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Secretary of state
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The title secretary of state or state's secretary[note 1] is commonly used for senior or mid-level posts in governments around the world. The role varies between countries, and in some cases there are multiple secretaries of state in the country's system of governing the country.
In many countries, a secretary of state is a senior or mid-level post. It is usually a politically appointed position, although in some countries, such as Germany and Sweden, it can be filled by a member of the executive bureaucracy (civil service) as a political appointment (equivalent to permanent secretary). In the Holy See, the administrative body of the Catholic Church, the cardinal secretary of state coordinates all the departments of the Roman Curia (and is in that respect equivalent to a prime minister).
The United States secretary of state is the foreign minister of the federal government of the United States while in most of the individual U.S. states the secretary of state is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions, often including overseeing elections, tasks which would be exercised by interior ministers or secretaries in most other nations.
The term secretary of state originated in early 17th century England.
Africa
[edit]Orange Free State
[edit]In the Orange Free State (1854–1902) the Secretary of State was the original title of the main administrative officer of the State, who worked closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and his cabinet, and with the Volksraad, the parliament of the Orange Free State. The title of State Secretary was replaced by that of Government Secretary soon after the formation of the state apparatus and was thereafter never used again.
Portuguese-speaking African countries
[edit]The organization of the governments of Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and São Tome and Príncipe closely mirrors the Portuguese government model. Thus, in these countries, a Secretary of State (Portuguese: secretário de Estado) is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Usually, the secretaries of State do not participate in the council of ministers.
In Mozambique, the role of vice-minister (Portuguese: vice-ministro) exists as an intermediate government rank between those of minister and Secretary of State. The role of vice-minister also exists in the Government of Angola, but it is junior to that of Secretary of State.
South African Republic
[edit]In the South African Republic the Secretary of State was the main administrative officer of the State, working closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and the parliament of the South African Republic.
Liberia
[edit]In Liberia, from 1847 until 1972, the Secretary of State was the head of the Department of State and the chief foreign policy officer of the republic, responsible for conducting diplomacy and implementing the nation's foreign affairs. The title was abolished in 1972 and replaced with the new nomenclature, Minister of Foreign Affairs. Throughout most of Liberia's history, holders of that office usually went on to become president.
The Americas
[edit]Argentina
[edit]The Secretary of State (Secretario de Estado) in Argentina (federal government) is a high official with the same rank of a Minister, who is responsible directly to the President. The position must be distinguished from a "Secretary", a lower position, responsible to a Minister.
The official responsible for foreign policy is called Minister of Foreign Affairs (Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores) or "Chancellor" (Canciller).
Brazil
[edit]In Brazil, a Secretary of State (Portuguese: secretário de Estado or secretário estadual) – commonly referred simply as "Secretary" (Portuguese: secretário) is one of the government members of each of the Brazilian states, subordinate to the respective State Governor. At state level, the Brazilian secretaries of State have functions similar to those of the Ministers of the Federal Government.
At federal level, the officer responsible for foreign affairs, a position equivalent to that of the United States Secretary of State, is the Minister of Foreign Affairs.
Canada
[edit]The Canadian Cabinet used to have a Secretary of State for External Affairs who acted as the country's Foreign Minister, but this position was abolished in 1993 and a new position of Minister of Foreign Affairs was created. From 1867 to 1993, there was also a Secretary of State for Canada who was a Cabinet minister whose duties varied over time but who was responsible for the Department of Secretary of State until the position was abolished. Since 1993, some junior ministers have been styled Secretary of State, and assigned in specific policy areas to assist Cabinet ministers. However, these junior ministers are not themselves members of Cabinet. A similar role is played by Ministers of State, however Ministers are members of the cabinet.
Mexico
[edit]In Mexico a secretary of state is a member of the Mexican Executive Cabinet who responds to the president of the Republic.
United States
[edit]Federal government
[edit]In the United States federal government, "Secretary of State" refers to the official responsible for executing the non-military and non-homeland security aspects of foreign policy, the analogue of the foreign secretary or foreign minister of a country that has one or the other. The U.S. secretary of state is head of the United States Department of State. The secretary of state is responsible for the administration of United States embassies and their subsidiary units throughout the world.
The U.S. secretary of state has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U.S. soil for any reason.
Six secretaries of state became presidents (Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren and James Buchanan) and five won Nobel Peace Prizes (Frank Kellogg, Cordell Hull, George Marshall, Elihu Root, and Henry Kissinger).
The now long-established terms "Department ..." and "Secretary of State" were preceded (for two months following the effective date of the Constitution) by the narrower title Secretary of Foreign Affairs and the corresponding departmental name; the change reflected the addition of some miscellaneous domestic responsibilities.[1]
The position is widely regarded as the most senior in the Cabinet. In the presidential line of succession the secretary of state falls first among Cabinet officers, and fourth overall. The secretary of state is also, in protocol, the first Cabinet member in the order of precedence, immediately preceding any former presidents and former first ladies, who are followed by the rest of the Cabinet.
State government
[edit]In most of the individual states of the United States, the Secretary of State is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions. The specific powers and duties of this office depend on the constitution and laws of the particular state, but they often include responsibility for overseeing elections within the state. In the state of Oregon the secretary of state is an elected office that acts as the equivalent of a lieutenant governor in other states among many other duties. In three states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia), the position is called "Secretary of the Commonwealth", since these states as well as Kentucky are called "commonwealth" instead of "state". In Connecticut, this office is called the "Secretary of the State". In three states (Alaska, Hawaii and Utah), there is no secretary of state.
Asia
[edit]Brunei
[edit]The State Secretary (Setiausaha Kerajaan) was established to support the Menteri Besar in overseeing Brunei's administrative functions. The position was specifically reserved for Malay Muslims and required nomination by the Sultan. Under the 1959 Constitution, the State Secretary became the principal officer managing internal administrative affairs, ensuring departmental coordination and policy consultation. The State Secretary also held a seat in the Council of Ministers and worked alongside other key officials like the Attorney General and the State Financial Officer to implement the Sultan’s executive authority. Additionally, in legal matters involving government personnel, documents signed by the State Secretary, such as those certifying employment details, were accepted as conclusive evidence in court.
Indonesia
[edit]In Indonesia, the Minister-Secretary of State (Menteri Sekretaris Negara) is a Government official of Ministerial rank who heads the Ministry of State Secretariat. The Minister-Secretary of State gives technical and administrative assistance to the President and Vice President in running State affairs. In the President's case, the Minister-Secretary of State also provides assistance for the President in his role as Commander-in-chief of Indonesian National Armed Forces. In addition, the State Secretary provides the President and Vice President with their reports, coordinates household matters and protocols, as well as assisting in the drafting of bills and/or Governmental regulations.
Kuwait
[edit]The Kuwaiti Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Al-Sabah Al-Salem Al-Sabah, is in charge of international relations of Kuwait, and all Kuwaiti representatives abroad. Al-Sabah is a member of the cabinet of ministers, and reports directly to Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, The Emir of Kuwait. He is also in charge of all the diplomatic representatives in Kuwait.
Malaysia
[edit]In Malaysia, Chief Secretary to the Government is the Malaysian secretary of state.
However, every state in Malaysia have their own State Secretary, except federal territories. Secretary of State is the member of the State Executive Council, appointed by the Governor (in Malacca, Penang, Sabah and Sarawak) or the Sultan (except in Negeri Sembilan, appointed by the Yang DiPertuan Besar; and Perlis, appointed by the (Raja of Perlis). The State Secretary is the head of the public service in his/her state.
Timor-Leste
[edit]Following the Portuguese model, in the Government of Timor-Leste, a Secretary of State (Sekretáriu Estadu in Tetum, Secretário de Estado in Portuguese) is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Despite being members of the Government, the Secretaries of State usually do not participate in the Council of Ministers, unless they are specially summoned for and, in this case, without right to vote.
Europe
[edit]Belgium
[edit]As in France, a secretary of state in Belgium is a junior minister who is responsible to a minister or to the prime minister. For example, Vincent Van Quickenborne was a secretary of state charged with the simplification of the administration, and in this role he was accountable to the prime minister. The title "secretary of state" was created because the constitution of Belgium explicitly limits the number of ministers to fifteen (seven French-speaking ministers and seven Dutch-speaking ministers, with the prime minister being officially "linguistically neutral").[2] Therefore, appointing people as secretaries of state allows the government to circumvent this constitutional limitation. See Current list of secretaries of states for Belgian Federal Government.
There are also three secretaries of state in the government of the Brussels-Capital Region, one of whom has to be Flemish.
Estonia
[edit]The secretary of state (Riigisekretär) directs the Government Office. Its mission is to support the Government of Estonia and the Prime Minister of Estonia in policy drafting and implementation. It also supports any Ministers without portfolio and helps to ensure good governance. The first Secretary of State was Karl Terras. Before the Soviet re-occupation in 1944, the State Secretary went into exile until the position came back to Estonia in 1992.[3]
Finland
[edit]A state secretary (Finnish: valtiosihteeri), is the highest official below each minister. Ministers, who lead ministries (government departments), comprise the Finnish Government. Each state secretary is appointed for the term of the minister and is responsible to the minister.
This is a new arrangement; during the introduction of this model, a secretary was called "political state secretary" (poliittinen valtiosihteeri). In contrast, previously only two ministries, Ministries of Finance and Foreign Affairs, used to have state secretaries, who were permanently appointed. One such example is Raimo Sailas.
France
[edit]In France, a Secretary of State (Secrétaire d'État) is a junior minister, responsible to a minister or the Prime Minister. It is not to be confused with the Minister of State title given to a senior French cabinet minister of particular importance.
Under the Ancien Régime, Secretaries of State were Crown officers whose responsibilities were similar to those of today's governmental ministers.
Germany
[edit]The German Staatssekretär is a Beamter (civil servant) who ranks second only to the minister in a state or federal ministry, so the position is equivalent to that of Permanent secretary in the United Kingdom, not to that of a U.K. Secretary of State. While officially it is not a political office, often it is assigned by appointment based on political criteria such as party affiliation,[4] rather than by career progression as a civil servant. Nevertheless, Staatssekretäre function as the administrative heads of ministries. They depend on the full confidence of their respective ministers and can at any time be posted into provisional retirement with their pension paid in full. This happens usually when the government or the minister changes. De facto such a provisional retirement is lifelong.
A special case is the Parliamentary State Secretary (Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär), who is a member of parliament who is appointed to a ministry as a Staatssekretär; in the German Foreign Office and the German Chancellery the official title is Staatsminister (Minister of State). Critics claim that parliamentary secretaries of state are usually given little to no influence and responsibility within their ministry, all the while drawing very generous pay due to receiving two salaries, both as a secretary of state and as a member of parliament. For example, when interviewed in 2005 about his post as a parliamentary minister of state in the German Foreign Office (1998–2002) during an investigation into visa abuse, Ludger Volmer claimed that he had been cut off from the workflow within the ministry, and called the Staatsminister office an "Unding" (absurdity).
In 1998, chancellor Gerhard Schröder introduced the new office of Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media (German: Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien) at the formal rank of a Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär, hence the office is usually called Kulturstaatsminister ("State Minister of Culture") for short – although some of the incumbents did not hold a seat in parliament. The German Parliamentary Commission for Culture and the Media (German: Ausschuss für Kultur und Medien) serves in place of a proper ministry for this department. Since 1998, the office of Kulturstaatsminister has been held by Michael Naumann (1998–2001), Julian Nida-Rümelin (2001–2002), Christina Weiss (2002–2005), Bernd Neumann (2005–2013), Monika Grütters (2013–2021) and Claudia Roth (since 2021).
Greece
[edit]In Greece, the title "Secretary of State" (Greek: Γραμματεύς της Επικρατείας) was used only intermittently during the early years of the modern Greek state. It was first employed for the head of the cabinet under the governorship of Ioannis Kapodistrias, a post held successively by Spyridon Trikoupis (1828–29) and Nikolaos Spiliadis (1829–31). It was then abandoned, until used instead of the title of "Minister" (Υπουργός) for the cabinet members in the 1835–37 Cabinet of Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, with Armansperg being designated "Chief Secretary of State" (Αρχιγραμματεύς της Επικρατείας).
Holy See
[edit]The Secretary of State of His Holiness The Pope, or Cardinal Secretary of State, presides over the Secretariat of State, which is the most important dicastery of the Roman Curia, as it organizes, makes appointments to, and directs the activities of the other dicasteries.[5] The secretariat is also responsible for the Holy See's foreign relations.[5] During a sede vacante, the former Secretary of State (the appointment expires when the pope dies or resigns) assumes some of the functions of the head of state as a part of a temporary commission.[6]
Luxembourg
[edit]Luxembourgian Secretaries of State (French: secrétaire d'Etat, Luxembourgish: Staatssekretär(in), German: Staatssekretär(in)) are members of the cabinet, and are ranked below ministers. They are given specific briefs, covering the same briefs as the ministers, and help to assist their respective ministers to perform their functions. They often hold more than one brief or assist more than one minister. In the first Juncker-Asselborn cabinet, there was one Secretary of State, Octavie Modert, who is responsible for Relations with Parliament; Agriculture, Viticulture, and Rural Development; and Culture, Higher Education, and Research. There had been two in the previous cabinet, and three between 1984 and 1989.
Netherlands
[edit]As in France and Belgium, a State Secretary in the Netherlands is a junior minister who is responsible to a Cabinet Minister or the Prime Minister. Some of them may, in specific circumstances, call themselves Minister when visiting a foreign country. Each State Secretary has a certain portfolio, which is different to their Cabinet Minister to split up the responsibilities and relieve the workload.
The top civil servant in a government department is called Secretary-General (secretaris-generaal).
Norway
[edit]A statssekretær in Norway plays more or less the same role as the French or Swedish equivalent. Secretaries of State are connected to specific ministry, and serve as a de facto vice minister. However, the State Secretary cannot attend a Council of State and the only minister is constitutionally responsible for all the statssekretær's decisions in office.
Poland
[edit]In Poland, the ministries are staffed by secretaries of state and undersecretaries of state, commonly referred to as deputy ministers. Their task is to assist the Minister and replace him if necessary.
Portugal
[edit]In Portugal, a secretary of State (Portuguese: secretário de Estado, masculine; secretária de Estado, feminine; secretários de Estado, plural) is a junior minister, of intermediate rank between that of cabinet minister and that of under-secretary of State. Although having the Constitutional status of Government members, the secretaries of State do not usually participate in the Council of Ministers, unless summoned for certain meetings and, in those cases, without right to vote. They act merely as deputies of ministers, having only the powers delegated to them by their ministers or directly by the prime minister.
Until the reorganization of the Portuguese Public Administration structure in 2004, it was common for a secretary of State to be in charge of a secretariat of State (Portuguese: secretaria de Estado), a Government department with a status below that of a ministry. A secretariat of State could be organized as a division of a ministry or occasionally be directly subordinate to the Prime Minister. For example, from 1987 to 1995, a Secretariat of State for the Culture existed directly subordinate to the Prime Minister. Despite this type of department no longer officially existing in the organization of the Portuguese Government, it is still common usage for the portfolio of a secretary of State to be colloquially referred to as a "secretariat of State".
Historically, since the 17th century, the title of "secretary of State" was used to designate the heads of the Government departments of Portugal. In the 19th century, the title of "minister" started to be used, the official complete title of each of the ministers becoming "minister and secretary of State" of a given portfolio until the end of the Monarchy in 1910. From them on, the title "minister" completely replaced that of "secretary of State" (with the exception of the brief presidential system that existed during 1918, in which the ministers were re-titled "secretaries of State"). In 1958, the title of "secretary of State" was reintroduced to designate the then created role of a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister.
In the devolved governments of the Autonomous Regions (the Azores and Madeira), cabinet members are called "Regional Secretary" of a given portfolio (Portuguese: Secretário Regional), and the head of the cabinet is titled "President of the Regional Government" (Portuguese: Presidente do Governo Regional).
Russia
[edit]The position of State Secretary (Russian: Статс-секретарь, romanized: Stats-sekretar or Russian: Государственный секретар, romanized: Gosudarstvennyj sekretar) has existed at certain periods of time. Boris Yeltsin revived the post in 1991.
- In the Russian Empire State secretaries of the Russian Empire (Russian: Государственные секретари Российской империи, romanized: Gosudarstvennye sekretari Rossijskoj imperii) operated in the State Chancellery from 1810 to 1917.
- Count Karl Nesselrode, State Secretary in 1814,[citation needed] Foreign Minister from 1816 to 1856
- M. de Freigang sometime in the 1820–1828 time period [citation needed]
- Sergei Witte 1903–1905[citation needed]
- In the Russian Federation:
- Gennady Burbulis, Gosudarstvennyj sekretar May to November 1992
- Grigory Karasin, Russian: Статс-секретарь-Заместитель министра иностранных дел Российской Федерации, romanized: Stats-sekretar-Zamestitel ministra inostrannykh del Rossijskoj Federatsii 2005–2019
San Marino
[edit]In the Republic of San Marino a secretary of state is a senior cabinet minister in charge of a department of state. Secretaries of state are members of the Congress of State.
Spain
[edit]In present-day organisation of the Spanish Government a Secretary of State (Spanish: Secretario de Estado) is a junior minister. Each ministry may have one or several secretaries of state. For example, the Secretary of State for Press in the Office of the Prime Minister and the Secretary of State for Ibero-America in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Before 1705, a Secretary of State was an official of the Council of State, who acted as an administrative officer and as a liaison between the Crown and the Council. After the division of the post of Secretary of the Universal Office (Spanish: Secretario del Despacho Universal, kind of a prime minister) in 1705, it successors were known as Secretaries of the Office [of State, of War, of Finance, of the Navy, etc] and were granted the same honors and title that the secretaries of the Council of State, so their complete name was Secretaries of State and of the Office (Spanish: Secretarios de Estado y del Despacho), and they were the heads of different government departments. The Secretary of State and of the Office of State, today known as minister of foreign affairs, usually served as Chief Minister (See List of foreign ministers of Spain and List of prime ministers of Spain).
Sweden
[edit]In Sweden, a State Secretary (Swedish: Statssekreterare) is a political appointee, second in rank to the Minister (Swedish: Statsråd) in charge of the ministry. Unlike ministers, state secretaries are not members of the cabinet. Typically, there is one State Secretary assigned for each minister in the cabinet, and two for the prime minister. For historical reasons, the State Secretary in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs has another title (Swedish: Kabinettssekreterare, in English literally "Cabinet Secretary"). State secretaries tend to, more often than the ministers do, hail from a fixed civil servant background or a professional background relevant to the area of responsibility that belongs to their respective ministries.
Switzerland
[edit]In the Swiss federal administration, secretaries of state are the most senior career officials. The title is conferred by the Swiss Federal Council on heads of federal offices whose duties entail independent interaction with senior foreign authorities (cf. article 46 of the Government and Administration Organisation Act[7]). In practice, the function of a secretary of state is the same as in France.
United Kingdom
[edit]Historical origin
[edit]In the Kingdom of England, before 1660, an office entitled Secretary of State came into being near the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), the usual title before that having been King's Clerk, King's Secretary, or Principal Secretary. From 1540 there were sometimes two such secretaries.
From 1660 there were always two secretaries of state, between whom oversight of foreign affairs was divided on a geographical basis while domestic affairs were shared: the Northern Secretary and the Southern Secretary. In 1707, England and Scotland were merged into the Kingdom of Great Britain, and there was a third Secretary of State for Scotland until 1746. A third Secretary of State for the Colonies existed from 1768. In 1782 a system reform resulted in reverting to having two secretaries of state: a Home Secretary (including colonial affairs) and a Foreign Secretary, with the addition of a third for War from 1794. The title of Under Secretary came into use over the same period.[8]
The United Kingdom was formed by the union of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801. By a gradual process between then and the 1960s, most of the ministers of the British cabinet became secretaries of state.
Modern role
[edit]In the United Kingdom, a secretary of state is a senior minister, normally in charge of a government department. Secretaries of state are appointed directly by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, and are responsible, along with other Cabinet members, for the collective government of the United Kingdom. There are a number of secretaries of state, each of whom are formally titled "His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for ..."; legislation generally refers only to "the Secretary of State".[9]
Notes
[edit]- ^ This and many other government and judiciary titles are often capitalized in government documents in violation of the much more common rule in English to capitalize titles only before a name (see e.g. Chicago Manual of Style, 17th ed., 2017, sec. 8.19, 8.22), when it in fact becomes part of the name. Therefore lowercase spelling is the first or only variant recorded in some major dictionaries such as the American Heritage Dictionary, the Oxford Online Dictionaries, and the Random House Dictionary.
References
[edit]- ^ "Frequently asked questions – Office of the Historian". Office of the Historian, United States Department of State. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
- ^ "The federal government | Belgium.be". www.belgium.be. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
- ^ "Avaleht | Riigikantselei". www.riigikantselei.ee. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
- ^ Bach, Tobias; Veit, Sylvia (2017). "The Determinants of Promotion to High Public Office in Germany: Partisan Loyalty, Political Craft, or Managerial Competencies?". Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory. doi:10.1093/jopart/mux041.
- ^ a b Pope John Paul II (28 June 1988). "Pastor Bonus". The Holy See. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- ^ Pope John Paul II (22 February 1996). "Universi Dominici Gregis". The Holy See. Retrieved 17 November 2008.
- ^ "Fedlex". www.fedlex.admin.ch. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
- ^ Sainty, J. C. (1973). "Introduction". Office-Holders in Modern Britain: Volume 2 - Officials of the Secretaries of State 1660-1782. University of London. pp. 1–21 – via British History Online.
At the Restoration [in 1660] the practice of appointing two Secretaries of State, which was well established before the Civil War, was resumed. Apart from the modifications which were made necessary by the occasional existence of a third secretaryship, the organisation of the secretariat underwent no fundamental change from that time until the reforms of 1782 which resulted in the emergence of the Home and Foreign departments. ... English domestic affairs remained the responsibility of both Secretaries throughout the period. In the field of foreign affairs there was a division into a Northern and a Southern Department, each of which was the responsibility of one Secretary. The distinction between the two departments emerged only gradually. It was not until after 1689 that their names passed into general currency. Nevertheless the division of foreign business itself can, in its broad outlines, be detected in the early years of the reign of Charles II. ... The first question to be considered in the light of the memorandum of 1684 is the origin of the office of Under Secretary. It should be emphasised in this connection that the term 'Under Secretary', although found in use as early as 1672, (fn. 28) passed only gradually into general currency.
- ^ "Draft Cabinet Manual" (PDF). Cabinet Office. 14 December 2010. p. 42. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 19 January 2011.
External links
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Secretary of state
View on Grokipediafrom Grokipedia
The United States Secretary of State is the highest-ranking Cabinet officer responsible for leading the Department of State, advising the President on foreign policy, and conducting diplomacy to promote American interests abroad.[1] The incumbent is Marco Rubio, serving since January 21, 2025.[1] Appointed by the President with the Senate's advice and consent, the Secretary oversees a vast bureaucracy handling international negotiations, consular services, and global engagement, while ranking fourth in the presidential line of succession after the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and President pro tempore of the Senate.[2]
Established under the Judiciary Act of 1789, the position originated as a domestic administrative role but evolved into its modern foreign policy focus during the early republic, with Thomas Jefferson serving as the inaugural Secretary from 1790 to 1793.[3] Over time, the office has been pivotal in shaping U.S. global strategy, from territorial expansions under James Monroe to Cold War containment policies under Dean Acheson, with six former Secretaries—Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Van Buren, and Buchanan—later ascending to the presidency, underscoring its influence on executive leadership.[3]
The Secretary's tenure often involves navigating high-stakes controversies, such as treaty ratifications or espionage scandals, reflecting the position's exposure to partisan scrutiny and the inherent tensions between diplomatic discretion and congressional oversight, yet it remains a cornerstone of executive foreign affairs authority without statutory term limits beyond Senate confirmation.[1]
Overview and Definition
General Role and Responsibilities
The Secretary of State serves as a senior minister in the executive branch of government, particularly in Westminster-style parliamentary systems, where the title denotes the principal head of a major government department or ministry. This role entails overall accountability for the department's policies, operations, and performance, with the incumbent exercising executive authority to direct civil servants, allocate resources, and implement legislation within their portfolio.[4][5] In practice, Secretaries of State are appointed by the head of government—typically the Prime Minister—and must command the confidence of the legislature, facing regular scrutiny through parliamentary questions, debates, and select committee inquiries.[6] Core responsibilities include formulating and defending departmental policies before Parliament, negotiating with stakeholders, and ensuring compliance with statutory duties, often empowered by specific acts of Parliament that confer decision-making authority on the officeholder rather than the individual. For instance, they oversee budgeting, regulatory enforcement, and crisis response pertinent to their domain, such as security for the Home Secretary or trade for the relevant economic counterpart.[7][8] Unlike junior ministers, who handle delegated portfolios, the Secretary of State bears ultimate responsibility for departmental failures or successes, potentially leading to resignation in cases of major scandals or policy reversals, as enshrined in ministerial accountability conventions dating to the 18th century.[9] The position's powers are not inherent but derive from royal prerogative, statutory instruments, and collective cabinet decision-making, allowing Secretaries of State to issue secondary legislation, appoint key officials, and represent the government in international or domestic forums relevant to their remit. This structure ensures departmental autonomy while subordinating it to prime ministerial oversight and parliamentary sovereignty, with the title's uniformity across departments—except for exceptions like the Chancellor of the Exchequer—facilitating interchangeable leadership as governments change.[8][4] In systems influenced by British traditions, such as those in Commonwealth nations or certain European states, analogous roles emphasize policy leadership and legislative answerability over administrative minutiae, which are delegated to civil service executives.[5]Variations Across Political Systems
In parliamentary systems modeled on the Westminster tradition, such as the United Kingdom, the title of Secretary of State is a generic designation for senior cabinet ministers who head major government departments, with responsibilities varying by portfolio, including foreign affairs, defense, or home affairs. These officials are appointed by the Prime Minister from members of Parliament and hold collective responsibility to the legislature, where they must defend departmental policies during question periods and face potential removal through votes of no confidence.[4][10] By contrast, in the presidential system of the United States, the Secretary of State refers exclusively to the head of the Department of State, serving as the President's chief advisor on foreign policy, managing diplomatic relations, and overseeing consular services, with no equivalent generic application to other cabinet roles. This position is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, but the appointee is constitutionally barred from concurrent membership in Congress to maintain separation of powers, differing from the fused executive-legislative dynamics in parliamentary setups.[11][12] Variations also appear in other Commonwealth parliamentary nations influenced by British practice. In Canada, for instance, Secretaries of State typically function as junior ministers assisting a senior cabinet minister on targeted priorities within a broader portfolio, rather than leading independent departments, reflecting a more hierarchical structure under the Prime Minister.[13] In Australia and New Zealand, the title is largely absent at the federal level, where equivalent roles are styled as Ministers for specific areas, underscoring adaptations away from the original British nomenclature post-independence.[14] In non-Anglophone systems, such as those in continental Europe, the equivalent term often denotes subordinate roles. For example, France's secrétaires d'État are under-secretaries attached to ministries, handling delegated functions without departmental autonomy, which contrasts with the departmental leadership implied in Westminster usage. These differences stem from distinct constitutional traditions: parliamentary fusion emphasizes legislative accountability and departmental breadth, while presidential separation prioritizes executive specialization and checks by an independent legislature.[15]Comparison to Equivalent Positions Globally
The United States Secretary of State, appointed by the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, serves as the chief foreign policy advisor and leads the Department of State in executing diplomacy, treaty negotiations, and consular services.[16] This position equates functionally to foreign ministers worldwide, who similarly direct international relations, represent their nations in multilateral forums, and coordinate economic aid and sanctions, though structural variances tied to regime type influence autonomy, accountability, and integration with domestic politics.[16] In presidential systems, such as those in the US, Brazil, and Mexico, the foreign minister operates with relative independence from the legislature, appointed unilaterally by the executive head and removable at will, aligning with separation of powers to insulate foreign policy from partisan gridlock.[17] Parliamentary systems, dominant in Europe (e.g., UK, Germany, Canada), fuse executive and legislative branches, requiring foreign ministers to be elected parliamentarians appointed by the prime minister, fostering direct legislative oversight through debates, committees, and no-confidence mechanisms that can topple governments over foreign policy failures.[17] For example, the UK's Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs, selected by the Prime Minister from Members of Parliament, oversees the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, including intelligence policy and migration, while bearing collective cabinet responsibility to Parliament.[18] This contrasts with the US role's lack of mandatory legislative ties, enabling presidents to install non-career diplomats or political allies without electoral mandates, though Senate confirmation provides a check absent in many parliamentary appointments.[16] In semi-presidential systems like France, the Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs is nominally appointed by the Prime Minister but subordinates to the President's constitutional primacy in diplomacy, reflecting dual executive authority that can lead to cohabitation tensions when opposing parties control branches.[19] Globally, US uniqueness includes the Secretary's elevated protocol status—fourth in presidential succession—and oversight of domestic functions like passport issuance, whereas equivalents in nations like China or Russia execute party- or autocrat-directed policies with minimal personal discretion.[20] Empirical studies indicate parliamentary foreign ministers experience shorter tenures amid coalition instability (average 1.5–2 years in Western Europe post-1945), versus US secretaries' alignment with four-year presidential terms, though both face dismissal risks from executive shifts.[21]| Aspect | Presidential Systems (e.g., US) | Parliamentary Systems (e.g., UK, Germany) |
|---|---|---|
| Appointment | Executive head nominates; legislative confirmation optional or partial | Prime Minister selects from parliamentarians; no formal confirmation vote |
| Accountability | To executive; indirect via Senate hearings | Direct to parliament via questions, votes of confidence |
| Tenure Stability | Tied to fixed presidential term; at-will removal | Vulnerable to government falls; coalition compromises influence |
| Legislative Role | None required; separation of powers | Mandatory membership; fused branches enable scrutiny |
Historical Origins
Early Development in England
The office of what would become the Secretary of State originated in the medieval Kingdom of England as the King's Clerk or Secretary, a role responsible for drafting royal letters, managing correspondence, and authenticating documents under the great seal held by the Chancellor. This position handled both domestic administrative tasks and emerging foreign diplomacy, evolving from ad hoc clerical duties to a more formalized secretarial function by the late 14th century, as evidenced by appointments like William of Wykeham in 1360.[22] Under the Tudors, particularly Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547), the role transformed into the Principal Secretary, a key ministerial position overseeing state papers, intelligence, and policy execution in an era of centralized royal authority and religious upheaval. Henry VIII's ministers, such as Thomas Cromwell (Principal Secretary from 1534 to 1540), expanded its scope to include enforcement of statutes like the Acts of Supremacy and administrative reforms, with the office's importance codified by parliamentary acts granting it precedence over other officials. By the end of Henry's reign, administrative demands led to the creation of a second Principal Secretary in 1540, dividing responsibilities though without formal specialization.[22][23] The distinct title "Secretary of State" first appeared in official usage during the reign of Elizabeth I (r. 1558–1603), supplanting "Principal Secretary" amid growing bureaucratic complexity; for instance, references to "Mr. Secretary" in state documents date to 1576, applied to figures like William Cecil, appointed Principal Secretary in 1558 and instrumental in foreign policy and domestic stability. This evolution reflected causal pressures from expanded state functions, including espionage under Walsingham (1573–1590) and the accumulation of state papers, laying groundwork for departmental divisions post-1603.[24][22]Evolution in the United Kingdom
The principal secretaries of state, which had developed in England by the late Tudor period, continued to serve the Crown following the 1707 Act of Union with Scotland, handling both foreign correspondence and domestic administration across the emerging United Kingdom. By the early 18th century, the two principal secretaries—one typically overseeing northern European affairs and domestic matters, the other southern Europe and colonies—had become key figures in executive coordination under the monarch and emerging cabinet system.[22] A pivotal reform occurred in 1782 under the second Rockingham ministry, which restructured the secretarial offices to address growing administrative demands amid the American War of Independence and imperial expansion. The Northern Secretary's role evolved into the Secretary of State for the Home Department, focused on internal security, justice, and local governance, while the Southern Secretary became the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, dedicated to diplomacy and international treaties. Charles James Fox held the inaugural Foreign Secretary position from March to July 1782, marking the formal separation that enhanced specialization and reduced overlap in responsibilities. This division also elevated the Secretary at War to independent status, further fragmenting military administration from broader secretarial duties.[25][26] Subsequent decades saw proliferation of the secretary of state title to accommodate imperial and industrial growth. In 1794, the Secretary of State for War was established to oversee military logistics and procurement, initially incorporating colonial oversight until further splits. The Colonial Secretary emerged separately in 1854, managing overseas territories, while the India Office gained a dedicated Secretary of State in 1858 following the Government of India Act, reflecting Britain's expanding empire and the need for focused bureaucratic control. By the late 19th century, additional roles like the Secretary of State for the Colonies solidified the pattern of domain-specific appointments, with the title denoting seniority equivalent to privy councillors and cabinet eligibility.[27] In the 20th century, wartime exigencies and decolonization accelerated further evolution. The Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs (1925) and later Commonwealth Relations (1947) addressed shifting imperial ties, while the Ministry of Defence consolidated war-related roles under a Secretary of State in 1946. Post-1945 welfare state expansion extended the title to domestic portfolios, such as Education (1964) and Health (1988), transforming "Secretary of State" from a limited executive function into a generic designation for heads of major departments. Today, approximately 15 principal secretaries of state comprise the bulk of the Cabinet, underscoring the office's adaptation to a complex, departmentalized executive where the title signifies ultimate policy accountability rather than original secretarial duties like ciphering state papers.[4][9]Spread to Colonies and Influenced Nations
The administrative role of secretary, evolving from the British model of principal secretaries of state, was adapted in colonial governments as the "colonial secretary," who served as the chief civil administrator under the governor, managing correspondence, records, and internal policy implementation across British territories. This position emerged in the late 18th century in settler colonies; for instance, in New South Wales (Australia), the office of Colonial Secretary was established in 1788 to handle routine governance amid the First Fleet's arrival, reporting directly to the governor and, ultimately, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies in London.[27] Similar roles proliferated in other colonies, such as the Cape Colony (South Africa) by 1828 and various Caribbean islands, where colonial secretaries coordinated local executive functions while deferring to imperial oversight from the War and Colonies department until its 1854 separation.[28] In the Thirteen American Colonies, pre-independence structures included provincial secretaries who maintained official records and advised governors, mirroring aspects of the English secretarial tradition but subordinate to crown-appointed executives; these roles influenced post-1776 republican adaptations. Upon independence, the United States Congress created the Department of State via the Act of September 15, 1789, appointing Thomas Jefferson as the first Secretary of State in March 1790 to oversee foreign correspondence, treaties, and select domestic duties like commissioning military officers—directly echoing the multifaceted responsibilities of British secretaries of state for foreign or southern departments.[29][3] This adoption retained the title's prestige for high-level state management, diverging from purely ministerial labels in later Continental models. Former colonies achieving dominion status or full independence often incorporated secretary positions into Westminster-style cabinets. In Canada, Confederation in 1867 established the Department of the Secretary of State as an original portfolio under the Department of Justice initially, tasked with official documents, copyrights, and parliamentary administration; by 1912, the Secretary of State for External Affairs assumed foreign policy duties, sustaining the British-derived nomenclature until redesignated Minister in 1993.[30] Analogous junior or specialized secretaries appeared in other dominions, such as Newfoundland's pre-1949 colonial secretary handling internal affairs, though Australia and New Zealand favored "minister" titles for equivalent roles post-1901 federation, prioritizing parliamentary conventions over the exact "secretary of state" phrasing.[28] This diffusion prioritized functional continuity in executive delegation, adapting to local autonomy while preserving causal links to imperial bureaucracy.Usage in Europe
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the title "Secretary of State" is held by senior ministers who serve as the political heads of most government departments, comprising the majority of Cabinet members. These individuals are appointed by the Prime Minister, with formal approval from the monarch, and bear ultimate responsibility for their department's policies, operations, and accountability to Parliament. Unlike the singular U.S. Secretary of State focused on foreign affairs, the UK employs the title across multiple portfolios, such as the Secretary of State for Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Affairs, the Secretary of State for the Home Department (commonly the Home Secretary), and the Secretary of State for Defence. Departments like HM Treasury are exceptions, headed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer instead.[4][6] The role entails directing departmental strategy, overseeing civil servants, and defending departmental actions in parliamentary debates, with Secretaries of State chairing their department's board and making key executive decisions. Legally, all principal Secretaries of State possess equivalent status under the Crown, with many statutory powers granted generically to "a Secretary of State" rather than a specific individual, enabling interchangeability in exercising authority derived from Acts of Parliament or the royal prerogative. This framework, codified in legislation such as the Ministers of the Crown Act 1975, supports governmental flexibility while maintaining ministerial accountability. Secretaries of State must adhere to collective Cabinet responsibility, resigning if they publicly dissent from government policy.[5][31][32] Historically, the office originated in the medieval Kingdom of England as the monarch's private clerical secretary, evolving by the Tudor era into a more prominent position handling state correspondence; under Elizabeth I in 1558, two such secretaries were formalized for domestic and foreign matters. The title expanded in the 18th and 19th centuries alongside bureaucratic growth, with specialization into distinct roles—such as the separation of Northern and Southern Secretaries in 1782, precursors to modern Home and Foreign offices—and proliferation to cover emerging domains like war and colonies. Among contemporary holders, the Foreign and Home Secretaries retain ceremonial precedence as two of the four Great Offices of State, alongside the Prime Minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer, reflecting their enduring influence on core national security and fiscal matters.[33][34]Belgium
In Belgium, the Secretary of State (French: Secrétaire d'État; Dutch: Staatssecretaris) holds a junior ministerial position within the federal government, acting as a deputy to a full minister and managing delineated policy responsibilities, such as specific aspects of science policy, budget, or social integration. These officials are appointed from the governing coalition parties and contribute to the executive branch alongside the Prime Minister and up to 15 ministers, without being bound by the constitutional linguistic parity requirement that mandates balanced French- and Dutch-speaking representation among full ministers. Unlike ministers, secretaries of state do not hold voting membership in the Council of Ministers but attend sessions limited to discussions of their competence areas, where they assist in deliberations and policy formulation.[35] Within their assigned attributions, they exercise powers akin to those of ministers, including the ability to countersign royal decrees and oversee administrative implementation, though they remain subordinate to their supervising minister and lack independent departmental authority.[36] The role emerged in practice during federal governments in the late 1960s, such as under Prime Minister Gaston Eyskens, but was formally enshrined in the Belgian Constitution via the 1970 state reform, which expanded executive structures to accommodate coalition dynamics in the linguistically divided political landscape. This institutionalization reflected efforts to distribute portfolios amid frequent government formations, allowing for more granular policy handling without diluting ministerial parity. Secretaries of state have since featured variably in federal cabinets; for instance, the 2020 Wilmès II government included one for Asylum and Migration, while the 2024-2025 De Wever government incorporated positions for areas like modernization and privacy.[37] Their inclusion enables the government to address niche issues, such as coordinating EU recovery funds or digitalization, under a senior minister's oversight.[38] Analogous positions exist in Belgium's regional and community governments, where secretaries of state or deputy ministers handle devolved competencies like environment or mobility, mirroring federal subordination to executive councils but adapted to subnational scales. For example, the Brussels-Capital Region employs state secretaries for urban policy subsets, ensuring alignment with federal precedents while respecting regional autonomy under the 1993 federal constitution. This tiered structure underscores Belgium's consociational democracy, prioritizing coalition stability over hierarchical uniformity, though critics from opposition parties have occasionally argued it fragments accountability by layering executive roles.[36][39]Estonia
In Estonia, the secretary of state, or Riigisekretär, heads the Government Office (Riigikantselei), which coordinates the executive functions of the government.[40] The position oversees the organization of the Government's work, including policy coordination, implementation support for the Prime Minister and ministers, and administrative management of government activities.[41] Unlike political cabinet roles, the secretary of state is a senior civil servant intended to provide continuity across administrations, though appointments have occasionally drawn criticism for potential politicization, as noted in discussions around recent selections.[42] The Government Office, under the secretary of state, operates from Stenbock House in Tallinn and assists in drafting legislation, strategic planning, and inter-ministerial coordination to ensure efficient execution of domestic and foreign policies.[40] The role emphasizes apolitical expertise, with the incumbent advising on governance reforms and crisis management, such as cybersecurity and public administration modernization, drawing on Estonia's emphasis on digital governance.[43] Keit Kasemets has held the position since February 1, 2025, succeeding Taimar Peterkop, who served from December 10, 2018, to January 2025.[41] [44] Prior to his appointment, Kasemets was Secretary General of the Ministry of Justice, bringing experience from international organizations like the OECD.[41] The position was established in the post-independence era to professionalize government operations, reflecting Estonia's transition to a parliamentary republic in 1991, where the Prime Minister leads the executive but relies on such bureaucratic leadership for stability.[45]Finland
In Finland, State Secretaries (valtiosihteeri in Finnish, statssekreterare in Swedish) are political appointees who assist individual government ministers in policy preparation, implementation, and representation. These roles emerged in the late 20th century to provide dedicated support amid increasing governmental complexity, with the first appointments occurring in the 1990s; for instance, a State Secretary has been assigned to the Prime Minister's Office since 1990 to direct preparatory work, monitor policy execution, and act as the minister's primary aide.[46][47] State Secretaries serve at the minister's discretion for the government's term, typically numbering 4–8 per cabinet depending on political needs and coalition agreements; the Orpo Cabinet, formed on June 20, 2023, appointed six, including positions aiding the Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, and Minister of Social Security. Appointees often possess specialized expertise aligned with the portfolio, such as legal, economic, or sectoral knowledge, and they participate in cross-ministerial coordination without bearing full constitutional accountability like ministers.[48] Distinct from political State Secretaries are Permanent State Secretaries (pysyvä valtiosihteeri), senior non-political civil servants in select ministries responsible for administrative leadership, organizational development, and operational continuity. In the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, the Permanent State Secretary oversees foreign policy administration and strategic planning; Jukka Salovaara has held this role since November 25, 2021, succeeding Matti Anttonen. These positions emphasize bureaucratic expertise over political alignment, with appointments via merit-based selection for fixed terms renewable up to retirement age.[49][50]France
In France, the secrétaire d'État (secretary of state) denotes a junior member of the national government, positioned at the lowest rank in the executive hierarchy below ministres d'État, full ministres, and ministres délégués. These officials assist a senior minister or the Prime Minister in a specialized domain, such as digital affairs, equality, or overseas territories, but exercise limited independent authority and typically operate under direct supervision. Unlike ministres délégués, who share core responsibilities with a full minister while retaining some autonomy, secrétaires d'État possess fewer decision-making powers, smaller administrative teams, and do not routinely attend the full Council of Ministers unless their portfolio is addressed; they receive a lower salary, approximately €10,000 monthly net compared to €11,000–€12,000 for higher ranks.[51][52][53] The modern secrétaire d'État role emerged in the Fifth Republic (established 1958), serving as a mechanism to incorporate additional expertise or political allies into the government without granting full ministerial status; it allows for flexible portfolio allocation amid frequent cabinet reshuffles, with incumbents often holding office for 1–2 years. Appointments are made by decree of the President on the Prime Minister's proposal, per Article 8 of the Constitution, and the position has been used variably—sometimes absent in slimmed-down governments, as in the December 2024 Bayrou cabinet, but present in others to cover niche areas like youth or European affairs.[54][55] Historically, the title originated in the 16th century during the Ancien Régime, when King Henry II formalized it around 1547 by elevating four royal secretaries to secrétaires d'État, granting them departmental oversight in areas like foreign relations, warfare, the navy, and household affairs; by 1561, they gained full seats on the royal council, evolving into de facto ministers with lettres de provision conferring hereditary-like tenure until revocation. Typically numbering four to six, these officials managed vast bureaucracies and policy execution, with specialized roles such as the Secrétaire d'État aux Affaires étrangères handling diplomacy since 1589. The system persisted until the French Revolution abolished noble privileges in 1791, after which the term lapsed for senior roles, supplanted by Napoleonic ministerial structures.[56][57][58]Germany
In the Federal Republic of Germany, the position of State Secretary (Staatssekretär) functions as a high-level deputy to federal ministers, bridging administrative execution and political oversight within the federal ministries.[59] These officials are distinct from cabinet ministers (Bundesminister), who hold ultimate political responsibility, and they operate under the Basic Law (Grundgesetz), which outlines the executive structure without explicitly defining the role, leaving details to federal statutes and administrative practice.[60] State Secretaries are categorized into two primary types: permanent State Secretaries, who are career civil servants (Beamtete Staatssekretäre), and parliamentary State Secretaries (Parlamentarische Staatssekretäre), who are elected members of the Bundestag. Permanent State Secretaries, as the highest-ranking civil servants in their ministries, coordinate the work of directorates-general, ensure policy implementation aligns with ministerial directives, and represent the ministry in administrative and international technical forums.[59] [61] They are appointed by the Federal Chancellor upon the recommendation of the respective minister and serve indefinitely until retirement or dismissal, emphasizing continuity in bureaucratic operations across government changes. Parliamentary State Secretaries, by contrast, hold a hybrid political-administrative role, assisting ministers in portfolio-specific duties while maintaining Bundestag membership to facilitate legislative-executive coordination.[62] They are appointed by the Federal President on the Chancellor's proposal, typically numbering one or two per ministry depending on its scope, and their tenure ends with the parliamentary term or cabinet reshuffle.[62] [63] Key duties include representing the minister in Bundestag committees, Bundesrat sessions, and parliamentary groups; handling interministerial liaison; and addressing urgent political matters, such as responding to inquiries under Article 43 of the Basic Law.[60] [62] Both types of State Secretaries derive their authority from ministerial business allocation orders (Geschäftsverteilungspläne), which delineate specific spheres of responsibility, such as defense procurement for a State Secretary in the Ministry of Defence or fiscal coordination in the Finance Ministry.[61] This structure supports the Chancellor's principle of policy guidelines (Richtlinienkompetenz under Article 65), ensuring ministerial actions align with federal priorities while insulating career officials from partisan shifts.[60] In practice, as of 2025, most ministries maintain at least one permanent State Secretary for operational stability, with parliamentary appointees varying by coalition dynamics— for instance, the current Scholz government (2021–present) features multiple such roles to balance coalition partners' influences.Greece
In the early years of the modern Greek state, following independence from the Ottoman Empire, the title Γραμματεύς της Επικρατείας (Secretary of State) was used intermittently as a senior executive position responsible for coordinating government affairs or specific portfolios. Under Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias, who led from 1827 until his assassination in 1831, Spyridon Trikoupis served in this role from January 23, 1828, to February 5, 1829, focusing on administrative and diplomatic coordination during the provisional government's consolidation efforts. Nikolaos Spiliadis succeeded him until October 1831, aiding in legislative and state-building tasks amid ongoing instability.[64] During King Otto's reign, beginning in 1832, the title persisted in modified forms. Ignaz von Rudhart, a Bavarian appointee, was named Chief Secretary of State in 1837, effectively functioning as head of government with oversight of multiple ministries; his brief tenure ended violently on May 11, 1838, when he was assassinated in Athens amid widespread opposition to foreign influence in Greek affairs.[65] In the 1835 cabinet under Bavarian Regent Joseph Ludwig von Armansperg, specialized secretaries emerged, such as Georgios Lassanis for finances and Antonios Kriezis for naval matters, reflecting ad hoc adaptations to administrative needs.[66] The position's usage declined after the 1843 revolution and the promulgation of Greece's first constitution in 1844, which formalized a cabinet system with politically appointed ministers replacing such interim titles. By the mid-19th century, executive roles shifted to standard ministerial structures influenced by European models, rendering the Secretary of State obsolete. In contemporary Greece, equivalent functions fall to General Secretaries (Γενικοί Γραμματείς) within ministries—high-ranking officials appointed by the government to manage operations, policy implementation, and parliamentary liaison, often blending civil service expertise with political alignment but lacking the broad state-secretarial authority of earlier eras.[67] For instance, the Secretary-General for Legal and Parliamentary Affairs coordinates legislative processes and serves as secretary to cabinet bodies.[67] This structure emphasizes bureaucratic continuity over the personalized, transitional roles of the 19th century.Holy See
The Cardinal Secretary of State of the Holy See serves as the Pope's principal deputy in the governance of the Catholic Church, coordinating the Roman Curia and overseeing the Secretariat of State, which manages both internal administrative functions and external diplomatic relations.[68] This position, equivalent to a prime minister in secular states, handles the preparation of papal documents, supervises relations with civil governments, and represents the Holy See in international forums.[69] The Secretariat comprises two main sections: the Section for General Affairs, which addresses internal Church coordination and protocol, and the Section for Relations with States, focused on diplomacy and nunciatures worldwide.[70] The office originated in the 15th century as the Secretariat for Latin Letters, formalized by Pope Innocent VIII's apostolic constitution Non debet reprehensibile on December 31, 1492, which centralized papal correspondence amid growing bureaucratic needs following the return of the papacy to Rome.[68] It evolved through Renaissance expansions, handling state papers under popes like Julius II and Leo X, and was restructured under Pope Paul VI in 1967 via Regimini Ecclesiae Universae, distinguishing diplomatic from internal roles while affirming the Secretary's primacy after the Pope. By the 19th century, amid the loss of the Papal States in 1870, the role shifted emphasis to spiritual and diplomatic authority, culminating in modern oversight of Vatican finances and global outreach under figures like Cardinal Eugenio Pacelli (later Pius XII), who negotiated the 1933 Reichskonkordat with Nazi Germany.[69] Currently, Cardinal Pietro Parolin holds the position, appointed by Pope Francis on October 15, 2013, succeeding Cardinal Tarcisio Bertone; Parolin, an Italian diplomat born January 17, 1955, previously served as under-secretary for Relations with States from 2002 to 2009.[71] Under his tenure, the Secretariat has navigated challenges including the 2018–2020 Vatican financial scandals involving London property investments, leading to internal audits and reforms, and diplomatic initiatives like the 2018 China-Vatican agreement on bishop appointments, which extended a provisional deal from September 22, 2018, despite criticisms of compromising underground Church autonomy.[68] The Secretary reports directly to the Pope, with no fixed term, ensuring alignment with papal priorities in a structure emphasizing monarchical unity over collegial diffusion.[70]Luxembourg
In Luxembourg, the position of secrétaire d'État (Secretary of State) functions as a junior ministerial role within the executive branch, subordinate to a full minister or the Prime Minister and typically overseeing specific policy areas or sub-departments within a larger ministry.[72] These officials are appointed by the Grand Duke upon nomination by the Prime Minister and hold authority to direct administrative services, sign official acts within their assigned competencies, and represent the government in parliamentary or international contexts related to their portfolio.[73] Unlike full ministers, secretaries of state lack independent departmental leadership but contribute to the Council of Government, where collective decisions on policy and legislation are formulated.[74] The role emerged as part of Luxembourg's parliamentary constitutional monarchy, enabling coalition governments to allocate junior positions for broader representation without expanding the cabinet excessively; for instance, in 1967, Madeleine Frieden-Kinnen became the first woman appointed as Secretary of State for Social Security, marking a milestone in gender inclusion in the executive. Historical examples include Octavie Modert serving as Secretary of State for Agriculture, Viticulture, and Rural Development in the early 2000s, handling specialized rural policy implementation under the agriculture minister.[75] More recently, on March 28, 2014, Marc Hansen was sworn in as Secretary of State for National Education, Children, and Youth, as well as Higher Education and Research, assisting in educational reforms and youth policy execution. As of the Frieden government formed in November 2023 following legislative elections, secretaries of state continue to be utilized selectively in coalition arrangements, often for niche portfolios like digitalization or sustainable development, reflecting Luxembourg's emphasis on efficient, multi-party governance while maintaining a streamlined executive hierarchy of approximately 15-20 members total.[76] This structure aligns with Article 51 of the Constitution, which vests executive power in the government collectively, with junior roles ensuring specialized oversight without diluting ministerial accountability. The position's flexibility has allowed Luxembourg to adapt to EU integration demands, such as delegating state secretaries to Council of the EU working groups on technical matters.Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the State Secretary (Staatssecretaris) is a junior ministerial position within the cabinet, assisting a senior minister in managing a specific government department while holding individual political responsibility for a designated policy area.[77] Unlike full ministers, state secretaries operate under the supervision of their assigned minister, with responsibilities delineated by mutual agreement, though the minister retains oversight of the department's overall policy direction.[78] State secretaries are full members of the government, attending parliamentary sessions and bearing accountability to both the House of Representatives and the Senate for their portfolio, but they lack voting rights in the Council of Ministers unless specifically invited.[79] [77] Appointed during cabinet formation following general elections, state secretaries are typically drawn from the ranks of supporting coalition parties and must command parliamentary confidence, similar to ministers; their tenure ends if the cabinet falls or upon resignation.[80] They handle operational and specialized tasks, such as procurement, personnel, or niche policy implementation—for instance, the State Secretary for Defence oversees materiel, security, and business operations within the Ministry of Defence.[81] This structure allows for division of labor in larger ministries, with state secretaries often substituting for absent ministers in cabinet meetings or public duties.[79] The position emerged in the post-World War II era to accommodate coalition governments' need for broader representation without expanding full ministerial roles, and the number of state secretaries varies by cabinet, typically ranging from 5 to 9 as of recent formations.[78] In practice, they contribute to policy execution while deferring strategic decisions to ministers, ensuring ministerial accountability for departmental coherence despite individual state secretary initiatives.[77] This junior status distinguishes the Dutch system from more hierarchical models elsewhere, emphasizing shared governance within parliamentary constraints.Norway
In Norway, the State Secretary (statssekretær) is a politically appointed official who ranks immediately below the Minister (statsråd) in each government ministry, serving as the minister's primary deputy and political advisor. This position supports the minister in policy formulation, departmental oversight, legislative drafting, and coordination with civil servants, functioning as part of the ministry's political leadership team to implement the government's agenda.[82] Unlike non-partisan civil servants such as the permanent under-secretary (ekspedisjonssjef), State Secretaries are explicitly political roles tied to the ruling coalition, resigning or being replaced upon government changes.[83] Appointments occur through a formal process in the Council of State (statsråd), where the King acts on the Prime Minister's recommendation, allowing the executive to assemble a trusted advisory cadre without parliamentary approval.[83] State Secretaries possess significant delegated authority, including signing official documents, representing the ministry in meetings, and leading working groups, though ultimate responsibility remains with the minister.[84] The role demands expertise in the ministry's domain, often drawn from party ranks, former MPs, or policy specialists, and holders receive a salary comparable to senior civil servants but with political influence exceeding their formal rank.[85] The number of State Secretaries has expanded over time to match governmental complexity, with most ministries assigning one or two—typically totaling 20 to 30 across the cabinet—allowing specialization in areas like international affairs or domestic policy.[86] For example, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs may appoint State Secretaries focused on specific portfolios such as legal affairs or development aid.[85] This structure enhances ministerial capacity but has drawn scrutiny for concentrating unelected power, as State Secretaries wield influence over billions in public spending without direct electoral accountability.[84] The position's evolution reflects Norway's parliamentary system, where coalition dynamics often necessitate broader political staffing to maintain governance stability.[87]Poland
In Poland, the position of Sekretarz Stanu (Secretary of State) designates a senior deputy minister within the Council of Ministers, appointed by the Prime Minister upon the recommendation of the relevant minister. These officials exercise delegated authority from the minister, including substituting for them in specified policy areas, legislative matters, and administrative oversight, while holding a rank comparable to a full minister without independent portfolio. The role emerged in the post-1989 democratic transition as part of the executive structure defined under the Constitution of Poland and the Act on the Council of Ministers, emphasizing political accountability and specialized departmental leadership rather than a centralized foreign affairs chief like in some other nations. Appointments are typically tied to coalition dynamics and policy priorities, with secretaries often drawn from parliamentary ranks to ensure alignment with the government's agenda. The title is applied across various ministries, not exclusively to diplomacy, though it is prominently featured in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MSZ), where Secretaries of State serve as first deputy ministers responsible for executing foreign policy, bilateral relations, and international engagements. For instance, they coordinate political consultations, represent Poland in multilateral forums, and manage crisis responses under the minister's direction. As of October 2025, the MSZ Secretaries of State include Władysław Teofil Bartoszewski, who oversees European Union affairs and transatlantic partnerships, and Marcin Bosacki, focused on Eastern policy and security dialogues.[88] Similar positions exist in other portfolios, such as the Ministry of Climate and Environment or Ministry of Development Funds, where secretaries handle sector-specific reforms and EU fund allocation, numbering 1–3 per ministry depending on governmental needs.[89] Distinguished from lower-ranking wiceministrowie (deputy ministers) or podsekretarze stanu (undersecretaries of state), who focus on technical implementation, Secretaries of State wield broader political influence and public-facing roles, often participating in cabinet-level decisions. Their tenure aligns with the government's term, subject to reshuffles; for example, recent adjustments under Prime Minister Donald Tusk in 2023–2025 emphasized continuity in foreign and regional policy amid geopolitical tensions. This structure promotes ministerial specialization while maintaining prime ministerial control, with approximately 20–30 such positions government-wide at any time.[90][91][92]Portugal
In Portugal, Secretaries of State (Secretários de Estado) are political appointees who serve as junior ministers within the executive branch, assisting Ministers in overseeing specialized policy areas or sub-portfolios. They form an integral part of the Government structure, as defined in the Organic Law governing each constitutional administration, where the executive comprises the Prime Minister, Ministers, and Secretaries of State.[93] These officials exercise delegated authority in domains such as foreign affairs, European integration, communities abroad, or sectoral matters like infrastructure and digitalization, while remaining subordinate to their respective Minister and accountable to the Assembly of the Republic for government actions.[94] Appointment occurs via decree of the President of the Republic, on the proposal of the Prime Minister, who countersigns the act; this process aligns with Article 133 of the Portuguese Constitution, ensuring alignment with the parliamentary majority supporting the Government.[94] Secretaries of State participate in Council of Ministers meetings but lack independent departmental leadership, focusing instead on implementation and coordination under ministerial direction.[95] Their tenure ends with the Government's resignation or dismissal, typically tied to electoral cycles; for instance, the XXV Constitutional Government, formed after the March 10, 2024, elections, includes over 30 such positions across ministries.[96] The role emphasizes operational efficiency in a semi-presidential system, with Secretaries of State handling granular responsibilities—such as the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and Cooperation managing bilateral relations or the Secretary of State for European Affairs addressing EU policy—to alleviate ministerial workloads without diluting cabinet-level decision-making.[96] Historically, their proliferation reflects adaptations in Organic Laws to address complex governance needs, with numbers varying by administration; the XXIII Government (2022–2024) featured around 40, underscoring a trend toward specialization amid Portugal's EU membership and economic challenges.[97] This structure promotes accountability, as Secretaries must defend policies in parliamentary committees, though critics note potential for bureaucratic overlap in multi-layered hierarchies.Russia
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation serves as the primary executive body responsible for formulating and executing the country's foreign policy, with the Minister of Foreign Affairs acting as its head and the chief diplomat equivalent to a secretary of state in other systems.[98] The Minister is nominated by the President and confirmed by the State Duma, holding the rank of Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, and operates as one of the key presidential appointees overseeing strategic domains like defense and interior affairs.[99] Sergey Viktorovich Lavrov has held the position since March 9, 2004, making him the longest-serving foreign minister in modern Russian history.[100] The Minister's role involves conducting international negotiations, representing Russia in multilateral forums such as the United Nations, and coordinating diplomatic missions worldwide, all under the ultimate authority of the President, who defines core foreign policy objectives.[101] The ministry maintains over 140 embassies and consulates, focusing on bilateral relations, economic diplomacy, and security cooperation, with recent emphases on partnerships in Eurasia and the Global South amid tensions with Western states.[102] In practice, the position has emphasized realist approaches to power balancing, as articulated in official doctrines prioritizing national sovereignty and multipolarity.[103] Historically, during the brief post-Soviet transition in summer 1991, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR) established a non-constitutional position of Secretary of State to the State Council, intended for high-level coordination but quickly superseded by the evolving federal structure.[104] Since the adoption of the 1993 Constitution, foreign policy leadership has centralized under the presidency, with the Minister executing directives rather than independently shaping strategy, distinguishing it from more autonomous cabinet roles in parliamentary systems.[101]San Marino
In San Marino, executive authority is exercised collectively by the Congress of State, a cabinet composed of ten Secretaries of State, each overseeing one or more departments of public administration analogous to ministries in other republics.[105][106] These officials are nominated by the parliamentary majority and elected by the unicameral Grand and General Council (Consiglio Grande e Generale), which consists of 60 members serving five-year terms.[106] The Congress makes decisions by majority vote, which are then promulgated by the two Captains Regent, the ceremonial heads of state elected semiannually from the Council.[107] The Secretaries of State handle specialized portfolios, including foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, justice, education, health, territory, industry, labor, and tourism.[108][109][110] For instance, the Secretary of State for Foreign and Political Affairs manages international relations, economic cooperation, and digital policy, often functioning as the de facto leader of the government.[107] This role has been held by Luca Beccari since the 31st legislature began following the November 2021 elections.[109] Key responsibilities of the Congress include implementing legislation, managing the budget—San Marino's 2024 state budget totaled approximately €900 million—and overseeing public services in the republic's nine municipalities (castelli).[110] The system's design emphasizes collective accountability, with no single prime minister; instead, the Secretary for Foreign Affairs, alongside those for Internal Affairs and Finance, forms a core executive trio proposed directly by the Council.[107] This structure, rooted in statutes dating to 1974 reforms, balances power between the elected Congress and the rotating Captains Regent to prevent autocracy.[106]Spain
In Spain, Secretarios de Estado (Secretaries of State) are senior officials in the General State Administration, positioned immediately below ministers within each ministerial department. They are directly responsible for executing government policy in designated administrative sectors, such as foreign affairs, justice, or territorial policy.[111] Each ministry may include one or more Secretaries of State, depending on its organizational structure as defined by royal decree.[112] Under Article 62 of Ley 40/2015, de 1 de octubre, de Régimen Jurídico del Sector Público, Secretaries of State exercise competencies assigned by the norms creating their office, including directing and coordinating subordinate bodies like General Directorates. They report to their respective minister for achieving departmental objectives and may represent the ministry in inter-ministerial coordination or external bodies when delegated.[111] [113] This role emphasizes operational implementation over policy formulation, which remains primarily with ministers, though Secretaries contribute to policy development in practice.[114] Appointments occur via royal decree, proposed by the relevant minister and approved by the Council of Ministers, following the Prime Minister's overall government formation. The appointee swears an oath before the King. Secretaries of State serve at the government's pleasure and can be dismissed similarly, with terms aligning to the legislative period; as of the XV Legislature (initiated November 2023), examples include the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, appointed December 19, 2023.[115] [116] Their status as high-ranking civil servants subjects them to the Ley 3/2015, de 30 de marzo, reguladora del ejercicio del alto cargo de la Administración General del Estado, requiring disclosure of assets and incompatibility rules to prevent conflicts of interest.[117]Sweden
In Sweden, the equivalent position to a secretary of state is the statssekreterare (State Secretary), a politically appointed senior official who serves as the immediate subordinate to a cabinet minister (statsråd) and leads the operational work of a ministry.[118][119] State Secretaries are responsible for coordinating policy implementation, managing ministry staff, and advising ministers on specific areas, but they lack independent decision-making authority and are not members of the cabinet, which comprises the Prime Minister and approximately 20-25 ministers.[120][119] Appointments occur upon the formation of a new government or ministerial changes, with State Secretaries selected for their political alignment and expertise; as of July 2025, examples include multiple appointees under ministers in areas like education and integration.[118] The number of State Secretaries has increased over time, from around 22 in the early 1980s to over 30 in recent cabinets, reflecting expanded governmental complexity without altering their subordinate status.[121] In the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, a specialized role exists as the State Secretary for Foreign Affairs (kabinettssekreterare), who holds precedence over other State Secretaries in that ministry and handles high-level diplomatic coordination, though still under the Foreign Minister. Unlike permanent civil servants, State Secretaries vacate their positions with government turnover, ensuring alignment with the ruling coalition's priorities while maintaining continuity through non-political senior officials below them.[120] This structure supports Sweden's parliamentary system, where executive power resides with the cabinet accountable to the Riksdag.[119]Switzerland
In the Swiss federal government, the equivalent role to a secretary of state in foreign affairs is the State Secretary of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (FDFA), known in German as Staatssekretär des Eidgenössischen Departements für auswärtige Angelegenheiten (EDA). This position serves as the senior civil servant deputy to the Federal Councillor who heads the FDFA, one of seven departments under the collective Federal Council executive.[122] The State Secretary oversees the department's administrative operations, policy implementation, and coordination of Switzerland's international relations, including diplomacy, trade agreements, and multilateral engagements, while the Federal Councillor focuses on political direction and representation.[122] Appointed by the Federal Council for a fixed term—typically six years, renewable—the State Secretary is selected from career diplomats or high-level officials based on expertise in foreign policy. As of September 1, 2023, Alexandre Fasel holds the position, having previously served as Special Representative for Foreign Policy and roles in Swiss missions abroad.[123] Unlike elected or politically appointed ministers in parliamentary systems, the role emphasizes bureaucratic continuity and neutrality, reflecting Switzerland's consensus-driven governance model where civil servants execute policies approved by the Federal Council.[122] The State Secretariat within the FDFA manages directorates for political affairs, economic cooperation, consular services, and international organizations, handling tasks such as negotiating bilateral treaties (e.g., with the EU) and supporting Switzerland's role as a neutral mediator in global conflicts.[122] This structure ensures operational efficiency in a confederation prioritizing direct democracy and federalism, with the State Secretary reporting directly to the department head and advising on strategic priorities like economic diplomacy and humanitarian aid. Switzerland's other federal departments, such as Economic Affairs (SECO) and Migration (SEM), also feature analogous state secretariats, but the FDFA's holds particular prominence due to its centrality in upholding the country's long-standing neutrality policy established since 1815.[124]Usage in the Americas
Argentina
In Argentina, "secretario de Estado" refers to senior executive officials subordinate to cabinet ministers but granted equivalent ministerial rank under the Organic Law of Ministries, enabling them to oversee specialized policy areas within their respective ministries.[125] These positions emerged from Spanish colonial administrative practices adapted post-independence, where they handle operational responsibilities such as policy execution, coordination, and representation in specific domains.[125] Historically, full cabinet members bore the title "ministros secretarios de Estado," as codified in mid-20th-century legislation reflecting earlier republican conventions; for instance, Law 13,529 of 1949 formalized their advisory role to the president on national matters.[126] This nomenclature underscores a hierarchical structure where secretarios de Estado act as deputies, with authority to issue decrees and represent the government, though ultimate decision-making resides with ministers. By the late 20th century, the term solidified for sub-cabinet roles across ministries, including finance, interior, and foreign affairs, totaling dozens of such positions in the federal executive as of recent reorganizations.[127] Within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade, and Worship—formally established in its modern form by Decree 50/2019—the "Secretario de Estado de Relaciones Exteriores" has denoted the vice-chancellor, tasked with bilateral diplomacy, multilateral coordination, and crisis response under the minister's oversight.[128] Notable holders include Juan Archibaldo Lanús in the mid-20th century, who managed key negotiations, and others like Andrés Cisneros in the 1980s, emphasizing the role's focus on substantive foreign policy rather than titular headship.[129] [130] Recent structures retain secretarías (secretariats) for areas like economic relations and consular affairs, headed by secretarios with state-secretary status, but the top foreign official remains the "ministro de Relaciones Exteriores," distinguishing Argentina's usage from Anglophone systems where "secretary of state" often signifies the primary foreign minister.[131]Brazil
In Brazil, the title secretário de estado (secretary of state) refers to high-ranking officials in subnational state governments who head executive secretariats responsible for specific policy domains, such as education, health, justice, and infrastructure. These positions form the state-level cabinet, assisting the governor in executing state laws and managing administrative functions. Secretaries of state are appointed and dismissed by the governor, serving at their discretion without fixed terms, and they coordinate policy implementation within their jurisdictions while reporting directly to the governor.[132] This usage contrasts with the federal government, where top executive roles are designated as ministros de estado (ministers of state), heading ministries under the president. At the federal level, subordinate roles within ministries may include secretaries, but the "secretário de estado" title is not applied to cabinet-level positions. State secretaries operate under state constitutions and laws, which typically enumerate their duties, such as proposing budgets for their areas, supervising agencies, and representing the state in intergovernmental forums. For instance, in states like Espírito Santo, the governor exercises administration "aided by the secretaries of state," emphasizing their advisory and operational roles.[132] (Article 76 on federal ministers) The adoption of "secretaria de estado" for state departments became common across Brazilian federated states in official documentation, reflecting a hierarchical structure akin to ministerial systems but scaled to subnational governance. Secretaries often hold political appointments, blending technical expertise with alignment to the governor's agenda, and may oversee budgets exceeding billions of reais annually in larger states. Their tenure correlates with gubernatorial terms, which last four years, though reappointments occur across administrations. This framework supports Brazil's federalism, devolving authority to 26 states and the Federal District, where secretaries address localized issues like public security amid varying regional challenges.[133]Canada
In the Government of Canada, the title "Secretary of State" historically denoted a senior Cabinet position created upon Confederation on July 1, 1867. The inaugural holder, Hector-Louis Langevin, oversaw domestic administrative duties, including the management of official seals, patents, copyrights, trademarks, and the registration of vital statistics, as well as serving as the custodian of records and the primary liaison with provincial authorities on internal matters.[134] This role also functioned as the official conduit for communications between the Dominion government and the British Crown, encompassing protocols for treaties and imperial correspondence until external affairs responsibilities were separated in 1909.[135] The position's scope expanded and contracted through subsequent reorganizations; for instance, related duties were briefly consolidated under the Secretary of State for the Provinces from 1867 to 1873 before being transferred to the Minister of the Interior.[136] By the mid-20th century, the department had absorbed functions like multiculturalism and citizenship, but a major restructuring in 1993 under Prime Minister Jean Chrétien dissolved the standalone Department of the Secretary of State, redistributing its portfolios to entities such as Canadian Heritage and the Treasury Board.[135] In contemporary usage, "Secretary of State" designates junior Ministers of State appointed outside Cabinet to deliver targeted leadership on niche priorities within a senior Cabinet minister's domain, without full departmental authority. These roles, which do not confer independent ministerial status, allow appointees to attend relevant Cabinet or committee meetings for input on specialized issues, supporting the Prime Minister's policy agenda through focused advocacy and coordination.[13] The title's application to such junior positions dates to periodic revivals, including under the Chrétien and Martin governments until 2003, a brief 2007–2008 iteration, and its reinstatement in 2025 amid Prime Minister Mark Carney's cabinet expansions to address emerging priorities like rural development and crime reduction.[137] As of September 2025, active Secretaries of State include:- Ruby Sahota (Combatting Crime)
- Buckley Belanger (Rural Development)
- Stephen Fuhr (Defence Procurement)
- Anna Gainey (Children and Youth)
- Wayne Long (Canada Revenue Agency and Financial Institutions)
- Stephanie McLean (Seniors)
- Nathalie Provost (Nature)
- Randeep Sarai (International Development)
- Adam van Koeverden (Sport)
- John Zerucelli (Labour)