant to collect nectar and pollen, promoting cross-pollination in this self-incompatible species. In some introduced regions, certain Rubus hybrids, including those involving raspberry and blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), exhibit invasive tendencies, forming dense thickets that outcompete native flora in areas like . Conservation concerns for wild populations include habitat fragmentation from land-use changes, such as urbanization and intensive forestry, which reduce suitable disturbed sites, alongside pressures from unsustainable wild harvesting that can deplete local stands. Emerging concerns include climate change-induced shifts in suitable habitats, potentially affecting distribution and as of 2025. Efforts to monitor and protect these habitats emphasize sustainable foraging practices to maintain ecological roles and for potential crop improvement.

Cultivation history

Raspberries have been part of human diets and practices since ancient times, with early references to species appearing in Greek and Roman botanical texts. By the Roman era, cultivation had begun, as documented by the agricultural writer Palladius in the 4th century AD, who listed raspberries among garden valued for their fruit and medicinal properties. During the medieval and periods, raspberry cultivation spread across , often propagated in monastery gardens where monks prized the for , dyes, and remedies. The first documented reference to cultivated raspberries in dates to 1548, in the writings of herbalist William Turner, marking a shift toward more systematic gardening in the region. In the , pre-Columbian Native American communities managed wild raspberry patches for and medicine, encouraging growth through selective harvesting and land practices without formal domestication. The 19th century saw significant advancements in raspberry breeding, with hybrid varieties emerging from crosses between European () and North American ( subsp. strigosus) species to improve yield and flavor. Notable examples include the 'Cuthbert' , released in 1865, which became a commercial standard. Early 20th-century developments, such as the 'Lloyd George' variety selected in 1913 from wild stock, further enhanced disease resistance and productivity. In the United States, commercial production gained momentum from the 1880s onward, with expanded plantings in states like New York and the . Post-World War II, global raspberry trade expanded rapidly due to advancements in and international markets, with countries like emerging as key exporters under socialist agricultural systems. The , gaining regulatory support in the , fostered niche markets for pesticide-free raspberries, appealing to consumers seeking sustainable options and driving specialized production in regions like and .

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