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Yeti
Artistic depiction of a Yeti
Creature information
Other names
  • Abominable Snowman[1]
  • Meh-teh[1]
  • Migoi, et al.
Similar entities
FolkloreCryptid
Origin
Country
RegionTibet, Himalayas
Part of a series on the
Paranormal
Main articles
Skepticism
Parapsychology
Related

The Yeti (/ˈjɛti/)[2] is an ape-like creature purported to inhabit the Himalayan mountain range in Asia. In Western popular culture, the creature is commonly referred to as the Abominable Snowman. Many dubious articles have been offered in an attempt to prove the existence of the Yeti, including anecdotal visual sightings, disputed video recordings, photographs, and plaster casts of large footprints. Some of these are speculated or known to be hoaxes.

Folklorists trace the origin of the Yeti to a combination of factors, including Sherpa folklore and misidentified fauna such as bear or yak.[3] The Yeti is commonly compared to Bigfoot of North America, as the two subjects often have similar physical descriptions.[4]

Description

[edit]

The Yeti is often described as being a large, bipedal ape-like creature that is covered with brown, grey, or white hair, and it is sometimes depicted as having large, sharp teeth.[5]

Etymology and alternative names

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This section contains Tibetan script. Without proper rendering support, you may see very small fonts, misplaced vowels or missing conjuncts instead of Tibetan characters.

The word Yeti is derived from Tibetan: གཡའ་དྲེད་, Wylie: g.ya' dred, ZYPY: Yachê, a compound of the words Tibetan: གཡའ་, Wylie: g.ya', ZYPY: ya "rocky", "rocky place" and (Tibetan: དྲེད་, Wylie: dred, ZYPY: chê) "bear".[6][7][8][9] Pranavananda[6] states that the words "ti", "te" and "teh" are derived from the spoken word 'tre' (spelled "dred"), Tibetan for bear, with the 'r' so softly pronounced as to be almost inaudible, thus making it "te" or "teh".[6][10][11]

Tibetan lore describes three main varieties of Yetis—the Nyalmo, which has black fur and is the largest and fiercest, standing around fifteen feet tall; the Chuti, which stands around eight feet tall and lives 8,000 and 10,000 ft (2,400 and 3,000 m) above sea level; and the Rang Shim Bombo, which has reddish-brown fur and is only between 3 and 5 ft (0.91 and 1.52 m) tall.[12]

Other terms used by Himalayan peoples do not translate exactly the same, but refer to legendary and indigenous wildlife:

  • Michê (Tibetan: མི་དྲེད་, Wylie: mi dred, ZYPY: Michê) translates as "man-bear".[8][13]
  • Dzu-teh – 'dzu' translates as "cattle" and the full meaning translates as "cattle bear", referring to the Himalayan brown bear.[7][10][14][15]
  • Migoi or Mi-go (Tibetan: མི་རྒོད་, Wylie: mi rgod, ZYPY: Migö/Mirgö) translates as "wild man".[10][15]
  • Bun Manchi – Nepali for "jungle man" that is used outside Sherpa communities where yeti is the common name.[16]
  • Mirka – Another name for "wild-man". Local legend holds that "anyone who sees one dies or is killed". The latter is taken from a written statement by Frank Smythe's sherpas in 1937.[17]
  • Kang Admi – "Snow Man".[15]
  • Jungli Admi – "Wild Man".[18]
  • Xueren (Chinese: 雪人) - "Snow Man"

Other names and locations

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In Russian folklore, the Chuchuna is an entity said to dwell in Siberia. It has been described as six to seven feet tall and covered with dark hair.[citation needed] According to the native accounts from the nomadic Yakut and Tungus tribes, it is a well built, Neanderthal-like man wearing pelts and bearing a white patch of fur on its forearms. It is said to occasionally consume human flesh, unlike their close cousins, the Almastis. Some witnesses reported seeing a tail on the creature's corpse. It is described as being roughly six to seven feet tall.[citation needed] There are additional tales of large, reclusive, bipedal creatures worldwide, notably including both "Bigfoot" and the "Abominable Snowman."

The Abominable Snowman

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The name Abominable Snowman was coined in 1921, the year Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Howard-Bury led the 1921 British Mount Everest reconnaissance expedition,[19][20] which he chronicled in Mount Everest The Reconnaissance, 1921.[21] In the book, Howard-Bury includes an account of crossing the Lhagpa La at 21,000 ft (6,400 m) where he found footprints that he believed "were probably caused by a large 'loping' grey wolf, which in the soft snow formed double tracks rather like those of a bare-footed man". He adds that his Sherpa guides "at once volunteered that the tracks must be that of 'The Wild Man of the Snows', to which they gave the name 'metoh-kangmi'".[21] "Metoh" translates as "man-bear" and "kang-mi" translates as "snowman".[6][8][15][22]

Confusion exists between Howard-Bury's recitation of the term "metoh-kangmi"[19][21] and the term used in Bill Tilman's book Mount Everest, 1938[23] where Tilman had used the words "metch", which does not exist in the Tibetan language,[24] and "kangmi" when relating the coining of the term "Abominable Snowman".[8][15][23][25] Further evidence of "metch" being a misnomer is provided by Tibetan language authority Professor David Snellgrove from the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London (ca. 1956), who dismissed the word "metch" as impossible, because the consonants "t-c-h" cannot be conjoined in the Tibetan language.[24] Documentation suggests that the term "metch-kangmi" is derived from one source (from the year 1921).[23] It has been suggested that "metch" is simply a misspelling of "metoh".

The use of "Abominable Snowman" began when Henry Newman, a longtime contributor to The Statesman in Calcutta, writing under the pen name "Kim",[9] interviewed the porters of the "Everest Reconnaissance expedition" on their return to Darjeeling.[23][26][27] Newman mistranslated the word "metoh" as "filthy", substituting the term "abominable", perhaps out of artistic licence.[28] As author Bill Tilman recounts, "[Newman] wrote long after in a letter to The Times: The whole story seemed such a joyous creation I sent it to one or two newspapers".[23]

History and sightings

[edit]
Yeti
Yeti sketch
Yeti
Parent Homonidae
First sighting Unknown
Subdivisions Mehteh, Teh-ima, Dzu-teh

Pre-19th century

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According to H. Siiger, the Yeti was a part of the pre-Buddhist beliefs of several Himalayan people. He was told that the Lepcha people worshipped a "Glacier Being" as a God of the Hunt. He also reported that followers of the Bön religion once believed the blood of the "mi rgod" or "wild man" had use in certain spiritual ceremonies. The being was depicted as an ape-like creature who carries a large stone as a weapon and makes a whistling swoosh sound.[29]

Yeti was adopted into Tibetan Buddhism, where it is considered a nonhuman animal (tiragyoni) that is nonetheless human enough to sometimes be able to follow Dharma. Several stories feature Yetis becoming helpers and disciples to religious figures. In Tibet, images of Yetis are paraded and occasionally worshipped as guardians against evil spirits. However, because Yetis sometimes act as enforcers of Dharma, hearing or seeing one is often considered a bad omen, for which the witness must accumulate merit.[30]

19th century

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1937 Frank S. Smythe photograph of alleged Yeti footprints, printed in Popular Science, 1952

In 1832, James Prinsep's Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal published trekker B. H. Hodgson's account of his experiences in northern Nepal. His local guides spotted a tall bipedal creature covered with long dark hair, which seemed to flee in fear. Hodgson concluded it was an orangutan.

An early record of reported footprints appeared in 1899 in Laurence Waddell's Among the Himalayas. Waddell reported his guide's description of a large apelike creature that left the prints, which Waddell thought were made by a bear. Waddell heard stories of bipedal, apelike creatures but wrote that "none, however, of the many Tibetans I have interrogated on this subject could ever give me an authentic case. On the most superficial investigation, it always resolved into something that somebody heard tell of."[31]

20th century

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The frequency of reports increased during the early 20th century when Westerners began making determined attempts to scale the many mountains in the area and occasionally reported seeing odd creatures or strange tracks.

Purported Yeti footprint taken by C.R. Cooke in 1944

In 1925, N. A. Tombazi, a photographer and member of the Royal Geographical Society, writes that he saw a creature at about 15,000 ft (4,600 m) near Zemu Glacier. Tombazi later wrote that he observed the creature from about 200 to 300 yd (180 to 270 m), for about a minute. "Unquestionably, the figure in outline was exactly like a human being, walking upright and stopping occasionally to pull at some dwarf rhododendron bushes. It showed up dark against the snow, and as far as I could make out, wore no clothes." About two hours later, Tombazi and his companions descended the mountain and saw the creature's prints, described as "similar in shape to those of a man, but only 6 to 7 in (150 to 180 mm) long by 4 in (100 mm) wide...[32] The prints were undoubtedly those of a biped."[33]

Purported Yeti footprint taken by C.R. Cooke in 1944

During the autumn of 1937, John Hunt and Pasang Sherpa (later Pasang Dawa Lama) encountered footprints on the approaches to and at the Zemu Gap above the Zemu Glacier that were thought to belong to a pair of Yetis.[34]

In June 1944, C.R. Cooke, his wife Maragaret, and a group of porters encountered very large bipedal prints in soft mud at 14,000 ft (4,300 m) just below the Singalila Ridge, which the porters said were of the "Jungli Admi" (wild man). The creature had come up through bushes on the steep hillside from Nepal and crossed the track before continuing up to the ridge. Cooke wrote "We laid Maragaret's sunglasses beside each print to indicate its size and took photographs. These prints were strange and larger than any normal human foot, 14 in (360 mm) heel to toe, with the great toe set back to one side, a first toe, also large, and three little toes closely bunched together."[35]

Peter Byrne reported finding a yeti footprint in 1948, in northern Sikkim, India near the Zemu Glacier, while on holiday from a Royal Air Force assignment in India.[36]

One of the three photographs by Eric Shipton in 1951 with an ice axe being used for scale.

Western interest in the Yeti peaked dramatically in the 1950s. While attempting to scale Mount Everest in 1951, Eric Shipton took photographs of a number of large prints in the snow, at about 6,000 m (20,000 ft) above sea level. Shipton took three photographs, one depicting the tracks, and other two of one particular print which was size compared by a pickaxe, and boot. The footprints had distinct two large toes, and three smaller digits close together. These photos have been subject to intense scrutiny and debate. Some argue they are the best evidence of Yeti's existence, while others contend the prints are those of a mundane creature that have been distorted by the melting snow. Jeffrey Meldrum examined a reconstructed form of the print in 2008, noting that one of the large toes was the result of Macrodactyly. He also stated the alignment of the toes matched that of a great ape, and the Yeti would likely spend more time in the subtropical region of the Himalayas. Meldrum stated it was hard to conclusively say the prints were genuine since Shipton only took two photos of a single track.[37][1]

In 1953, Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay reported seeing large footprints while scaling Mount Everest. Hillary would later discount Yeti reports as unreliable. In his first autobiography Tenzing said that he believed the Yeti was a large ape, and although he had never seen it himself his father had seen one twice, but in his second autobiography he said he had become much more sceptical about its existence.[38]

Purported Yeti scalp at Khumjung monastery

During the Daily Mail Snowman Expedition of 1954,[39] the mountaineering leader John Angelo Jackson made the first trek from Everest to Kanchenjunga in the course of which he photographed symbolic paintings of the Yeti at Tengboche gompa.[40] Jackson tracked and photographed many footprints in the snow, most of which were identifiable. However, there were many large footprints which could not be identified. These flattened footprint-like indentations were attributed to erosion and subsequent widening of the original footprint by wind and particles.

Dr. Biswamoy Biswas examining the Pangboche Yeti scalp during the Daily Mail Snowman Expedition of 1954

On 19 March 1954, the Daily Mail printed an article which described expedition teams obtaining hair specimens from what was alleged to be a Yeti scalp found in the Pangboche monastery. The hairs were black to dark brown in colour in dim light, and fox red in sunlight. The hair was analysed by Professor Frederic Wood Jones,[41][42] an expert in human and comparative anatomy. During the study, the hairs were bleached, cut into sections and analysed microscopically. The research consisted of taking microphotographs of the hairs and comparing them with hairs from known animals such as bears and orangutans. Jones concluded that the hairs were not actually from a scalp. He contended that while some animals do have a ridge of hair extending from the pate to the back, no animals have a ridge (as in the Pangboche scalp) running from the base of the forehead across the pate and ending at the nape of the neck. Jones was unable to pinpoint exactly the animal from which the Pangboche hairs were taken. He was, however, convinced that the hairs were not from a bear or anthropoid ape, but instead from the shoulder of a coarse-haired hoofed animal.[43]

Sławomir Rawicz claimed in his book The Long Walk, published in 1956, that as he and some others were crossing the Himalayas in the winter of 1940, their path was blocked for hours by two bipedal animals that were doing seemingly nothing but shuffling around in the snow.[44]

Beginning in 1957, the Texas oil businessman and adventurer Tom Slick led an expedition to the Nepal Himalayas to investigate Yeti reports, with the anthropologist prof. Carleton S. Coon as one of its members.[45] In 1959, supposed Yeti feces were collected by one of Slick's expeditions; fecal analysis found a parasite which could not be classified.[citation needed] The United States government thought that finding the Yeti was likely enough to create three rules for American expeditions searching for it: obtain a Nepalese permit, do not harm the Yeti except in self-defense, and let the Nepalese government approve any news reporting on the animal's discovery.[46] In 1959, actor James Stewart, while visiting India, reportedly smuggled the so-called Pangboche Hand, by concealing it in his luggage when he flew from India to London.[47]

In 1960, Sir Edmund Hillary mounted the 1960–61 Silver Hut expedition to the Himalayas, which was to collect and analyse physical evidence of the Yeti. Hillary borrowed a supposed Yeti scalp from the Khumjung monastery then himself and Khumjo Chumbi (the village headman), brought the scalp back to London[48] where a small sample was cut off for testing. Marca Burns made a detailed examination of the sample of skin and hair from the margin of the alleged Yeti scalp and compared it with similar samples from the serow, blue bear and black bear. Burns concluded the sample "was probably made from the skin of an animal closely resembling the sampled specimen of Serow, but definitely not identical with it: possibly a local variety or race of the same species, or a different but closely related species."[49]

Up to the 1960s, belief in the yeti was relatively common in Bhutan and in 1966 a Bhutanese stamp was made to honour the creature.[50] However, in the 21st century, belief in the being has declined.[51][52]

In 1970, British mountaineer Don Whillans claimed to have witnessed a creature when scaling Annapurna.[53] He reported that he once saw it moving on all fours.[54]

In 1983, Himalayan conservationist Daniel C. Taylor and Himalayan natural historian Robert L. Fleming Jr. led a yeti expedition into Nepal's Barun Valley (suggested by discovery in the Barun in 1972 of footprints alleged to be yeti by Cronin & McNeely[55]). The Taylor-Fleming expedition also discovered similar yeti-like footprints (hominoid appearing with both a hallux and bipedal gait), intriguing large nests in trees, and vivid reports from local villagers of two bears, rukh bhalu ('tree bear', small, reclusive, weighing about 150 pounds (68 kg)) and bhui bhalu ('ground bear', aggressive, weighing up to 400 pounds (180 kg)). Further interviews across Nepal gave evidence of local belief in two different bears. Skulls were collected, these were compared to known skulls at the Smithsonian Institution, American Museum of Natural History, and British Museum, and confirmed identification of a single species, the Asiatic black bear, showing no morphological difference between 'tree bear' and 'ground bear.'[56] (This despite an intriguing skull in the British Museum of a 'tree bear' collected in 1869 by Oldham and discussed in the Annals of the Royal Zoological Society.)

21st century

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In 2004, Henry Gee, editor of the journal Nature, mentioned the Yeti as an example of folk belief deserving further study, writing, "The discovery that Homo floresiensis survived until so very recently, in geological terms, makes it more likely that stories of other mythical, human-like creatures such as Yetis are founded on grains of truth."[57]

In early December 2007, American television presenter Joshua Gates and his team (Destination Truth) reported finding a series of footprints in the Everest region of Nepal resembling descriptions of Yeti.[58] Each of the footprints measured 33 cm (13 in) in length with five toes that measured a total of 25 cm (9.8 in) across. Casts were made of the prints for further research. The footprints were examined by Jeffrey Meldrum of Idaho State University, who believed them to be too morphologically accurate to be fake or man-made, before changing his mind after making further investigations.[59] Later in 2009, in a TV show, Gates presented hair samples with a forensic analyst concluding that the hair contained an unknown DNA sequence.[60] A cast of the footprint is kept in the queue of Expedition Everest.[61]

On 25 July 2008, the BBC reported that hairs collected in the remote Garo Hills area of North-East India by Dipu Marak had been analysed at Oxford Brookes University in the UK by primatologist Anna Nekaris and microscopy expert Jon Wells. These initial tests were inconclusive, and ape conservation expert Ian Redmond told the BBC that there was similarity between the cuticle pattern of these hairs and specimens collected by Edmund Hillary during Himalayan expeditions in the 1950s and donated to the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, and announced planned DNA analysis.[62] This analysis has since revealed that the hair came from the Himalayan goral.[63]

A group of Chinese scientists and explorers in 2010 proposed to renew searches in the Shennongjia Forestry District of Hubei province, which was the site of expeditions in the 1970s and 1980s.[64]

At a 2011 conference in Russia, participating scientists and enthusiasts declared having "95% evidence" of the Yeti's existence.[65] However, this claim was disputed later; American anthropologist and anatomist Jeffrey Meldrum, who was present during the Russian expedition, claimed the "evidence" found was simply an attempt by local officials to drum up publicity.[66]

A yeti was reportedly captured in Russia in December 2011.[67] Initially the story claimed that a hunter reported having seen a bear-like creature trying to kill one of his sheep but, after he fired his gun, the creature ran into a forest on two legs. The story then claimed that border patrol soldiers captured a hairy two-legged female creature similar to a gorilla that ate meat and vegetation. This was later revealed as a hoax or possibly a publicity stunt for charity.[citation needed]

In April 2019, an Indian army mountaineering expedition team claimed to have spotted mysterious 'Yeti' footprints, measuring 81 by 38 cm (32 by 15 in), near the Makalu base camp.[68]

Proposed explanations

[edit]

The misidentification of Himalayan wildlife has been proposed as an explanation for some Yeti sightings, including the chu-teh, a langur monkey[69] living at lower altitudes; the Tibetan blue bear; or the Himalayan brown bear or dzu-teh, also known as the Himalayan red bear.[69]

Similarly, it is possible that sightings have been deliberate hoaxes. Sceptic James Randi notes that convincing costumes of gorillas or other apes have been used in films, which are more convincing than any representations of the Yeti provided by believers.[1] Randi also argues that there would need to be many creatures in order to maintain the gene pool, and given the proposed size of the Yeti, it is hard to imagine that they have been so elusive if they are real.[1]

A well publicised expedition to Bhutan initially reported that a hair sample had been obtained, which by DNA analysis by Professor Bryan Sykes could not be matched to any known animal.[70] Analysis completed after the media release, however, clearly showed the samples were from a brown bear (Ursus arctos) and an Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus).[71]

In 1986, South Tyrolean mountaineer Reinhold Messner claimed in his autobiography My Quest for the Yeti that the Yeti is actually the endangered Himalayan brown bear, Ursus arctos isabellinus, or Tibetan blue bear, U. a. pruinosus, which can walk both upright or on all fours.[72][73]

Asiatic black bear theory

[edit]

The 1983 Barun Valley discoveries prompted three years of research on the 'tree bear' possibility by Taylor, Fleming, John Craighead and Tirtha Shrestha. From that research, the conclusion was that the Asiatic black bear, when about two years old, spends much time in trees to avoid attack by larger male bears on the ground ('ground bears'). During this tree period (that may last two years), young bears train their inner claw outward, allowing an opposable grip. The imprint in the snow of a hind paw coming over the front paw that appears to have a hallux, especially when the bear is going slightly uphill so the hind pawprint extends the overprint backward, makes a hominid-appearing track, both in that it is elongated like a human foot, but with a "thumb", and in that a four-footed animal's gait now appears bipedal.[74] This "yeti discovery", in the words of National Geographic Magazine editor Bill Garrett, "[by] on-site research sweeps away much of the 'smoke and mirrors' and gives us a believable yeti".[75]

This fieldwork in Nepal's Barun Valley led directly to the initiation of the Makalu-Barun National Park that protected over half a million acres in 1991, and across the border with China, the Qomolangma national nature preserve in the Tibet Autonomous Region that protected over six million acres. In the words of Honorary President of the American Alpine Club, Robert H. Bates, this yeti discovery "has apparently solved the mystery of the yeti, or at least part of it, and in so doing added to the world's great wildlife preserves",[76] so that the shy animal, and the mysteries and myths of the Himalayas that it represents, can continue to live within a protected area nearly the size of Switzerland.

DNA analysis

[edit]

In 2013, a call was put out by scientists from the universities of Oxford and Lausanne for people claiming to have samples from these sorts of creatures. A mitochondrial DNA analysis of the 12S RNA gene was undertaken on samples of hair from an unidentified animal from Ladakh in northern India on the west of the Himalayas, and one from Bhutan. These samples were compared with those in GenBank, the international repository of gene sequences, and matched a sample from an ancient polar bear jawbone found in Svalbard, Norway that dates back to between 40,000 and 120,000 years ago.[77][78] The result suggests that, barring hoaxes of planted samples or contamination, bears in these regions may have been taken to be yeti.[79] Professor of evolutionary genetics at the University of Cambridge, Bill Amos, doubted the samples were of polar bears in the Himalayas, but was "90% convinced that there is a bear in these regions that has been mistaken for a yeti". Professor Bryan Sykes, whose team carried out the analysis of the samples at Oxford, has his own theory. He believes that the samples may have come from a hybrid species of bear produced from a mating between a brown bear and a polar bear.[77][80] A research of 12S rRNA published in 2015 revealed that the hair samples collected are most likely those of brown bears.[81] In 2017, a new analysis compared mtDNA sequences of bears from the region with DNA extracted from hair and other samples claimed to have come from yeti. It included hair thought to be from the same preserved specimen as the anomalous Sykes sample, and showed it to have been a Himalayan brown bear, while other purported yeti samples were actually from the Tibetan blue bear, Asiatic black bear and a domestic dog.[82]

Linguistics

[edit]

In 2003, Japanese researcher and mountaineer Dr. Makoto Nebuka published the results of his twelve-year linguistic study, postulating that the word "Yeti" is a corruption of the word "meti", a regional dialect term for a "bear". Nebuka claims that ethnic Tibetans fear and worship the bear as a supernatural being.[83] Nebuka's claims were subject to almost immediate criticism, and he was accused of linguistic carelessness. Dr. Raj Kumar Pandey, who has researched both Yetis and mountain languages, said "it is not enough to blame tales of the mysterious beast of the Himalayas on words that rhyme but mean different things."[84]

In 2017, Daniel C. Taylor published a comprehensive analysis of the century-long Yeti literature, giving added evidence to the Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) explanation, building on the initial Barun Valley discoveries. His book gave a meticulous explanation for the iconic Yeti footprint photographed by Eric Shipton in 1950, the 1972 Cronin-McNeely print, as well all other unexplained Yeti footprints. To complete this explanation, Taylor also located a never-before published photograph in the archives of the Royal Geographical Society, taken in 1950 by Eric Shipton, that included scratches that are clearly bear nail marks.[85] Alleged Yeti footprints have been generally interpreted as bear-made.[86][87]

Ape theory

[edit]

Some speculate these reported creatures could be present-day specimens of the extinct giant ape Gigantopithecus.[88][89][90][91] However, the Yeti is generally described as bipedal, and most scientists believe Gigantopithecus to have been quadrupedal, and so massive that, unless it evolved specifically as a bipedal ape (like the hominids), walking upright would have been even more difficult for the now extinct primate than it is for its extant quadrupedal relative, the orangutan.

See also

[edit]
General
Similar alleged creatures

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e Randi, James (1995). An encyclopedia of claims, frauds, and hoaxes of the occult and supernatural: decidedly sceptical definitions of alternative realities. New York, NY: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 978-0-312-15119-5.
  2. ^ "Yeti" Archived 9 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. ^ Pariyar, Kamal (28 January 2020). "Visit Nepal's yeti: How mythical creature divided Himalayan nation". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 June 2020. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
  4. ^ "A Guide to Deciphering the Differences Between a Yeti, Sasquatch, Bigfoot and More". newsweek.com. Newsweek. 19 December 2015. Archived from the original on 19 April 2022. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
  5. ^ Jones, Lucy (30 June 2015). "Earth - Is the Himalayan Yeti a real animal?". bbc.com. BBC. Archived from the original on 25 April 2017. Retrieved 17 March 2021.
  6. ^ a b c d Pranavananda, Swami (1957). "The Abominable Snowman". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 54.
  7. ^ a b Stonor, Charles (30 January 1954). The Statesman in Calcutta
  8. ^ a b c d Swan, Lawrence W. (18 April 1958). "Abominable Snowman". Science. 127 (3303): 882–84. Bibcode:1958Sci...127..882S. doi:10.1126/science.127.3303.882-b. PMID 17733822. S2CID 5372649.
  9. ^ a b Izzard, Ch. 2, pp. 21–22.
  10. ^ a b c Izzard, Ch. 2, p. 199.
  11. ^ Stonor, Charles (1955). The Sherpa and the Snowman. Hollis and Carter.
  12. ^ Bhairav, J. Furcifer; Khanna, Rakesh (2020). Ghosts, Monsters, and Demons of India. India: Blaft Publications Pvt. Ltd. pp. 428–429. ISBN 978-93-80636-47-4.
  13. ^ Izzard, Ch. 2, p. 22.
  14. ^ Pranavananda, Swami (July–September 1955). "Abominable Snowman". Indian Geographical Journal. 30: 99–104.
  15. ^ a b c d e Jackson, John A. (1955). More than Mountains. George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.
  16. ^ Taylor
  17. ^ Tilman, p. 131.
  18. ^ Cooke, C. Reginald (1988). Dust and Snow. Half a lifetime in India. C.R. Cooke. pp. 326–328.
  19. ^ a b Howard-Bury, Charles (February 1921). "Some Observations on the Approaches to Mount Everest". The Geographical Journal. 57 (2): 121–24. Bibcode:1921GeogJ..57..121B. doi:10.2307/1781561. JSTOR 1781561. Archived from the original on 9 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  20. ^ Yourghusband, Francis; Collie, H. Norman & Gatine, A. (February 1922). "Mount Everest" The reconnaissance: Discussion". The Geographical World Journal. 59 (2): 109–12. Bibcode:1922GeogJ..59..109Y. doi:10.2307/1781388. JSTOR 1781388. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 4 July 2019.
  21. ^ a b c Howard-Bury, Charles (1921). "19". Mount Everest The Reconnaissance, 1921. Edward Arnold. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-135-39935-1. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
  22. ^ Izzard, Ch. 2, p. 21.
  23. ^ a b c d e Tilman, pp. 127–37
  24. ^ a b Izzard, Ch. 2, p. 24.
  25. ^ Straus, William L. Jr. (8 June 1956). "Abominable Snowman". Science. 123 (3206): 1024–25. Bibcode:1956Sci...123.1024S. doi:10.1126/science.123.3206.1024. PMID 17800969.
  26. ^ Kirtley, Bacil F. (April 1964). "Unknown Hominids and New World legends". Western Folklore. 23 (1304): 77–90. doi:10.2307/1498256. JSTOR 1498256.
  27. ^ Masters, John (January 1959). "The Abominable Snowman". Harper's Magazine. Vol. CCXVIII, no. 1304. p. 31. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
  28. ^ Izzard, Ch. 2, p. 23.
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Yeti

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The Yeti, also known as the Abominable Snowman, is a legendary ape-like creature rooted in the of Himalayan peoples, depicted as a large, bipedal, hairy being that inhabits the remote, of , , , and surrounding regions. In local traditions, it is often portrayed in varying forms, such as the smaller, rust-red-furred Rang Shim Bombo (about 1-1.5 meters tall and non-threatening), the formidable Chuti (over 2 meters), or the aggressive Nylamo (over 2.5 meters with dark hair and a reputation for preying on yaks). These descriptions emphasize its upright , abilities like invisibility or swift movement, and a role as a wild, elusive figure in the harsh alpine environment. The legend of the Yeti originates from pre-Buddhist mythologies among indigenous groups like the Lepcha, where it is known as chu mung or jhampey mung, a demon or hunting associated with eerie whistles, forest noises, and the need for offerings such as rice, meat, or to ensure safe passage and good fortune. Over time, these stories integrated into Buddhist lore, with tales of the Yeti as a benevolent assistant to figures like Lama Sange Dorje in the , who reportedly received aid from the creature during travels; relics such as a hand and preserved in Nepal's Pangboche are said to commemorate this connection. Culturally, the Yeti symbolizes the mysteries of nature, serving as a guardian spirit of the and a reminder of humanity's respect for the wild, deeply embedded in rituals, folktales, and oral histories across Himalayan communities in areas like the and hills. Historical accounts, including colonial-era reports from the describing hairy, erect-walking beings and newspaper sightings in the mid-20th century, have further shaped its image in both local and Western imaginations. In modern times, the Yeti has captured global attention through expeditions and scientific scrutiny, with alleged evidence like footprints, hair samples, and relics often analyzed to debunk its existence as a distinct . Genetic studies, including a analysis by researcher Charlotte Lindqvist at the , have identified supposed Yeti hairs and bones as belonging to known bears, such as the or , suggesting misidentifications of local wildlife rather than an unknown . Despite these findings, reported sightings persist, including in and as recently as 2019, with no significant new evidence emerging as of 2025, fueling ongoing cultural reverence and in the region while highlighting the blend of , , and human perception in the .

Description and Characteristics

Physical Appearance

The Yeti is typically depicted in Himalayan and eyewitness reports as a large, bipedal primate-like creature standing between 6 and 10 feet tall, with a muscular build and covered in shaggy ranging from reddish-brown to dark gray. Sherpa and Tibetan accounts emphasize its ape-like form, featuring long arms, a powerful , a conical head, and a hairless face with a flat nose. The creature's broad shoulders and overall robust physique contribute to its imposing presence in these descriptions. Reports consistently highlight the Yeti's large, human-like feet, measuring 12 to 24 inches in length, which leave distinctive oversized prints in the snow due to their highly splayed structure. A notable example is the 1951 photograph taken by mountaineer on the Menlung Glacier near , capturing a 13-inch-long with a human-like shape but an unusual opposable toe-like feature for scale. These prints are often cited as visual references for the creature's foot morphology in and expedition accounts. Regional variations appear in Sherpa and Tibetan lore, where the Yeti is categorized into types differing in size and build; Tibetan reports often portray taller, more robust forms like the Kang-mi (snow man), while Sherpa accounts describe slimmer, more agile variants such as the Mi-teh, typically around 6 feet tall and strictly bipedal. In contrast, the larger Dzu-teh type in Sherpa tradition is depicted as more bear-like and quadrupedal at times, though still hairy and formidable. These differences reflect local environmental and cultural interpretations across the Himalayas.

Behavioral Traits

In Himalayan , the Yeti is attributed with inhabiting high-altitude regions of the , particularly remote, snowy areas above the treeline in and , often at elevations exceeding 3,000 meters (approximately 9,800 feet), with some accounts placing it in even higher, inhospitable zones near glacial passes. These habitats include dense alpine forests below the snowline during warmer months and migrations to lower altitudes in winter to avoid extreme cold, reflecting an adaptive ecological role tied to seasonal changes in the mountain environment. The Yeti is commonly described as nocturnal in its movements, active primarily at night to forage and traverse rugged terrain while minimizing encounters with humans. Its diet is portrayed as primarily herbivorous, consisting of roots, berries, saline mosses, and occasionally small animals like frogs or pikas, though some tales depict it raiding human food stores or herds for sustenance. Accounts from Sherpa oral traditions emphasize the creature's general avoidance of human populations, using natural and elusive behaviors to remain hidden, but it may engage in defensive actions accompanied by vocalizations like high-pitched whistles or screeches. Socially, the Yeti is often envisioned as solitary or traveling in small groups, with females sometimes leading these units, and possessing a form of communication through its own or calls. Migratory patterns are linked to seasonal , allowing it to exploit available resources across the Himalayan landscape without fixed territories. Interactions with humans in folklore highlight the Yeti's protective nature over its domain, where it enforces boundaries by warning off travelers through ominous signs or direct confrontations, leading Sherpa communities to issue cautions about avoiding suspected Yeti paths to prevent misfortune. In some traditions, it serves as a territorial guardian, occasionally aiding Buddhist practitioners by providing food or water during meditations. Specific folklore behaviors include shape-shifting abilities in pre-Buddhist Bönpo , where the Yeti manifests as a fierce spirit or wildman capable of altering form to test or initiate shamans, often in pairs with a counterpart. It is also revered as a guardian of , embodying natural forces and preserving ecological and spiritual balance by warding off desecrators.

Etymology and Terminology

Origin of "Yeti"

The term "Yeti" originates from Tibetan and Sherpa languages, specifically derived from the Tibetan phrase g.ya' dred, a compound word meaning "rock " or "bear of the rocky place," where g.ya' refers to a high rocky area and dred denotes a . In Sherpa dialect, it is rendered as yeh-teh, translating to "small man-like animal" or "rocky ," reflecting local descriptions of a bear-like creature inhabiting cliffy terrains. Another related term in Tibetan is mi rgod or mi-go, meaning "," which sometimes overlaps with Yeti lore to describe elusive, humanoid figures in remote Himalayan regions. These terms stem from oral traditions among Sherpa and Tibetan communities, where they denoted real or mythical animals rather than monstrous entities. The word "Yeti" entered the around 1937, borrowed directly from Sherpa yeh-teh to describe the supposed ape-like Himalayan creature inferred from snow tracks and local accounts. However, Western awareness of the concept began earlier with the 1921 British Reconnaissance Expedition led by Howard-Bury. During this expedition, Sherpa guides referred to mysterious footprints as those of the metoh-kangmi, or "man-bear of the snows," which Howard-Bury documented in his reports. The expedition's translator misinterpreted metoh-kangmi as implying something foul or unclean, leading journalist Henry Newman to coin the phrase "Abominable Snowman" in a 1921 article for , marking the initial popularization in global media. By the 1930s, the legend evolved through further newspaper coverage in outlets like The Times, shifting from expedition dispatches to sensationalized stories that blended local terms with Western interpretations, solidifying "Yeti" and its synonyms in international discourse. This linguistic adoption transformed oral Himalayan expressions into a globally recognized cryptid nomenclature, distinct from but connected to broader regional cryptid terminology.

Alternative Names and Regional Terms

The Yeti is known by various regional names across the Himalayan cultures, reflecting local linguistic and folkloric traditions that describe similar elusive, humanoid figures inhabiting remote mountainous or forested areas. In Tibetan and Sherpa communities, the term "Dzu-teh" refers to a larger variant, often interpreted as " " due to its association with attacks on livestock, distinguishing it from the smaller "Mi-teh" or "Yeh-teh," meaning "man-" or "little man-like animal." These names stem from oral traditions documented in ethnographic studies of Tibetan , where the Yeti-like beings are categorized by size and behavior. In , the creature is commonly called "Migoi," derived from Tibetan "mi rgod" meaning "," and features prominently in local as a guardian spirit or inhabiting high-altitude forests. Nepali and Sikkimese traditions use terms like "Kang Admi," translating to "," for the high-elevation form, while "Bon Manchi" or "jungle man" denotes a smaller, forest-dwelling variant in Sikkim's indigenous narratives. The "Nyalmo," described as the largest and fiercest type—often led by females with distinctive physical traits—appears in broader Himalayan lore as a formidable mountain spirit. Western adaptations popularized the name "Abominable Snowman" in 1921, stemming from a mistranslation by Henry Newman of the Sherpa phrase "metoh-kangmi" (meaning "man-bear snowman") during Lieutenant-Colonel Charles Howard-Bury's reconnaissance expedition. This term gained traction in 1950s media, overshadowing indigenous names and framing the Yeti as a monstrous figure in global . Beyond the , analogous "" archetypes include the "Almasty" in Caucasian , a hairy, bipedal evading human contact, and the "Chuchunaa" in Yakutian (Siberian) traditions, portrayed as a stealthy forest dweller. These names highlight a shared conceptual thread of reclusive, ape-like beings across Eurasian indigenous stories, with "Yeti" serving as the modern umbrella term.
NameRegionMeaning/Description
Dzu-tehTibetan/Sherpa ()"Cattle "; larger, aggressive variant
Nyalmo (Tibetan/Nepali)Largest type, often female-led mountain spirit
MigoiBhutanese""; guardian or
Kang AdmiNepali/Sikkimese""; high-altitude inhabitant
Bon ManchiSikkimese" man"; smaller dweller
Abominable SnowmanWestern (global media)Mistranslation of "metoh-kangmi"; popularized monstrous image
Almasty ()Hairy ; evasive humanoid

Historical and Cultural Significance

In Himalayan Folklore

In the pre-Buddhist religion of the , the Yeti originated as fierce spirits of nature, embodying mountain goddesses and forest wildmen central to shamanic cosmology and initiation myths. These entities were revered and feared as guardians of hidden valleys and sacred peaks, protecting the natural world from human intrusion while demanding respect through animistic rituals. With the integration of Buddhism into Himalayan societies, Yeti figures evolved into protective spirits or even reincarnated within Tibetan lore, blending with Buddhist doctrines. For instance, recounts a Yeti disciple of the lama Sangwa Dorje who provided food and water during his meditations, symbolizing the creature's role as a spiritual ally, with its preserved scalp later used in fertility rituals at Pangboche Gompa. Rituals to appease these beings, such as chants and offerings during the Dumche ceremony at Khumjung Gompa, invoke the gyamakag—a Yeti representation—to ward off evil and serve as a communal in exorcisms. Among Sherpa and Nepali communities, Yeti tales often tie into animistic beliefs, portraying the creatures as kidnappers of humans—particularly women—for companionship or as initiations into wilderness survival, though some narratives depict them imparting knowledge like herbal remedies. A common motif involves a Yeti abducting a villager at Dakpa for violations, resolved only through Buddhist merit-making led by lamas, underscoring the Yeti's enforcement of moral and environmental boundaries. Cultural practices surrounding the Yeti emphasize reverence, including offerings of or at high passes to prevent attacks and taboos against or photographing them, believed to provoke retaliation from mountain deities. In Lo Manthang's Deje , a mi teh Yeti assists in expulsion, highlighting its protective function. Gender distinctions in Yeti folklore feature male variants as aggressive threats to intruders, while female Nyalmo represent fertility symbols with exaggerated physical traits, such as large, sagging breasts slung over their shoulders, often depicted in shamanic tales as maternal yet formidable forest spirits. These portrayals contrast the Nyalmo's nurturing role in initiation myths with the male Yeti's role as a punitive guardian, reflecting broader animistic views of gendered natural forces.

Influence on Western Culture

The 1954 Daily Mail Snowman Expedition, funded by the British newspaper at a cost equivalent to over £1 million in today's value, marked a pivotal media milestone in introducing the Yeti to Western audiences. Led by journalist Ralph Izzard, the expedition traversed the Himalayas in search of the "Abominable Snowman," capturing footprints and artifacts that fueled sensational headlines and photographs published worldwide. Although it yielded no definitive proof, the venture dramatically amplified global publicity for the legend, transforming the Yeti from obscure Himalayan folklore into a symbol of exotic mystery in the West. Izzard's subsequent book, The Abominable Snowman Adventure (1955), provided detailed accounts of the journey, further embedding the creature in popular narratives and inspiring subsequent explorations. In film and literature, the Yeti emerged as a recurring motif during the mid-20th century, often blending horror with sympathy. The 1957 British The Abominable Snowman, directed by and starring and , depicted the creatures as intelligent, peace-loving beings endangered by human intrusion, drawing directly from contemporary expedition reports. This portrayal humanized the Yeti, influencing its image beyond mere monstrosity in Western media. Similarly, in Hergé's comic (1960), the Yeti appears as a benevolent guardian who rescues Tintin's friend from an , challenging the "abominable" stereotype and popularizing a more nuanced view among younger audiences. Such depictions extended to children's stories, where the Yeti often served as a whimsical adventure companion, reinforcing its cultural foothold. The Yeti's allure spurred adventure from the 1950s onward, with operators offering specialized treks to purported sighting areas like the region. These Yeti-themed expeditions capitalized on the creature's mystique, attracting Western climbers and explorers seeking thrills amid Everest's shadow. By the 2020s, Himalayan , bolstered by such cryptid-inspired itineraries, contributed approximately 6.7% to Nepal's GDP and supported over 1 million jobs, with total economic impact estimated at around $3 billion annually according to the World Travel & Tourism Council. However, as of September 2025, political protests led to a 30% decline in tourist arrivals, affecting the sector's recovery. Nepal's 2020 campaign even featured a , highlighting the creature's role in promotional efforts despite controversies. In modern pop culture, the Yeti persists through video games, memes, and ongoing fascination with . The 2015 DLC Valley of the Yetis for immerses players in a Himalayan valley overrun by aggressive yetis, blending survival gameplay with the legend and reaching millions of gamers. Online memes often juxtapose the Yeti with for humorous cross-cultural comparisons, amplifying its visibility on social platforms. Surveys indicate sustained belief, with a 2021 poll showing 24% of accepting the existence of similar like , reflecting broader intrigue that extends to the Yeti. Cryptid tourism further links the Yeti to Western subcultures, with conventions frequently incorporating Himalayan lore through guest speakers and exhibits on global ape-men. Events like the annual Conference draw thousands interested in shared cryptid pursuits, including Yeti expeditions. National Geographic's coverage, such as documentaries exploring Yeti legends alongside investigations, has sustained academic and into the 2020s.

Reported Sightings

Early Accounts (Pre-20th Century)

Early accounts of Yeti-like creatures in the Himalayan region trace back to ancient Tibetan , where references to "wild men" known as mi rgod appear in border areas as semi-human figures inhabiting remote wildernesses. These descriptions in 7th- to 9th-century oral traditions portray mi rgod as hirsute beings descended from incomplete , lurking in forested and mountainous fringes as elusive guardians or threats to travelers. In the , Western explorers began documenting similar encounters during surveys and treks in and . British Resident B.H. Hodgson, in his 1832 report on Nepalese mammals, recounted how his local hunters fled in terror from a "wild man" in the northern , describing it as a tall, long-haired biped; Hodgson speculated it might be an escaped but noted the fear it instilled as an environmental peril for herders and surveyors. Similarly, in 1899, British officer Laurence A. Waddell described enormous footprints encountered at 17,000 feet in Sikkim's Valley while hunting ; his Lepcha guide attributed them to a "wild man" or jungli ghorra, a hairy, ape-like entity that raided livestock and posed hazards during high-altitude mapping expeditions. Indigenous Sherpa oral histories further embed these beings in local lore, particularly the Dzu-teh (or Dzu-tah), a gray-furred, cow-sized variant said to attack yak herds in the high pastures of and Solukhumbu regions. These accounts, passed down through generations of herders, depict Dzu-teh as nocturnal raiders that could kill multiple yaks in a single assault, forcing communities to perform rituals for protection and viewing the creatures as territorial spirits rather than mere animals; such tales underscored the perils of alpine herding and influenced early British surveys by warning of unseen dangers in uncharted terrains.

20th Century Expeditions

The 1921 British Mount Everest Reconnaissance Expedition, led by Lieutenant Colonel Charles Howard-Bury, marked the first organized Western effort to investigate reports of mysterious tracks in the while scouting routes to the mountain's summit. On , at an elevation of approximately 22,350 feet on the Lhakpa La pass, the team discovered large, human-like footprints in the snow, measured at about 5 to 6 inches wide and up to 13 inches long, with a bifurcated big toe impression. Howard-Bury initially attributed these to a large gray loping through soft snow, creating double tracks that mimicked human strides, but local Sherpa porters immediately identified them as belonging to the "metoh-kangmi," or "wild man of the snows," a legendary ape-like creature from Himalayan said to inhabit remote peaks and prey on yaks. Sherpa testimonies described the metoh-kangmi as a tall, hairy being that avoided humans but left distinctive prints during nocturnal forays, fueling expedition speculation despite the leader's rational explanation upon return. In 1951, during another Everest reconnaissance, British explorer captured iconic photographs of apparent Yeti footprints on the Menlung at around 18,000 feet, west of the mountain. Shipton, accompanied by Dr. Michael Ward and Sherpa , documented a single 13-inch-long print with a pronounced thumb-like in hard , placing his nearby for scale; nearby, a line of smaller tracks suggested a family group traversing the glacier. These images, taken en route to assess an alternative climbing path, were widely published upon the team's return, igniting global media frenzy and popularizing the Yeti as the "abominable snowman" in , with newspapers like sensationalizing them as evidence of an undiscovered . The photos' credibility stemmed from Shipton's reputation as a veteran mountaineer, though later analyses proposed they resulted from melting around a human or animal print. The 1954 Daily Mail Snowman Expedition, sponsored by the British newspaper and led by journalist Ralph Izzard, represented a major media-driven quest to capture the Yeti alive, involving scientists, mountaineers, and naturalists who trekked into Nepal's region. The team, including anthropologist Charles Stonor and naturalist Gerald Russell, interviewed Sherpas and examined artifacts, culminating in a visit to Pangboche Monastery where they documented and sampled a revered "Yeti "—a conical, hairy relic venerated as protection against the creature, with hairs described as reddish-brown and coarse. Izzard reported local accounts of Yeti raids on livestock and avoided paths, but the expedition yielded no live sightings, only sketches and hair samples later identified in preliminary tests as from a or , though the remained a cultural icon until its partial in 1991. During the late 1950s, American oil heir funded extensive Yeti searches in , reflecting peak Western interest amid Cold War-era adventure pursuits. Slick's 1957 reconnaissance with explorer Peter Byrne up the Arun Valley uncovered fresh tracks at 12,000 feet, leading to a full 1958 expedition with a team including Byrne, his brother Bryan, photographer George Holton, and mountaineer Norman Dyhrenfurth. Operating from bases in the Barun and Iswa Kholas, they collected reddish-brown hairs from a and documented small footprints after Sherpa Da Temba reported a 4.5-foot hairy figure; the 1959 follow-up in the Sola and Dudh Kosi valleys examined a 350-year-old Yeti and hand-skeleton at Pangboche, suggesting two Yeti variants—one smaller at 4.5 feet, the other larger at 6-8 feet—based on local lore and relic analysis. These efforts, costing Slick over $100,000 annually, produced no conclusive proof but advanced Western documentation of Himalayan cryptid reports. Soviet scientific interest peaked in 1958 with the Academy of Sciences establishing a commission to study the "snowman," or almas, dispatching expeditions to remote areas including the and Pamirs under anthropologist Boris Porshnev and geologist Sergei Obruchev. Reports from Kazakh and Kyrgyz locals described hairy, bipedal figures up to 7 feet tall scavenging in forested slopes, with the Altai hunts focusing on tracks and hair samples amid folklore of relict hominids surviving in isolation. Preliminary findings suggested possible unknown , though no specimens were captured, aligning with broader USSR efforts to catalog Central Asian wildlife during the Khrushchev era. In the 1970s, Indian expeditions and border patrols in the documented sporadic Yeti-like encounters, contributing to regional intrigue. A notable 1974 incident near Machhermo village in Nepal's region—close to Indian territory—involved Sherpa herder Lhakpa Doma reporting an attack by a 5-foot-tall, hairy biped that killed three yaks and injured her, with large footprints found nearby; Indian military personnel on joint patrols echoed similar unverified sightings of elusive figures in and , attributing them to the Yeti amid heightened border surveillance. These accounts, shared through official dispatches, reinforced the creature's elusiveness without physical evidence.

Modern Sightings (21st Century)

In the early , expeditions continued to report potential Yeti evidence in the . A Japanese climbing team in claimed to have discovered human-like footprints measuring about 20 centimeters long at 4,800 meters on in western , attributing them to the Yeti based on local Sherpa accounts of sightings. These tracks were later dismissed by experts as likely made by Himalayan black bears, whose prints can appear elongated in melting snow. Sightings gained renewed attention in 2019 when an mountaineering team on an expedition in Nepal's Base Camp region photographed large footprints measuring 81 by 38 centimeters near the border. The army's post sparked widespread discussion and memes, with some users hailing it as proof of the creature while others ridiculed the claim as a misidentification of tracks. In 2020, Nepal's tourism board launched a promotional campaign featuring Yeti imagery to attract visitors, highlighting ongoing local villager reports of sightings near amid concerns over potentially displacing wildlife in the region. This initiative drew attention to persistent , with residents in Everest-adjacent villages describing encounters with a large, ape-like figure wandering higher altitudes due to melting glaciers. Amateur investigations have proliferated in recent years through . Trail camera footage purportedly showing shadowy figures in the surfaced on in 2023 and 2024, with videos from trekkers in remote Nepalese and Bhutanese valleys analyzed by online communities as possible Yeti evidence, though experts noted similarities to known animals like langurs or bears in low-light conditions. Belief in the Yeti has resonated globally, paralleling cryptid lore elsewhere. A U.S. national survey found that over one-third of American adults believe in the Yeti's existence, often linking it to as a shared of undiscovered . Post-pandemic travel recovery in 2022 boosted cryptid-themed , including Himalayan treks marketed around Yeti legends, contributing to a surge in visitors seeking mythical encounters. Reports of Yeti sightings have notably declined since the early . Analyses attribute this to increased human encroachment and from and development, reducing opportunities for encounters in traditional areas, alongside modern technology like GPS and cameras deterring elusive behavior or enabling better debunking of claims. As of 2025, no major new sightings have been reported in the .

Scientific Investigations

Physical Evidence and Analysis

Scientific investigations into physical evidence purportedly linked to the Yeti have primarily focused on , , footprints, bones, and teeth collected from the Himalayan region. These analyses, employing techniques such as sequencing and morphological examination, have consistently identified the materials as originating from known animal , particularly bears. One of the earliest examined artifacts was the Pangboche "," a helmet-shaped relic housed in a Nepalese and claimed to be Yeti hide since at least the . Scientific testing in revealed the sample to be composed of from a , a goat-antelope native to the (Capricornis thar). Subsequent examinations, including microscopic analysis, confirmed the material's origin from this or a similar bovid , ruling out any primate connection. In 2017, a comprehensive DNA study analyzed nine samples collected from museums and private collections, including hair, bone, skin, teeth, and fecal matter, all labeled as Yeti relics. Mitochondrial DNA sequencing showed that eight of the samples belonged to bears native to the region—specifically, five from Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus), two from Himalayan brown bears (Ursus arctos isabellinus), and one from an Asiatic black bear (Ursus thibetanus)—while the ninth was from a dog (Canis lupus familiaris). This work built on earlier efforts, such as a 2014 analysis of 30 hair samples, where 28 were identified as from known wildlife including bears, raccoons, and deer, with the remaining two showing affinities to brown bears after accounting for potential DNA degradation. Across these studies, over 90% of purported Yeti hair and tissue samples have been traced to bear species via mitochondrial DNA methods, which target the maternally inherited 12S rRNA gene for species-level identification. Footprint evidence has also undergone scrutiny, with the most iconic being plaster casts made by during the 1951 Everest reconnaissance expedition. These casts, measuring approximately 33 cm in length, captured detailed impressions including dermal ridges—fine skin patterns akin to fingerprints—suggesting a large, bipedal . However, morphological comparisons have attributed similar prints to bears, as their tracks can elongate in melting snow, mimicking humanoid shapes. A 2013 genetic analysis by University researcher examined hair samples and linked them to Himalayan brown bears or an ancient lineage, noting that bear paws exhibit comparable ridge patterns and stride lengths when distorted by environmental factors. Claims involving bones and teeth have similarly failed to support Yeti existence. The notorious "Yeti finger," a mummified digit smuggled from the Pangboche Monastery in the 1950s and later recovered, underwent DNA testing in 2011, revealing it to be human tissue, likely from a deceased individual such as a monk. Tooth samples from the 2017 study were identified as bear origins, with no anomalous primate features. No verified Yeti-related bone or tooth samples have emerged since 2017. Methodologies in these investigations emphasize rigorous protocols to prevent contamination, followed by (PCR) amplification and sequencing of regions like and 12S rRNA. These techniques have identified Ursus thibetanus (Asiatic black bear) in a notable subset of cases, though species predominate; overall, bears account for the vast majority of matches, establishing misidentification as the primary explanation for the evidence. No major DNA or morphological studies on Yeti samples have been published between 2020 and 2025, reflecting a consensus on prior findings. Reviews in this period, such as a 2021 checklist of hypotheses, reaffirm that available evidence points unequivocally to bear origins, with no new data challenging this conclusion.

Proposed Explanations and Debunkings

Many reports of the Yeti are attributed to misidentifications of known Himalayan wildlife, particularly bears observed in bipedal postures or under conditions of poor visibility. Himalayan brown bears (Ursus arctos isabellinus) and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) frequently stand on their hind legs to survey surroundings or forage, creating a silhouette resembling a large, upright primate from a distance. In low-light or snowy conditions, sightings of gray langurs (Semnopithecus schistaceus) or even yaks (Bos grunniens) can be distorted, leading observers to interpret them as an unknown bipedal creature. DNA analyses of purported Yeti hair and tissue samples have consistently matched these bear species, supporting misidentification as the primary explanation for physical evidence. Hoaxes and exaggerations of have also fueled Yeti lore, especially during the media frenzy of the . Expeditions sponsored by newspapers, such as the Daily Mail's 1954 search in the , often amplified unverified claims to attract , resulting in fabricated footprints or artifacts. Local stories, rooted in Sherpa and Tibetan traditions, have been embellished for purposes, with guides and communities promoting Yeti encounters to draw seekers to remote areas like Everest Base Camp. Psychological factors contribute significantly to Yeti perceptions, including —the tendency to discern familiar patterns, such as humanoid figures or oversized tracks, in ambiguous snowy landscapes. At altitudes exceeding 20,000 feet (6,000 meters), acute hypoxia can induce hallucinations and altered perceptions, as reduced oxygen levels affect brain function and lead to vivid delusions among mountaineers. These effects, documented in high-altitude cases, explain fleeting "sightings" during expeditions where fatigue and isolation exacerbate sensory misinterpretations. Theories positing the Yeti as a surviving ape-man, such as a descendant of —an extinct giant ape from Pleistocene —have been widely discredited. Gigantopithecus went extinct between 295,000 and 215,000 years ago, likely due to habitat loss from climate shifts in subtropical forests, with no evidence linking it to the colder Himalayan region. Known only from southern , its remains show no adaptations for high-altitude survival or consistent with Yeti descriptions. Environmental changes, particularly climate-driven habitat alterations, may contribute to fewer misidentifications of bears as Yeti by reducing bear visibility in traditional areas. Warming temperatures and reduced snowfall in the have contracted suitable foraging areas for s, potentially decreasing their presence in sighting zones above 14,000 feet (4,300 meters). Projections indicate a 17.5% shrinkage in in the region by 2050, correlating with fewer animal encounters that could be misattributed to the Yeti.

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