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A centenarian is a person who has reached the age of 100. Because life expectancies at birth worldwide are well below 100, the term is invariably associated with longevity. The United Nations estimated that there were 316,600 living centenarians worldwide in 2012,[1] and 573,000 in 2020, almost quadruple the 2000 estimate of 151,000.[2]

A Polish woman on her 100th birthday

As world population and life expectancy continue to increase, the number of centenarians is expected to increase substantially in the 21st century.[3] According to the Office of National Statistics in the United Kingdom, one-third of babies born in the country in 2013 are expected to live to 100.[4]

According to a 1998 United Nations demographic survey, Japan is expected to have 272,000 centenarians by 2050;[5] other sources suggest that the number could be closer to 1 million.[6] The incidence of centenarians in Japan was one per 3,522 people in 2008.[7]

In Japan, the population of centenarians is highly skewed towards females. Japan in fiscal year 2016 had 57,525 female centenarians, while there were 8,167 males, a ratio of 7:1. The increase of centenarians was even more skewed, at 11.6:1.[8]

Worldwide incidence by country

[edit]

The total number of centenarians in the world is uncertain. The Population Division of the United Nations estimated that there were 23,000 in 1950, 110,000 in 1990, 150,000 in 1995, 209,000 in 2000, 324,000 in 2005,[9] 455,000 in 2009,[10] 675,000 in 2019 and 935,000 in 2024.[11]

These older estimates, however, did not take into account downward adjustments of national estimates made by several countries such as the United States. The UN estimated in 2012, as a result of these adjustments, that there were only 316,600 centenarians worldwide.[1] The following table gives estimated centenarian populations by country, including both the latest and the earliest known estimates, where available.

A study[12] which received a 2024 Ig Nobel Prize[13] found these numbers are inflated by welfare and pension fraud and poor record-keeping, neither of which are uniform across jurisdictions.[14]

Chances of surviving to age 100 in the UK in 2013
Country Latest estimate (year) Earlier estimates (year) Centenarians per
100,000 people
Andorra 7 (2002)[15] – 10.2
Argentina 8,119 (2024)[16] 234 (1869);[17] 863 (1947)[18] 17.3
Australia 6,588 (2024)[19] 50 (1901) 24.2
Austria 1,756 (2024)[20] 232 (1990),[21] 25 (1960)[21] 19.2
Barbados 114 (2016)[22][23] – 39.9
Belgium 2,928 (2024)[24] 23 (1950)[25] 24.9
Brazil 23,760 (2010)[25] 0-1 (1900) [census said 2,047 but this is seen as false][26] 12.5
Bulgaria 353 (2022)[27] 233 (2010) 5.5
Cambodia 3,143 (2019)[28] – 20.2
Canada 11,672 (2024)[29] – 28.3
China 54,166 (2013)[30] 4,469 (1990),[25] 17,800 (2007)[31] 4.0
Colombia 19,400 (2023)[32] – 36.9
Croatia 944 (2023)[33] 244 (2013)[34] 23.3
Czech Republic 911 (2023)[35] 404 (2006)[36] 8.4
Denmark 1,251 (2024)[37] 32 (1941)[38] 20.9
Dominica 23 (July 2021)[39] 31.9
Estonia 206 (2023)[citation needed] 42 (1990)[21] 15.1
Finland 1,153 (2023)[40] 11 (1960)[21] 20.6
France 31,269 (2024)[41] 100 (1900)[42] 47.1[43]
Germany 16,758 (2022)[44] 232 (1885)[45] 20.2
Hungary 906 (2023)[citation needed] 76 (1949), 227 (1990)[46] 9.4
Iceland 47 (2023)[citation needed][47] 3 (1960)[21] 12.1
India 27,000 (2015)[48] – 2.1
Ireland 956 (2023)[citation needed] 87 (1990)[21] 18.1
Israel 3,328 (2022)[49] – 34.8
Italy 21,211 (2024)[50] 99 (1872)[38] 36.0
Japan 99,763 (2025)[51] 81 (1884),[52] 105 (1930),[53] 97 (1950),[53] 155 (1960),[54] 54,397 (2013)[55] 80.6
Malaysia 2,296 (2024)[56] 6.7
Mexico 18,295 (2020)[57] 2,403 (1990) 14.5
Netherlands 2,555 (2024)[58] 18 (1830)[59] 14.4
New Zealand 1,078 (2024)[60] 18 (1960);[21] 297 (1991)[61] 20.9
Norway 1,309 (2022)[62] 44 (1951)[38] 24.1
Peru 2,707 (2013) 1,682 (2011)[63] 8.4
Poland 7,387 (2023)[64] 500 (1970)[65] 19.6
Portugal 2,937 (2023)[citation needed] – 27.9
Romania 2,790 (2025)[66] 2,087 (2024)[67] 14.6
Russia 22,600 (2020)[68] 6,700 (2007) 15.5
Singapore 1,500 (2020)[69] 41 (1990)[21] 26.38
Slovenia 386 (2024)[70] 2 (1953),[71] 224 (2013)[70] 18.2[70]
Slovakia 401 (2021)[72] 7.4
South Africa 22,525 (2023)[73] 15,581 (2011)[74] 36.7[73][75]
South Korea 8,737 (2024）[76] 961 17.1
Spain 19,573 (2022)[77] 4,269 (2002)[78] 41.1
Sweden 2,750 (2023)[79] 46 (1950) 26.1
Switzerland 1,948 (2023)[citation needed] 7 (1860)[38] 22.1
Thailand 45,561 (2024)[80] – 69.1
Turkey 6,247 (2023)[citation needed] – 7.3
United Kingdom 16,600 (2024)[81] 107 (1911)[38][82] 24
United States 98,034(2024)[83] 2,300 (1950),[84] 53,364 (2010)[85] 28.8
Uruguay 519 (2011)[86] – 15.8[87]
World estimates 934,776 (2024)[11] 23,000 (1950), 316,600 (2012)[1] 11.6

Supercentenarians

[edit]
Main article: Supercentenarian
Aarne Arvonen (1897–2009), a supercentenarian from Finland, was one of the oldest men ever, living for 111 years and 150 days.

A supercentenarian, sometimes hyphenated as super-centenarian, is a person who has reached the age of 110 years. This age milestone is only achieved by about one in a thousand centenarians.

Even rarer is a person who has lived to 115. There are 79 people in recorded history who have indisputably reached 115. Only three of the people who have reached 115 are men. Ethel Caterham, Marie-Rose Tessier, and Naomi Whitehead are the only people currently alive who have verifiably reached the 115 year milestone.[88][89][90][91]

Jeanne Calment from France is the only age-verified person in human history to have reached the age of 120 years.

Recognition and congratulations

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History, blessings and traditions

[edit]
pre-19th Century Centenarian Sarah Baird, of New Jersey, pictured in 1880 on her 100th birthday

An aspect of blessing in many cultures is to offer a wish that the recipient lives to 100 years old. Among Hindus in India, where touching feet of elders and respected is a tradition, people who touch the feet of elders are often blessed with "May you live a hundred years". In Sweden, the traditional birthday song states, May he/she live for one hundred years. In Judaism, May you live to be 120 years old is a common blessing. In Poland, Sto lat, a wish to live a hundred years, is a traditional form of praise and good wishes, and the song "sto lat, sto lat" is sung on the occasion of the birthday celebrations—arguably, it is the most popular song in Poland and among Poles around the globe.

According to legends, Sages from ancient India lived and meditated for tens of thousands of years while Great Kings ruled their kingdoms for thousands of years.

Chinese emperors were hailed to live ten thousand years, while empresses were hailed to live a thousand years.

In Italy, "A hundred of these days!" (cento di questi giorni) is an augury for birthdays, to live to celebrate 100 more birthdays.[92] Some Italians say "A cent'anni!", which means "To a hundred years", in that they wish that they could all live happily for a hundred years. In Greece, wishing someone Happy Birthday ends with the expression να τα εκατοστήσεις (na ta ekatostisis), which can be loosely translated as "may you make it one hundred birthdays". In Sri Lanka, it is a custom to bless as "you may live 220 instead of 120".

In many countries, people receive a gift or congratulations from federal/state institutions on their 100th birthday.

United States

[edit]
Greeting card sent by United States President Gerald Ford and First Lady Betty Ford

As of 2019, there were an estimated 72,000 centenarians living in the U.S.; the 2020 census officially counted 80,139, and the 2010 census had 53,364.[93] However, the U.S. Census Bureau claimed in 1999 that as many as a third of people stating their age as over 100 might be exaggerating.[93]

In the United States, centenarians may request a letter of congratulation from the president of the United States to mark their longevity.[94]

Jimmy Carter (1924–2024)

Jimmy Carter became the first president to reach the age of 100 on 1 October 2024.[95][96]

Today also presents a segment honoring centenarians and older, sponsored by Smuckers. The tradition was created in 1983 by weather presenter Willard Scott, and is now presented by his successor Al Roker.[97]

In the state of New Mexico, centenarians have been exempt from state income tax since tax year 2002, if they are not dependents of another taxpayer.[98]

Asia

[edit]

Japanese centenarians receive a silver cup and a certificate from the prime minister of Japan upon the Respect for the Aged Day following their 100th birthday, honouring them for their longevity and prosperity in their lives.[99][100][101]

In Madhya Pradesh, India, the award known as Shatayu Samman is given out to people who live at least 100 years to promote awareness of good health.[102]

North Korean centenarians receive a birthday congratulatory letter from the Supreme Leader of the DPRK. On 6 July 2022, Pak Hak Sil, a centenarian living in Koup-ri of Kangnam County, Pyongyang, received a birthday letter sent by Kim Jong Un.[103]

In the Philippines, Republic Act No. 10868 better known as the Centenarians Act of 2016 mandates that all living Filipinos residing in the Philippines or overseas receive a birthday congratulatory letter from the President of the Philippines and a ₱100,000 "Centenarian Gift" from the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD).[104]

In Taiwan, people aged 100 or above receive a golden pendant necklace on Chong Yang Festival each year from the president and Ministry of Health and Welfare.[105][106][107]

Mahathir Mohamad (born 1925)

Mahathir Mohamad became the first prime minister of Malaysia to reach the age of 100 on 10 July 2025.[108]

Europe

[edit]

German centenarians receive a letter of congratulations from the president of Germany.

In Ireland, centenarians can receive a €2,540 "Centenarians' Bounty" and a letter from the president of Ireland, even if they are resident abroad.[109] Irish people celebrating their 101st birthday may also receive a special silver minted coin with a quote by a famous Irish writer or poet.[110]

Centenarians born in Italy receive a letter of congratulations from the president of Italy.[citation needed]

In the Netherlands, the monarch and their commissioner sends a letter on the 100th birthday and on every birthday beginning with the 105th.[111]

Swedish centenarians receive a telegram from the king and queen of Sweden.[112]

British and Commonwealth realms

[edit]

In Commonwealth realms, including the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, centenarians can receive congratulatory cards from the monarch, currently King Charles III, on their 100th birthday. In the UK, greeting cards are also sent by the monarch on every birthday beginning with the 105th.[113][114][115]

In Commonwealth realms in which the monarch does not ordinarily reside, honorees can also receive congratulations from the governor-general. In Canada, application must be made through the GGS official website.[115] Similarly, in New Zealand, honorees must apply for greetings through the official government website.[114]

British traditions

[edit]
Queen Elizabeth II sent a greeting card to centenarians as a congratulations.

The traditions of British centenarians receiving greetings and congratulations was established by King Edward VII in 1908.

The famous acrobat and tightrope walker Henry Johnson received a congratulatory letter from Edward VII via his royal courtier Viscount Knollys in 1906.[116] The tradition of royal congratulations continued in 1908, when the secretary for King Edward VII sent a congratulatory letter to Reverend Thomas Lord of Horncastle, Lincolnshire, in a newspaper clipping, declaring, "I am commanded by the King to congratulate you on the attainment of your hundredth year, after a most useful life".[citation needed]

The practice was formalised from 1917, under the reign of King George V, who also sent congratulations then sent by a telegram on the attainment of a diamond wedding anniversary (or jubilee) marking 60 years of marriage.

During the reign of King George V, only 24 telegrams were sent; however, with the aging population, this increased to 273 during 1952, when the longest-reigning monarch Queen Elizabeth II ascended the throne.[113] The Queen also sent a telegram, and later a portrait-style greeting card with the notation, "I am so pleased to know that you are celebrating your one hundredth birthday. I send my congratulations and best wishes to you on such a special occasion." Each few years the card was updated with a current updated picture of the Queen to ensure people did not receive the same card more than once. The Queen further sent her congratulations on one's 105th birthday and every year thereafter as well as on special wedding anniversaries.[citation needed]

Centenarians in antiquity

[edit]

While the number of centenarians per capita was much lower in ancient times than today, the data suggest that they were not unheard of.[117][better source needed]

Estimates of life expectancy in antiquity are far lower than modern values largely due to the far greater incidence of deaths in infancy or childhood, though adult mortality was also considerably greater than today. The assumption of what constitutes "old age", or being "elderly", at least, seems to have remained unchanged since antiquity, the line being generally drawn at either sixty or sixty-five years;[118] Psalm 90:10 in the Hebrew Bible appears to give seventy to eighty years as the natural life expectancy of a person surviving into old age, "The years of our life are seventy, or even by reason of strength eighty".

A survey of the lifespans of male individuals with entries in the Oxford Classical Dictionary (i.e., a sample pre-selected to include those who lived long enough to attain historical notability) found a median lifespan of 72 years, and a range of 32 to 107 years, for 128 individuals born before 100 BC (though the same study found a median lifespan of 66 years for 100 individuals born after 100 BC but no later than 602 AD); by comparison, male individuals listed in Chambers Biographical Dictionary who died between 1900 and 1949 had a median lifespan of 71.5 years, with a range between 29 and 105 years. But as indicated above, far fewer in antiquity survived even from early adulthood to such advanced age – probably under a fifth, compared to a global average of two-thirds today.

The author of a 1994 study concluded that it was only in the second half of the 20th century that medical advances have extended the life expectancy of those who live into adulthood.[119] though this is flatly contradicted by 19th- and early 20th-century census and registration data and by estimates for medieval and ancient populations: US and English expectation of remaining years at age 15 for example rose from about 44 in the mid-19th century to 56 by 1950, and has since increased to 65–67; for English landholders (a relatively privileged group) it was 33 years c.1300, while Ulpian's life table for ancient Rome indicates only 30 years.

Reliable references to individuals in antiquity who lived past 100 years are quite rare, but they do exist. For instance, Cicero's wife Terentia was reported by Pliny the Elder to have lived from 98 BC to 6 AD, 103 years.[120] Regnal dates of Bronze Age monarchs are notoriously unreliable; the sixth dynasty Egyptian ruler Pepi II is sometimes listed as having lived c. 2278 – c. 2184 BC, as he is said to have reigned for 94 years,[121] but alternative readings cite a reign of just 64 years.[122] Adad-guppi, mother of the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabonidus apparently lived from c. 648-544 BC (c. 104 years) according to inscriptions on funeral steles.[123] Zhao Tuo, a Qin Dynasty general, reportedly lived from 240–137 BC. Marcus Valerius Corvus reportedly lived to 100.

Diogenes Laërtius (c. AD 250) gives one of the earliest references regarding the plausible centenarian longevity given by a scientist, the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (c. 185 – c. 120 BC), who, according to the doxographer, said that the philosopher Democritus of Abdera (c. 470/460 – c. 370/360 BC) lived 109 years. Other ancient accounts of Democritus agree that the philosopher lived at least 90 years. The case of Democritus differs from those of, for example, Epimenides of Crete (7th and 6th centuries BC), who is said to have lived an implausible 154, 157, or 290 years, depending on the source.

Other ancient Greek philosophers thought to have lived beyond the age of 90 include Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570/565 – c. 475/470BC), Pyrrho of Ellis (c. 360 – c. 270 BC), Gorgias of Leontinoi, and Eratosthenes of Cirene (c. 285 – c. 190 BC). Also, the Greek rhetorician Isocrates of Athens (436–338 BC) lived 97/98 years and the famous Greek tragedian Sophocles (497/496-406/405 BC) lived at least 90 years.

Hosius of Córdoba, the man who convinced Constantine the Great to call the First Council of Nicaea, reportedly lived to age 102.[citation needed]

A rare record of an ordinary person who lived to be a centenarian is the tombstone of Roman British legionary veteran Julius Valens, inscribed "VIXIT ANNIS C".[124]

In the medieval period, Albert Azzo II, Margrave of Milan (d. 1097) is said by Bernold of Constance to have lived past 100 years (iam maior centenario).[125]

Research

[edit]
Main article: Research into centenarians

Research in Italy suggests that healthy centenarians have high levels of both vitamin A and vitamin E and that this seems to be important in causing their extreme longevity.[126] Other research contradicts this, however, and has found that this theory does not apply to centenarians from Sardinia, for whom other factors probably play a more important role.[127] A preliminary study carried out in Poland showed that, in comparison with young healthy female adults, centenarians living in Upper Silesia had significantly higher red blood cell glutathione reductase and catalase activities, although serum levels of vitamin E were not significantly higher.[128] Researchers in Denmark have also found that centenarians exhibit a high activity of glutathione reductase in red blood cells. In this study, the centenarians having the best cognitive and physical functional capacity tended to have the highest activity of this enzyme.[129]

Other research has found that people whose parents became centenarians have an increased number of naïve B cells. It is well known that the children of parents who have a long life are also likely to reach a healthy age, but it is not known why, although the inherited genes are probably important.[130] A variation in the gene FOXO3A is known to have a positive effect on the life expectancy of humans, and is found much more often in people living to 100 and beyond – moreover, this appears to be true worldwide.[131]

Men and women who are 100 or older tend to have extroverted personalities, according to Thomas T. Perls, the director of the New England Centenarian Study at Boston University.[132] Centenarians will often have many friends, strong ties to relatives and high self-esteem. In addition, some research suggests that the offspring of centenarians are more likely to age in better cardiovascular health than their peers.[133]

DNA repair

[edit]

Lymphoblastoid cell lines established from blood samples of centenarians have significantly higher activity of the DNA repair protein PARP (Poly ADP ribose polymerase) than cell lines from younger (20 to 70 years old) individuals.[134] The lymphocytic cells of centenarians have characteristics typical of cells from young people, both in their capability of priming the mechanism of repair after H2O2 sublethal oxidative DNA damage and in their PARP capacity.[135] PARP activity measured in the permeabilized mononuclear leukocyte blood cells of thirteen mammalian species correlated with maximum lifespan of the species.[136] These findings suggest that PARP mediated DNA repair activity contributes to the longevity of centenarians, consistent with the DNA damage theory of aging.[137]

Japanese bio-study

[edit]
Further information: Aging of Japan
Further information: Elderly people in Japan

Many experts attribute Japan's high life expectancy to the typical Japanese diet, which is particularly low in refined simple carbohydrates, and to hygienic practices. The number of centenarians in relation to the total population was, in September 2010, 114% higher in Shimane Prefecture than the national average. This ratio was also 92% higher in Okinawa Prefecture.[138][139][140] In Okinawa, studies have shown five factors that have contributed to the large number of centenarians in that region:[138]

  1. A diet that is heavy on grains, fish, and vegetables and light on meat, eggs, and dairy products.
  2. Low-stress lifestyles, which are proven significantly less stressful than that of the mainland inhabitants of Japan.
  3. A caring community, where older adults are not isolated and are taken better care of.
  4. High levels of activity, where locals work until an older age than the average age in other countries, and more emphasis on activities like walking and gardening to keep active.
  5. Spirituality, where a sense of purpose comes from involvement in spiritual matters and prayer eases the mind of stress and problems.[138]

Although these factors vary from those mentioned in the previous study, the culture of Okinawa has proven these factors to be important in its large population of centenarians.[138]

A historical study from Korea found that male eunuchs in the royal court had a centenarian rate of over 3%, and that eunuchs lived on average 14 to 19 years longer than uncastrated men.[141]

Epigenetic studies

[edit]

By measuring the biological age of various tissues from centenarians, researchers may be able to identify tissues that are protected from aging effects. According to a study of 30 different body parts from centenarians and younger controls, the cerebellum is the youngest brain region (and probably body part) in centenarians (about 15 years younger than expected[142]) according to an epigenetic biomarker of tissue age known as epigenetic clock.[143]

These findings could explain why the cerebellum exhibits fewer neuropathological hallmarks of age related dementias compared to other brain regions. Further, the offspring of semi-supercentenarians (subjects who reached an age of 105–109 years) have a lower epigenetic age than age-matched controls (age difference=5.1 years in peripheral blood mononuclear cells) and centenarians are younger (8.6 years) than expected based on their chronological age.[144]

See also

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References

[edit]

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Centenarian

View on Grokipedia
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A centenarian is an individual who has attained or surpassed the age of 100 years. This milestone represents exceptional longevity, as global at birth remains well below 100 years in most populations. The global population of centenarians is rapidly expanding, estimated at approximately 722,000 in 2024 according to projections. This group constitutes the fastest-growing demographic segment worldwide, driven by advances in healthcare, , and measures that have extended lifespan over the past century. In the United States alone, the number of centenarians grew by 50% between 2010 and 2020, reaching about 80,000 individuals, and is estimated at approximately 101,000 in 2024—representing about 0.03% of the U.S. population (out of roughly 340 million people)—and is projected to more than quadruple to around 422,000 by 2054. Centenarians often exhibit remarkable resilience to age-related diseases, with studies showing a lower prevalence of conditions such as , cancer, and compared to younger elderly cohorts. This phenomenon is attributed to genetic factors, influences, and potentially slower biological aging processes, as evidenced by in that highlights their delayed onset of , typically occurring around age 93 on average. Centenarian studies have become pivotal in understanding healthy aging, informing interventions to promote and in later years.

Definition and Characteristics

Definition

A centenarian is a who has attained of 100 years or more, marking the completion of one hundred full years of life regardless of alignment with years. The term originates from the Latin centum, meaning "hundred," combined with the -arian to indicate a connected to that numerical , first appearing in English around 1805. Centenarians are distinguished from related age categories, such as nonagenarians—individuals aged 90 to 99 years—who represent the preceding decade of advanced age. In contrast, supercentenarians are those who have reached 110 years or older, a rarer threshold achieved by only about one in every 1,000 centenarians. A transitional group known as semi-supercentenarians includes individuals aged 105 to 109 years, bridging the gap between standard centenarians and supercentenarians in studies. Demographically, centenarians show a pronounced imbalance, with women comprising approximately 80-90% of this in most regions due to differences in and survival rates.

Health and Longevity Traits

Centenarians often exhibit a reduced incidence of major chronic s, such as cardiovascular conditions and cancers, compared to younger elderly cohorts, with these ailments typically emerging later in life if at all. Studies indicate that centenarians experience lower age-specific incidence rates for (12.5% lifetime risk from age 60 versus 23.5% in the general ) and various cancers (25.7% versus 29.7%), suggesting a pattern of disease avoidance or delay rather than mere survival. Similarly, cancer incidence peaks in the 85–89 age group before declining sharply, approaching near zero by age 100, reflecting a protective resilience against oncogenesis in this . This delayed onset contributes to their exceptional by compressing morbidity into a shorter period near the end of life. Biological aging in centenarians proceeds at a slower rate, as evidenced by epigenetic markers that consistently show a younger biological age than chronological age—by 15 to 28.5 years in some analyses. Epigenetic clocks based on sites reveal this deceleration, implying underlying mechanisms that mitigate age-related cellular decline. Cognitively, while prevalence among centenarians is substantial, estimated at 40–60%, a notable retains functional , with approximately 20–25% demonstrating intact and the ability to perform daily activities without assistance. For instance, in cohorts of cognitively centenarians, 70–85% maintain physical initially, underscoring resilience against neurodegenerative decline despite advanced age. Physical resilience is a hallmark of centenarian health, marked by a higher prevalence of successful aging indicators, including low frailty scores and preserved muscle mass. Around 20% of centenarians meet criteria for successful aging, characterized by absence of major disabilities, adequate , and maintained physical function, which correlates with higher muscle mass and autosufficiency. Frailty assessments reveal that low muscle mass predicts mortality, but survivors often display better-preserved , supporting mobility and reducing fall risks. Gender disparities play a significant role in centenarian longevity, with females comprising the majority—outnumbering males by ratios up to 4:1—due in part to 's protective effects during pre-menopausal years. enhances mitochondrial function, reduces , and lowers cardiovascular risk, contributing to slower biological aging in women and their overrepresentation among centenarians. This hormonal advantage diminishes post-menopause but establishes a foundational resilience that enables more women to reach extreme ages.

Demographics

The global population of centenarians has seen substantial growth over recent decades, driven by advancements in healthcare, nutrition, and sanitation that have extended average . According to estimates, the number of individuals aged 100 or older worldwide increased from approximately 151,000 in 2000 to 573,000 in 2020, reflecting a nearly fourfold rise. This exponential increase is partly attributed to the aging of the baby boomer generation in many developed countries, where post-World War II birth cohorts are now reaching centenarian ages. Projections indicate continued rapid expansion, with the United Nations forecasting that the centenarian population will surpass 3.7 million by 2050, representing an eightfold growth from 2015 levels (based on 2015 data; recent UN World Population Prospects 2024 does not provide updated centenarian-specific figures). This trend is most pronounced in regions with high life expectancies, such as , , and parts of , where centenarians are concentrated due to better access to medical care and socioeconomic stability. Gender disparities are stark, with over 80% of centenarians being globally, a pattern linked to women's longer average lifespans and lower rates of certain age-related diseases. As of 2025, the worldwide centenarian population is estimated at approximately 800,000, continuing the upward trajectory observed in recent years (extrapolated from 722,000 in 2024). A notable example is the United States, where the centenarian population grew by about 50% between 2010 and 2020 to approximately 80,000 in 2020 and reached an estimated 101,000 in 2024, representing approximately 0.03% of the U.S. population. These trends highlight the need for global policies addressing , including enhanced elder care systems in aging societies.

Incidence by Country

The incidence of centenarians varies significantly across countries, influenced by factors such as healthcare access, nutrition, and demographic shifts. In 2025 estimates, leads globally in absolute numbers with approximately 100,000 centenarians (as of September), followed by the with about 101,000, with 48,600, with 38,000, and with 33,200. Per capita rates highlight even starker disparities, with topping the list at 124 centenarians per 100,000 population, closely followed by at 81 per 100,000, and at 49 per 100,000.
CountryAbsolute Number (2025 est.)Per Capita Rate (per 100,000)
~100,00081
~101,000~30
48,600~3
38,000~3
33,20049
9,300124
114~40
Notable trends include Japan's pronounced imbalance, with a female-to-male ratio of about 7:1 among centenarians, attributed to longer female . In contrast, and are experiencing rapid growth in centenarian populations due to their large overall sizes and improving life expectancies, though underreporting remains a challenge in these regions owing to incomplete vital registration systems. Data for these figures primarily derive from the World Population Prospects and national censuses, which adjust for such discrepancies where possible.

Exceptional Longevity

Supercentenarians

A is defined as a who has reached or surpassed the age of 110 years. This level of is exceptionally rare, with supercentenarians occurring at a rate of approximately one per 5 million people in industrialized nations. Verification of supercentenarian ages is conducted by specialized organizations such as the (GRG), which applies rigorous standards requiring multiple primary documents to authenticate birth dates and life events. Essential evidence includes birth certificates, early-life records, baptismal certificates, and or death registrations, ensuring claims are supported by contemporaneous records rather than later recollections. This process helps distinguish genuine cases from unverified or exaggerated , with the GRG maintaining the most comprehensive database of validated supercentenarians since the . Demographically, supercentenarians exhibit a strong imbalance, with more than 90% being , a pattern consistent across global validations. As of November 2025, the GRG has validated 234 living supercentenarians worldwide, including 208 and 26 males. This predominance of women aligns with broader trends in extreme , where female survival rates significantly outpace those of males at advanced ages. The historical emergence of reliably verified supercentenarians traces to the , when improved record-keeping in and enabled the documentation of individuals reaching 110. Prior to this period, claims of such ages were common but lacked sufficient corroborative evidence for modern validation.

Verified Oldest Living People

As of November 2025, the verified oldest living person is Ethel Caterham of the , born on August 21, 1909, who is 116 years old. Her age has been validated by the (GRG) and LongeviQuest, making her the first British person to hold this title since the death of the previous record holder. The verified oldest living men, all supercentenarians aged 110 or older, are tracked by organizations including the GRG and LongeviQuest. The current title holder is João Marinho Neto of , born on October 5, 1912, who is 113 years old. Following him are other validated individuals such as Josino Levino Ferreira of (born April 3, 1913, age 112) and Ken Weeks of the (born May 5, 1913, age 112).
RankNameBirth DateAge (as of Nov 2025)CountryValidation Source
1João Marinho NetoOctober 5, 1912113 years, LongeviQuest
2Josino Levino FerreiraApril 3, 1913112 yearsGRG, LongeviQuest
3Ken WeeksMay 5, 1913112 yearsGRG, LongeviQuest
In 2025, several verified supercentenarians have passed away, notably Inah Canabarro Lucas of Brazil, who died on April 30, 2025, at the age of 116 years and 326 days, previously holding the title of oldest living person. Another significant loss was Izabel Rosa Pereira of Brazil, who died on September 24, 2025, at age 114 years and 346 days. These deaths highlight the rigorous verification processes applied by the GRG and LongeviQuest to confirm ages through primary documents.

Recognition and Celebrations

Official Congratulations

In the United States, individuals reaching their 100th can request a congratulatory message from the President through the White House Greetings Office, a practice that honors their . Many states supplement this with local recognitions, such as certificates issued by the governor's office; for instance, Hawaii's governor provides commemorative certificates to centenarians upon application. In Japan, the government has long honored centenarians with a congratulatory letter from the , accompanied by a traditional silver cup presented on following their 100th birthday. This tradition, established in , continues with over 99,763 recipients as of September 1, 2025—a record high. The upholds a longstanding royal tradition dating to , when King George V began sending telegrams to centenarians; today, the monarch dispatches personalized birthday cards to British nationals turning 100, with the number of messages increasing from 24 in to over 18,000 annually by the 2020s. Similar honors extend to realms like and , where eligible residents may receive cards from the King via government channels. In , the 's office also issues official congratulatory certificates for milestone birthdays including the 100th. In , while there is no universal national program for all centenarians, those with distinguished service—particularly veterans—often receive the Legion of Honor, the country's highest decoration, as a form of recognition for their contributions and endurance. Examples include numerous centenarian veterans awarded the medal in recent years to commemorate their role in France's liberation. Internationally, the fosters awareness of exceptional longevity through broader initiatives on aging, such as the observed annually on October 1, which celebrates the societal value of elders including centenarians and supports global campaigns for their dignity and inclusion.

Cultural Traditions and Blessings

Cultural traditions surrounding centenarians often emphasize communal respect, spiritual blessings, and symbolic rituals that honor longevity as a profound achievement. In the , the practice of sending royal congratulations to centenarians originated in 1917 under King George V, who initiated messages wishing recipients health and prosperity on their 100th birthday; this tradition continues as a personal telegram or letter from the reigning monarch, symbolizing national appreciation for enduring life. Similarly, the has a longstanding custom of granting papal blessings for milestone occasions, including 100th birthdays, with the distribution of signed parchments dating back to the late through the Vatican's Office of Papal Charities; these blessings invoke divine favor and are often requested by families to mark the centenarian's enduring faith. In , centenarian celebrations are deeply rooted in familial and national customs, particularly around (Keirō no Hi), a observed on the third Monday of since 1966, which honors elders including those over 100 with community events, performances, and family reunions focused on gratitude for their wisdom and contributions. Families typically gather for intimate meals and toasts with , a ritual that underscores harmony and longevity, often accompanied by government-issued silver sake cups presented to centenarians since 1963 as a symbol of their remarkable milestone. Chinese cultural practices for centenarians highlight symbolic foods and gifts that represent extended life and prosperity. Longevity noodles (chángshòu miàn), long uncut strands served in a simple broth, are a staple at birthday feasts, originating from the Han Dynasty and embodying the wish for a life as unbroken as the noodles themselves. Red envelopes (hóngbāo) adorned with the character "shòu" (longevity) are given containing money, a tradition that wards off misfortune and bestows good fortune, particularly meaningful for centenarians as a communal affirmation of their vitality. Religious communities worldwide incorporate centenarians into sacred rites that celebrate their spiritual endurance. In the Catholic tradition, special masses are held to honor centenarians, such as those organized by diocesan healthcare services, where families join in prayer to give thanks for long lives of faith and service. Among Jewish communities, some elders participate in a "second bar mitzvah" upon reaching 83 or 100, reaffirming their covenant with God through Torah reading and communal blessings, a modern adaptation that unites generations in joy and reflection on a life well-lived.

Regional Profiles

United States

The has one of the highest absolute numbers of centenarians globally, with an estimated 101,000 individuals aged 100 or older as of , representing approximately 0.03% of the U.S. population (out of roughly 340 million people), projected to continue growing rapidly. According to the 2020 Census, the centenarian population stood at 80,139, reflecting a 50% increase from 53,364 in 2010. This growth was particularly pronounced among males, rising 85% from 9,290 to 16,977 over the decade, compared to a 43% increase for females. Centenarians are concentrated in populous states with favorable climates and healthcare resources, such as (10,623 in 2020) and (8,041 in 2020), which together account for a significant share of the total. Demographic shifts are evident in ethnic composition, with the proportion of centenarians increasing from 4% in 2010 to 6% in 2020, driven by broader and improved among this group; projections suggest Hispanics will comprise 11% of centenarians by 2054. These trends underscore the influence of migration patterns and socioeconomic factors on longevity distribution. Social support for centenarians is bolstered by organizations like , which offers programs such as Senior Planet for technology training and , and the Aging Well in America initiative to promote community-based resources for healthy aging. Media outlets frequently highlight centenarian stories, with NBC's Today Show featuring segments on tips from individuals like 100-year-old Miriam Todd, who continues working full-time, and annual birthday celebrations for viewers reaching the milestone. Areas like —a designated —exemplify community-driven , where Seventh-day Adventist practices, including plant-based diets and Sabbath rest, contribute to residents living up to a decade longer than the national average. Despite these positives, centenarians face challenges in healthcare access, particularly racial disparities: older adults are 16% more likely than peers to report problems paying for care, while elders experience 14% higher rates of such issues, often linked to reliance on and barriers in underserved areas. These inequities highlight the need for targeted interventions to ensure equitable support for the growing centenarian population.

Asia

Asia has emerged as a global leader in centenarian populations, driven by cultural, dietary, and socioeconomic factors that promote longevity, particularly in densely populated nations like and . With advancements in healthcare and traditional practices, the region accounts for a significant share of the world's centenarians, though challenges such as and underreporting persist. stands out with one of the highest rates globally at approximately 133 centenarians per 100,000 people as of 2025. Japan boasts the largest absolute number of centenarians worldwide, reaching 99,763 as of September 2025, marking a record high and the 55th consecutive annual increase. This surge reflects robust public health initiatives, including the system introduced in 2000, which funds nursing homes and community-based care for the elderly, ensuring accessible support for . Okinawa, a renowned , exemplifies dietary contributions to , where centenarians traditionally consume a rich in purple sweet potatoes, , , and moderate amounts of , low in calories and high in antioxidants. In , the centenarian population is estimated at around 49,000, highlighting a stark rural-urban divide where urban residents exhibit better outcomes due to superior access to medical facilities, while rural areas rely heavily on (TCM) for preventive care and chronic disease management. TCM practices, such as herbal therapies and , play a pivotal role in supporting among older adults, particularly in rural communities where Western medicine may be less available. India's centenarian count stands at approximately 38,000, with cultural reverence rooted in elevating the status of elders as embodiments of wisdom and spiritual insight. This is evident in traditions honoring ascetics—wandering holy men who practice extreme renunciation. However, underreporting is prevalent in rural areas due to inadequate vital registration systems and reliance on oral histories, potentially underestimating the true figure by significant margins. Hong Kong's centenarian population is estimated at around 10,000 as of 2025, underscoring its exceptional , fueled by a unique fusion of Western and Eastern practices that integrate advanced healthcare with TCM elements like and herbal remedies alongside modern diagnostics. This hybrid approach, supported by public policies promoting integrated medicine in hospitals, contributes to one of the world's highest life expectancies.

Europe

Europe has one of the highest concentrations of centenarians globally, with Western European countries leading due to advancements in post-World War II healthcare systems that improved sanitation, vaccination, and medical care, dramatically increasing and the number of individuals reaching 100 years or older. In 2024, reported approximately 31,000 centenarians, 21,211, and the about 16,600, reflecting a doubling or more in these populations over the past two decades. In , centenarian numbers are notably high in the region, where lifestyles incorporating moderate consumption of and —key elements of the local diet—have been associated with enhanced cardiovascular health and longevity. The oldest verified person in history, from Arles in , attributed part of her 122-year lifespan to daily use and occasional wine, aligning with studies linking these foods to reduced inflammation and improved vascular function. Italy boasts a vibrant centenarian population, with 23,548 individuals aged 100 or older as of November 2025, particularly concentrated in , recognized as a where nearly 10 times more centenarians per capita reside compared to the average. In 's Ogliastra region, traditional shepherd lifestyles involving physical activity, plant-based diets, and strong family networks contribute to exceptional , with about 606 centenarians reported on the island in 2024. Family-centric care, including multigenerational households, supports emotional well-being and daily assistance, fostering resilience among the elderly. The , prevalent in and , plays a pivotal role in European longevity patterns, emphasizing , , , whole grains, and moderate wine, which studies link to lower risks of chronic diseases and extended lifespan. In 's Ikaria island, another , this diet—supplemented by wild greens, herbs, and limited red meat—correlates with high centenarian rates and delayed onset of age-related illnesses. In the , the approximately 16,600 centenarians in 2024 benefit from the (NHS), which provides comprehensive elder support including , , and geriatric medicine to manage chronic conditions. Centenarian density shows urban-rural divides, with higher rates in rural areas like Dorset and lower in densely populated urban centers, influenced by access to green spaces and lower levels. Scandinavian countries exemplify how robust social welfare systems enhance centenarian health and independence, with Sweden's universal healthcare and pension frameworks enabling many to live at home longer before requiring institutional care. Swedish centenarians demonstrate slower progression compared to shorter-lived peers, attributed to equitable access to preventive and that promote physical and mental vitality.

British and Commonwealth Realms

In the , the population of centenarians stands at approximately 16,600 as of , reflecting a doubling from 8,300 two decades earlier due to advances in healthcare and living standards. A significant portion of these individuals belong to the cohort born in the early 1920s, many of whom survived as young adults, contributing to a shared historical narrative of resilience amid wartime hardships. Upon reaching their 100th birthday, British centenarians receive a personalized card from King Charles III, a originating in 1917 under King George V and now extended annually after age 105, symbolizing national recognition of exceptional longevity. Across the realms, this royal honor persists, fostering a sense of unity under the shared , as detailed in broader discussions of official congratulations. In , centenarians number around 6,352, with exhibiting one of the highest rates nationally owing to its status as the state with Australia's oldest median age of 42 years. Indigenous Australian cultures, particularly Aboriginal and Islander communities, emphasize profound respect for elders as custodians of knowledge and tradition, where longevity is celebrated through and roles that honor their without formal age-specific rituals but with deep cultural reverence. Canada, another key , hosts about 11,705 centenarians as of 2023, influenced by its multicultural fabric where diverse immigrant backgrounds enrich elder care practices, from familial support in South Asian communities to communal celebrations in Indigenous groups. In French-speaking , centenarian numbers are rising sharply, projected to reach 18,500 by 2071, driven by robust social welfare systems and historical patterns of extreme among French-Canadian lineages, with women comprising the majority. In , Maori traditions similarly uphold elders as kaumātua (respected leaders), integrating into cultural practices like whakatau (formal welcomes) and oral histories that affirm their enduring contributions to (tribal) identity.

Historical Perspectives

Centenarians in Antiquity

The emergence of centenarians, individuals reaching the age of 100 or more, is estimated to have become statistically possible around 500 BCE, coinciding with the global human population reaching approximately 100 million during the rise of classical civilizations such as Achaemenid Persia and . Prior to this threshold, with smaller populations, the probability of anyone surviving to 100 was negligible under prevailing mortality conditions. Ancient records from Greek and Roman sources often reference exceptional , though these are largely anecdotal or mythological and lack verification. In , the story of , a Trojan prince and lover of the dawn goddess , illustrates an early cultural fascination with ; secures eternal life for from , but forgets to request eternal youth, leading to his endless aging into frailty. Roman author , in his Natural History (Book 7, Chapter 48), compiles claims of extreme ages, including Marcus Aponius reportedly living to 155 years, Lucius Cassius to 135, and others exceeding 100, drawn from records and local traditions in ; however, these accounts are unverified and likely exaggerated for rhetorical or moral purposes. Similarly, Egyptian papyri and Greco-Roman tomb inscriptions occasionally note ages over 100, such as a maximum of 107 on graves, but these remain impossible to confirm due to the absence of birth records or biological evidence. Despite average life expectancies in and ranging from 20 to 30 years—primarily due to high infant and child mortality—those who survived to adulthood often reached their 60s or 70s, with roughly 1.6% attaining 80 and 0.05% reaching 90. Centenarians would have been exceedingly rare, occurring at a rate of about 1 in millions among survivors to , based on historical mortality patterns. Statistical models, such as Gompertz-Perks applied to ancient demographics with life expectancy at age 50 around 14 years, indicate that with a of circa 250 million around 1 CE during the , at least occasional centenarians were probable, though none are verified before the when systematic record-keeping emerged.

Notable Historical Figures

In the medieval period, spanning roughly from the 5th to the 15th century, verified cases of centenarians are exceedingly rare due to the scarcity of reliable birth and death records, with most claims relying on anecdotal chronicles or monastic accounts that lack corroboration. Parish registers and civil documentation were not systematically maintained until later centuries, leading historians to view reported extreme ages from this era as unverified legends rather than factual longevity. Transitioning to the early modern era, claims of exceptional age became more documented but remained contentious. Thomas Parr, an English laborer from , died in 1635 after being presented to King Charles I as a 152-year-old man, having supposedly outlived multiple monarchs through a simple rural lifestyle. His case drew scientific interest, including an by physician , but subsequent analyses indicate the age was likely exaggerated, possibly through faulty family traditions or for charitable gain, as no birth records exist to confirm it. The advent of more systematic record-keeping in the enabled the first verified : of the , a former seaman who lived from September 21, 1788, to February 3, 1899, reaching 110 years and 135 days. His lifespan was authenticated via church baptismal records, marriage certificates, and census data, establishing him as a benchmark for future validations by organizations like the . The saw a proliferation of confirmed centenarians, bolstered by global improvements in vital statistics and medical documentation. Foremost among them is of Arles, , who survived from February 21, 1875, to August 4, 1997, attaining 122 years and 164 days—the longest verified human lifespan to date. Although her age has been subject to controversy, including claims of identity switch, these have been dismissed by gerontologists and validation experts. Her age was rigorously proven through birth registries, school records, and eyewitness accounts, including her recollection of meeting as a child. Many centenarians from this period were born in the late 19th or early and endured events like , such as American veteran Frank Levingston (1905–2016, 110 years), whose military and records confirmed his longevity amid wartime hardships. This surge in verified cases post-1800 reflects enhanced systems across and beyond, which reduced age exaggeration and enabled demographic tracking of extreme . Prior to this, fewer than a handful of claims met modern standards, underscoring how improved transformed the study of .

Scientific Research

Genetic and Biological Mechanisms

Centenarians exhibit distinct genetic profiles that contribute to their exceptional , primarily through inherited variants that enhance cellular resilience and delay age-related decline. Genome-wide association studies have identified specific genes whose polymorphisms are enriched in long-lived individuals, influencing pathways related to stress response, , and resistance. These genetic factors underscore the of extreme lifespan, with familial patterns indicating a substantial inherited component to reaching age 100. A prominent example is the gene, where certain variants, such as those in 2 (e.g., rs2802292), confer stress resistance by regulating insulin/IGF-1 signaling and promoting defenses, thereby supporting cellular survival under oxidative and metabolic challenges. These FOXO3 polymorphisms are significantly more frequent in centenarians across diverse populations, including Japanese and European cohorts, and have been replicated in multiple studies as key contributors to . Similarly, the APOE ε2 allele provides neuroprotective effects by reducing the risk of , a common age-related , through mechanisms that lower amyloid-β accumulation and enhance in the brain. The ε2 allele's frequency notably increases in individuals surpassing age 100, correlating with lower incidence of late-onset and overall cognitive preservation. Familial clustering further highlights the genetic basis of centenarian , as relatives of centenarians demonstrate markedly elevated probabilities of achieving extreme age compared to the general population. Offspring and siblings of centenarians are 8 to 17 times more likely to reach age 100, reflecting shared polygenic traits that buffer against mortality risks throughout life. This is evident in cohorts like the Centenarian Study, where first-degree relatives show reduced frailty and extended survival, independent of environmental influences. At the cellular level, telomere maintenance plays a critical role in slowing , with centenarians often possessing longer that postpone replicative limits in somatic cells. Variants in genes, such as TERT, contribute to this preservation, allowing sustained tissue renewal and mitigating the associated with aging. Consequently, these extended correlate with delayed onset of cellular dysfunction, supporting organ function into advanced age. A September 2025 analysis of the genome and lifestyle of Maria Branyas Morera, who lived to 117 years as the world's oldest verified person at her death, highlighted rare variants in genes related to cardiovascular health and inflammation resistance, alongside habits like minimal stress and a Mediterranean diet, reinforcing the interplay of genetics and environment in supercentenarian longevity. Hormesis represents another biological mechanism, where low-level stressors activate adaptive pathways that enhance longevity, as seen in genetic predispositions to respond favorably to such cues. For instance, mild physiological challenges like intermittent calorie restriction upregulate sirtuin and TOR signaling, fostering autophagy and DNA stability in long-lived individuals. These pathways, genetically modulated in centenarians, promote a protective state that counters cumulative damage over decades.

DNA Repair and Epigenetics

Centenarians demonstrate enhanced efficiency in key DNA repair pathways, including nucleotide excision repair (NER), which removes bulky DNA lesions caused by environmental factors and endogenous processes. Studies indicate that fibroblasts and lymphocytes from centenarians exhibit higher NER activity compared to cells from younger adults, contributing to reduced accumulation of DNA mutations and somatic alterations over time. For example, a functional promoter variant in the EXO1 gene, involved in NER and mismatch repair, has been associated with increased life expectancy in centenarian cohorts. Similarly, polymorphisms in the XPD gene, a critical component of the NER machinery, correlate with exceptional longevity in Ashkenazi Jewish centenarians. These molecular adaptations help maintain genomic integrity, potentially delaying age-related diseases. Epigenetic modifications in centenarians further underscore their cellular resilience, with the Horvath ticking at a slower rate than chronological age. This is evidenced by profiles that align more closely with those of individuals decades younger, reflecting preserved epigenetic youthfulness across multiple tissues. using four distinct epigenetic clocks has confirmed that centenarians consistently display an epigenetic age substantially below their actual age, suggesting mechanisms that counteract age-associated epigenetic drift. Additionally, single-cell transcriptomic analyses of peripheral blood from centenarian cohorts reveal preserved youthful and protein expression patterns in immune cells, particularly natural killer (NK) cells, which retain robust cytotoxic and proliferative functions akin to those in younger donors. In Japanese populations, particularly Okinawans, who have one of the highest centenarian rates globally, superior DNA repair capabilities are linked to specific genetic variants and supported by traditional dietary patterns. The Okinawa Centenarian Study has identified associations between DNA repair gene polymorphisms—such as those in the WRN helicase pathway—and longevity, with the plant-based, low-calorie Okinawan diet potentially enhancing these repair efficiencies through antioxidant-rich foods like sweet potatoes and soy. This interplay of genetics and nutrition appears to promote lower DNA damage accumulation, facilitating extreme lifespan extension in this group.

Lifestyle and Environmental Factors

Lifestyle and environmental factors play a significant role in achieving centenarian status, often modifiable through daily habits and surroundings that complement genetic predispositions. Regions known as Blue Zones, such as Okinawa in and in , exhibit high concentrations of centenarians and share common traits including predominantly plant-based diets rich in beans, whole grains, vegetables, and fruits, with meat consumed sparingly—typically 3-4 ounces about five times per month. Daily natural movement, such as walking or integrated into routines rather than structured exercise, supports physical function, as seen in Sardinian shepherds traversing mountainous terrain or Okinawan elders engaging in community activities. Strong social ties, exemplified by Okinawa's groups—lifelong support networks that meet regularly—and Sardinia's communal gatherings, foster emotional well-being and reduce isolation, contributing to . Beyond diet and activity, purposeful living and stress management are hallmarks of centenarian habits in these areas. In Okinawa, the concept of —a sense of purpose, often tied to family roles or simple daily joys—motivates elders to remain engaged, with centenarians reporting optimism and routine practices like ancestor remembrance to shed daily stresses. Moderate alcohol consumption, such as 5-15 grams per day (equivalent to one small glass of wine), has been associated with higher probabilities of reaching 90 years or beyond, particularly in later life, though shows inverse effects; this aligns with Sardinian traditions of shared wine during social hours. Low-stress environments are maintained through cultural routines, like the Okinawan Hara hachi bu practice of eating until 80% full to avoid overindulgence and promote calm digestion. Environmental quality further influences by minimizing health risks. Communities with low particulate matter (PM2.5) levels—below 12 μg/m³—correlate with higher rates of centenarians, as an interquartile increase in is linked to fewer individuals reaching 100 years per 10,000 . Avoidance of is critical, with higher smoking prevalence reducing centenarian numbers by over 6 per 10,000 for each interquartile increase in rates, underscoring the protective effect of smoke-free lifestyles. Access to clean water, minimal exposure to industrial toxins, and quality healthcare—facilitating preventive care—enhance survival odds in these regions. Socioeconomic status also modulates environmental and lifestyle benefits, with higher education and linked to 20-30% increased odds of exceptional through better access to nutritious foods, safe living conditions, and services. For instance, education gradients show college graduates outliving high school dropouts by up to 5 years on average, while income disparities contribute to 10-14 year gaps between affluent and low-income groups, indirectly boosting centenarian potential via healthier behaviors.

Recent Studies on Health and Immunity

Recent studies from 2025 have highlighted that centenarians accumulate chronic diseases at a slower rate compared to younger elderly populations, exhibiting lower levels of overall. For instance, a Swedish nationwide found that , , and in centenarians emerge four to nine years later than in non-centenarians, with centenarians showing delayed onset of conditions such as and . This slower disease accumulation is particularly evident when distinguishing between independent and dependent centenarian subtypes; independent centenarians demonstrate lower incidences of and after age 85, along with reduced hospitalization rates compared to their dependent counterparts, suggesting distinct trajectories that preserve functional longer. In terms of immune function, 2025 research has underscored the preservation of key immune components in centenarians, including robust natural killer (NK) cell and T-cell activity that resembles more youthful profiles. A multi-omics atlas derived from centenarian blood samples revealed potent cytotoxic NK and T-cell circuits, with enhanced mutual interactions among peripheral immune cells that maintain a balance between cytotoxic and regulatory functions, potentially contributing to resistance against infections and age-related decline. A June 2025 study on the 'autoimmunome' of centenarians further showed elevated levels and a prominent in their blood , which may enhance resistance to and support immune into extreme age. These findings, from a comprehensive single-cell atlas of three centenarian cohorts, indicate that such preserved defenses may explain the lower incidence of autoimmune conditions and tumors observed in this group. The Centenarian Study (NECS), ongoing for over 30 years since its in 1995, has enrolled more than 3,000 participants and their families, providing longitudinal insights into exceptional . Recent analyses from the NECS confirm that centenarians experience a lower lifetime risk for most age-related conditions, including cancer, heart disease, and , though they show a higher vulnerability to hip fractures compared to the general . This protective profile underscores the study's role in identifying factors that enable centenarians to remain healthier agers into extreme old age. Globally, including in , centenarians report high levels of (QoL) and despite advanced age and challenging environments, often attributed to resilience and social factors. A 2025 study of Colombian centenarians found elevated positive affectivity and overall , with participants exhibiting benefits such as reduced psychological distress even in regions with socioeconomic adversity. Physical exercise emerges as a critical element in sustaining this QoL; research on centenarians aged 100–104 demonstrated that acute exercise modulates inflammatory pathways, downregulating pro-inflammatory proteins and supporting immune , thereby emphasizing its feasibility and benefits even at such ages.

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