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A psychic is a person[a] who claims to use powers rooted in parapsychology, such as extrasensory perception (ESP), to identify information hidden from the normal senses, particularly involving telepathy or clairvoyance; or who performs acts that are apparently inexplicable by natural laws, such as psychokinesis or teleportation. Although many people believe in psychic abilities, the scientific consensus is that there is no proof of the existence of such powers, and describes the practice as pseudoscience.

Psychics encompass people in a variety of roles. Some are theatrical performers, such as stage magicians, who use various techniques, e.g. prestidigitation, cold reading, and hot reading, to produce the appearance of such abilities for entertainment purposes. A large industry and network exist whereby people advertised as psychics provide advice and counsel to clients.[1] Some famous psychics include Edgar Cayce, Ingo Swann, Peter Hurkos, Janet Lee, Miss Cleo,[2] John Edward, Sylvia Browne, and Tyler Henry. Psychic powers are asserted by psychic detectives and in practices such as psychic archaeology and even psychic surgery.[3]

Critics attribute psychic powers to intentional trickery or to self-delusion.[4][5][6][7] In 1988, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences published a report on the subject, which concluded that there is "no scientific justification from research conducted over a period of 130 years for the existence of parapsychological phenomena".[8] In 2012, a study attempted to repeat recently reported parapsychological experiments that appeared to support the existence of precognition. However, efforts to replicate the results, which involved performance on a memory test to ascertain if post-test information would affect it, "failed to produce significant effects", and thus did "not support the existence of psychic ability" of this kind.[9]

Psychics are sometimes featured in science fiction and fantasy fiction. Examples of fiction featuring characters with psychic powers include the Star Wars franchise, which features "Force-sensitive" beings who can see into the future and move objects telekinetically, along with Dungeons & Dragons and some of the works of Stephen King, amongst many others.

History

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Etymology

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The word "psychic" is derived from the Greek word psychikos ("of the mind" or "mental"), and refers in part to the human mind or psyche (ex. "psychic turmoil"). The Greek word also means "soul". In Greek mythology, the maiden Psyche was the deification of the human soul. The word derivation of the Latin psȳchē is from the Greek psȳchḗ, literally "breath", derivative of psȳ́chein, to breathe or to blow (hence, to live).[10]

French astronomer and spiritualist Camille Flammarion is credited as having first used the word psychic, while it was later introduced to the English language by Edward William Cox in the 1870s.[11]

Early seers and prophets

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Elaborate systems of divination and fortune-telling date back to ancient times. Perhaps the most widely known system of early civilization fortune-telling was astrology, where practitioners believed the relative positions of celestial bodies could lend insight into people's lives and even predict their future circumstances.[12] Some fortune-tellers were said to be able to make predictions without the use of these elaborate systems (or in conjunction with them), through some sort of direct apprehension or vision of the future.[citation needed] These people were known as seers or prophets, and in later times as clairvoyants (French word meaning "clear sight" or "clear seeing") and psychics.

Seers formed a functionary role in early civilization, often serving as advisors, priests, and judges.[11] A number of examples are included in biblical accounts. The book of 1 Samuel (Chapter 9) illustrates one such functionary task when Samuel is asked to find the donkeys of the future king Saul.[13] The role of prophet appeared perennially in ancient cultures. In Egypt, the priests of the sun deity Ra at Memphis acted as seers. In ancient Assyria seers were referred to as nabu, meaning "to call" or "announce".[11]

The Delphic Oracle is one of the earliest stories in classical antiquity of prophetic abilities. The Pythia, the priestess presiding over the Oracle of Apollo at Delphi, was believed to be able to deliver prophecies inspired by Apollo during rituals beginning in the 8th century BC.[14] It is often said that the Pythia delivered oracles in a frenzied state induced by vapors rising from the ground, and that she spoke gibberish, believed to be the voice of Apollo, which priests reshaped into the enigmatic prophecies preserved in Greek literature. Other scholars believe records from the time indicate that the Pythia spoke intelligibly, and gave prophecies in her own voice.[15] The Pythia was a position served by a succession of women probably selected from amongst a guild of priestesses of the temple. The last recorded response was given in 393 AD, when the emperor Theodosius I ordered pagan temples to cease operation. Recent geological investigations raise the possibility that ethylene gas caused the Pythia's state of inspiration.[16]

One of the most enduring historical references to what some consider to be psychic ability is the prophecies of Michel de Nostredame (1503–1566), often Latinized to Nostradamus, published during the French Renaissance period. Nostradamus was a French apothecary and seer who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous worldwide and have rarely been out of print since his death. He is best known for his book Les Prophéties, the first edition of which appeared in 1555. Taken together, his written works are known to have contained at least 6,338 quatrains or prophecies,[17] as well as at least eleven annual calendars. Most of the quatrains deal with disasters, such as plagues, earthquakes, wars, floods, invasions, murders, droughts, and battles – all undated.

Nostradamus is a controversial figure. His many enthusiasts, as well as the popular press, credit him with predicting many major world events. Interest in his work is still considerable, especially in the media and in popular culture. By contrast, most academic scholars maintain that the associations made between world events and Nostradamus' quatrains are largely the result of misinterpretations or mistranslations (sometimes deliberate) or else are so tenuous as to render them useless as evidence of any genuine predictive power.[18]

Englishwoman Mother Shipton demonstrated psychic abilities from her youth and foresaw historical events in the 16th century.[19] In addition to the belief that some historical figures were endowed with a predisposition to psychic experiences, some psychic abilities were thought to be available to everyone on occasion. For example, the belief in prophetic dreams was common and persistent in many ancient cultures.[20]

Nineteenth-century progression

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Edgar Cayce (1877–1945) was a psychic of the 20th century and made many highly publicized predictions.

In the mid-nineteenth century, Modern Spiritualism became prominent in the United States and the United Kingdom. The movement's distinguishing feature was the belief that the spirits of the dead could be contacted by mediums to lend insight to the living.[21][page needed] The movement was fueled in part by anecdotes of psychic powers. One such person believed to have extraordinary abilities was Daniel Dunglas Home, who gained fame during the Victorian period for his reported ability to levitate to various heights and speak to the dead.[22]

As the Spiritualist movement grew, other comparable groups arose, including the Theosophical Society, which was co-founded in 1875 by Helena Blavatsky (1831–1891). Theosophy coupled spiritualist elements with Eastern mysticism and was influential in the early 20th century, later influencing the New Age movement during the 1970s. Blavatsky herself claimed numerous psychic powers.[23]

Late twentieth century

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By the late twentieth century, psychics were commonly associated with New Age culture.[24] Psychic readings and advertising for psychics were common from the 1960s on, as readings were offered for a fee and given in settings such as over the phone, in a home, or at psychic fairs.[25]

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Belief in psychic abilities

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In a 1990 survey of members of the National Academy of Sciences, only 2% of the respondents thought that extrasensory perception had been scientifically demonstrated, with another 2% thinking that the phenomena happened sometimes. Asked about research in the field, 22% thought that it should be discouraged, 63% that it should be allowed but not encouraged, and 10% that it should be encouraged; neuroscientists were the most hostile to parapsychology of all the specialties.[26][27]

A survey of the beliefs of the general United States population about paranormal topics was conducted by The Gallup Organization in 2005.[28] The survey found that 41 percent of those polled believed in extrasensory perception and 26 percent believed in clairvoyance. 31 percent of those surveyed indicated that they believe in telepathy or psychic communication.

A poll of 439 college students conducted in 2006 by researchers Bryan Farha of Oklahoma City University and Gary Steward of University of Central Oklahoma, suggested that college seniors and graduate students were more likely to believe in psychic phenomena than college freshmen.[29] Twenty-three percent of college freshmen expressed a belief in paranormal ideas. The percentage was greater among college seniors (31%) and graduate students (34%).[30] The poll showed lower belief in psychic phenomena among science students than social science and education students.

Some people also believe that anyone can have psychic abilities which can be activated or enhanced through the study and practice of various disciplines and techniques such as meditation and divination, with a number of books and websites being dedicated to instruction in these methods.[31] Another popular belief is that psychic ability is hereditary, with a psychic parent passing their abilities on to their children.[32]

Science fiction

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Psychic abilities are common in science fiction, often under the term "psionics". They may be depicted as innate and heritable, as in Alfred Bester's The Demolished Man, A. E. van Vogt's Slan, Anne McCaffrey's Talents universe series or setting, and the television series Babylon 5. Another recurring trope is the conveyance of psychic power through psychoactive drugs, as in the Dune novels and indirectly in the Scanners films, as well as the ghosts in the StarCraft franchise. Somewhat differently, in Madeleine L'Engle's A Wind in the Door and Robert A. Heinlein's Stranger in a Strange Land, psychic abilities may be achieved by any human who learns the proper mental discipline, known as kything in the former work. Popular movies include The Initiation of Sarah. Psychic characters are also common in superhero comics, for instance Jean Grey, Professor X and Emma Frost as well as many others from the Marvel Comics' X-Men. More characters include the characters Raven Baxter and Booker Baxter from the Disney Channel Original Series That's So Raven and its spin-off Raven's Home. The Disney Channel Original Series American Dragon: Jake Long features recurring characters Cara and Sara, who are twin psychics claimed to be the descendants of the Oracle of Delphi, their visions also contrast their personalities (Cara is a Goth that sees only positive visions, while Sara is always in a good mood despite only seeing negative visions).

Criticism and research

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Participant of a Ganzfeld Experiment whose results have been criticized as being misinterpreted as evidence for telepathy

Parapsychological research has attempted to use random number generators to test for psychokinesis, mild sensory deprivation in the Ganzfeld experiment to test for extrasensory perception, and research trials conducted under contract by the U.S. government to investigate remote viewing. Critics such as Ed J. Gracely say that this evidence is not sufficient for acceptance, partly because the intrinsic probability of psychic phenomena is very small.[4]

Critics such as Ray Hyman and the National Science Foundation suggest that parapsychology has methodological flaws that can explain the experimental results that parapsychologists attribute to paranormal explanations, and various critics have classed the field as pseudoscience. This has largely been due to a lack of replication of results by independent experimenters.[33][34][35][36][37]

The evidence presented for psychic phenomena is not sufficiently verified for scientific acceptance, and there exist many non-paranormal alternative explanations for claimed instances of psychic events. Parapsychologists, who generally believe that there is some evidence for psychic ability, disagree with critics who believe that no psychic ability exists and that many of the instances of more popular psychic phenomena such as mediumism, can be attributed to non-paranormal techniques such as cold reading, hot reading, or even self-delusion.[38][39] Cold reading techniques would include psychics using flattery, intentionally making descriptions, statements or predictions about a person vague and ambiguous, and surreptitiously moving on to another prediction when the psychic deems the audience to be non-responsive.[40] Magicians such as James Randi, Ian Rowland and Derren Brown have demonstrated techniques and results similar to those of popular psychics, but they present physical and psychological explanations as opposed to paranormal ones.[citation needed]

In January 2008 the results of a study using neuroimaging were published. To provide what are purported to be the most favorable experimental conditions, the study included appropriate emotional stimuli and had participants who are biologically or emotionally related, such as twins. The experiment was designed to produce positive results if telepathy, clairvoyance or precognition occurred, but despite this, no distinguishable neuronal responses were found between psychic stimuli and non-psychic stimuli, while variations in the same stimuli showed anticipated effects on patterns of brain activation. The researchers concluded that "These findings are the strongest evidence yet obtained against the existence of paranormal mental phenomena."[41] James Alcock had cautioned the researchers against the wording of said statement.[42]

A detailed study of Sylvia Browne predictions about missing persons and murder cases found that despite her repeated claims to be more than 85% correct, "Browne has not even been mostly correct in a single case".[43] Concerning the television psychics, James Underdown states that testing psychics in a studio setting is difficult as there are too many areas to control: the psychic could be getting help from anyone on the set. The editor controls everything; they can make a psychic look superior or ridiculous depending on direction from the producer. In an Independent Investigations Group exposé of John Edward and James Van Praagh they discovered that what was actually said on the tape day, and what was broadcast to the public were "substantially different in the accuracy. They're getting rid of the wrong guesses... Once you pull back the curtain and see how it's done, it's not impressive at all."[44]

Richard Saunders, Chief Investigator for the Australian Skeptics, and producer and presenter of The Skeptic Zone podcast sought to answer the question "Can self-proclaimed psychics predict unlikely future events with any greater accuracy than chance?"[45] To answer that question he launched "The Great Australian Psychic Prediction Project". Over the course of 12 years, Saunders and then Saunders and his international team of skeptics - Michelle Bijkersma, Kelly Burke, Susan Gerbic, Adrienne Hill, Louis Hillman, Wendy Hughes, Paula Lauterbach, Dr. Angie Mattke, Rob Palmer, and Leonard Tramiel - searched through Australian published media for individuals making psychic or otherwise paranormal predictions.[45]

The goal of the Great Australian Psychic Prediction Project was to collect and then vet the accuracy of every published psychic prediction in Australia since the year 2000. The team analyzed over 3800 predictions made by 207 psychics over the years 2000 to 2020. While a few of the psychic predictions were about events outside of Australia, the predictions primarily focused on celebrities, scandals, natural disasters, weather patterns, sports, and real estate trends.[46]

The results of the analysis of the predictions found that psychics were correct 11% of the time, wrong 35% of the time, and that some predictions were too vague to characterize (19%) or the predicted outcome was so obvious it was to be expected (15%). Two percent of the predictions were unable to be categorized.[46]

The main conclusions of the Great Australian Psychic Prediction Project were:[45]
"Psychics are appallingly bad at predicting future events."
"Most predictions were too vague, expected, or simply wrong."
"Most of what happens is not predicted, and most of what is predicted does not happen."

The Project confirmed that even when considering the margin of error, it is difficult to come to any other conclusion except that people who claim to see into the future cannot do so with a rate of success better than that of educated guesswork, chance, or luck.[46]

Psychic fraud

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In an article reported by Pat Foran in CTV News-Toronto, an Ontario woman, known as Marie Jean, depressed after having to sell her home, began seeing a psychic who went by the name of Maha Dev. Marie Jean reported that Dev claimed she was surrounded by "evil spirits" and that "(her) life could be in danger and (her) sons could lose their lives." The initial payment requested was $10,000 to remove the spirits, but in subsequent visits Dev indicated that the spirits were "too strong" and more money was needed. In total, the woman paid $46,000 before deciding she had been "duped." After Marie Jean reported the incident to CTV News, CTV News contacted the psychic. While Dev did not admit to knowing the woman, the money was refunded in full the next day.[47]

Falling for a psychic scam can result in a loss of one's entire life savings. In an example given in an article by Rob Palmer[48] a woman gave a psychic $41,642 over a period of 10 weeks. The woman had contacted Palmer for help, who put her in contact with Bob Nygaard, a private investigator who specializes in psychic fraud cases. Palmer had previously written articles about Nygaard and the work he was doing.[49][50]

It is apparently difficult to get cases of psychic fraud prosecuted as a crime. Palmer states "when someone reports to law enforcement that they are a victim of this type of fraud, they are often turned away and told it is a civil matter." Palmer goes on to discuss Thomas John and other famous "psychics" who were proven to be frauds.[48] Investigator Ben Radford states that "scammers use various psychological principles to ensnare their prey". Their state of mind, belief in psychic abilities, unhappiness with something happening in their lives and looking for answers. The psychic will instruct the client not to tell their friends or family as they know they may be warned away from the psychic.

With curse removal, the psychic may say that the magic will not work or get worse if they do tell anyone about their involvement with the psychic. The con games from psychics, according to Radford, can "play out over the course of weeks, months, or even years." The psychic is playing the long game and looking to extract as much money as possible. Radford claims that when a victim realizes they have been scammed, often they are too embarrassed to come forward.[51]

Skeptical activist Susan Gerbic has summarized a number of techniques, which she says are used by psychics to create their effects.[52]

See also

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Notes

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Psychic

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A psychic is a person who claims to possess (ESP) or other abilities to acquire information beyond the known physical senses, such as perceiving hidden events, communicating with spirits, or influencing objects with the mind. The term originates from the Greek psychikos, meaning "of the soul or mind," reflecting its historical association with non-physical aspects of human experience. Psychic phenomena encompass a range of purported abilities, including telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving distant or hidden objects), precognition (foreseeing future events), and psychokinesis (mental influence on physical matter). These concepts are central to the field of , which originated in the late as a scientific attempt to investigate anomalous experiences through controlled experiments, building on 19th-century spiritualist movements. Proponents argue that such abilities suggest interactions between and a non-material , potentially linked to or undiscovered natural laws. However, parapsychological research has faced significant methodological challenges, including issues with replication, statistical anomalies, and potential biases in experimental design. The mainstream scientific consensus, as articulated in a 1988 report by the , concludes that over 130 years of investigation provide no scientific justification for the existence of psychic phenomena, viewing them as incompatible with established principles of , , and . Despite this, belief in psychic abilities persists in , influencing , therapy, and practices worldwide.

Definition and Concepts

Definition

A psychic is defined as an individual who claims to possess (ESP) or other abilities enabling them to acquire information concealed from ordinary sensory channels, such as through , , or psychokinesis. This encompasses purported faculties rooted in the mind's interaction with non-physical realities, often described as accessing hidden knowledge about people, events, or objects. Central to this concept is , the scientific investigation of such phenomena, where "psi" serves as the overarching term for anomalous processes of information or energy transfer unexplained by conventional physical or biological mechanisms. Psi includes both perception-based effects (like ESP) and influence-based effects (like mind-over-matter interactions), distinguishing psychic claims from standard psychological processes. The term "psychic" broadly applies to anyone engaging in psi-mediated activities, evolving from 19th-century philosophical inquiries into the psyche to denote these extraordinary mental capacities. Key distinctions exist among related terms: a medium primarily claims to facilitate communication with spirits of the deceased, acting as an intermediary between the living and spiritual realms, whereas a focuses on visual paranormal perception (), such as seeing distant or future events through inner . In contrast, the general psychic designation covers a wider array of abilities, potentially including but not limited to or , without requiring spirit contact or specific sensory modes. These categories often overlap, as many individuals identify with multiple labels based on their reported experiences.

Types of Psychic Abilities

Psychic abilities, referred to as psi phenomena in , are broadly classified into two primary categories: (ESP), which involves the acquisition of information beyond normal sensory means, and psychokinesis (PK), which concerns the mental influence on physical systems. ESP encompasses several subtypes, while PK focuses on direct mind-matter interactions. These categories are used to organize claimed experiences reported by individuals asserting psychic faculties. Telepathy is defined as the direct communication or transfer of thoughts, feelings, or information between minds without relying on conventional sensory channels or physical devices. It is claimed to manifest in scenarios such as one person intuitively knowing another's unspoken intentions during a or receiving from a distant individual in distress. Clairvoyance, often termed "clear seeing," refers to the perception of objects, events, people, or locations that are not accessible through the physical senses, such as viewing hidden or remote scenes. Practitioners describe this ability appearing in psychic readings, where they visualize details about a client's concealed personal items or ongoing situations elsewhere, providing descriptive insights without prior knowledge. Precognition involves the apparent foreknowledge of future events or outcomes that cannot be deduced from current information. Claimed manifestations include spontaneous visions or dreams of impending accidents or meetings, which individuals report verifying after the events occur, as in foreseeing a specific personal encounter days in advance. Retrocognition is the psychic of past events or information not obtainable through normal means, akin to but directed backward in time. It is said to emerge during site visits to historical locations, where sensitives describe forgotten incidents or details about previous inhabitants, such as reliving a building's prior through vivid mental impressions. Psychokinesis (PK), also known as , denotes the ability of the mind to influence physical objects or processes without direct physical contact, embodying the concept of mind over matter. Examples include claims of mentally bending metal objects during demonstrations or subtly affecting random number generators in controlled settings, often tied to intense emotional states. Subtypes within ESP extend to modalities like channeling, a form of involving the reception and verbalization of messages from non-physical entities, spirits, or higher intelligences. Channelers claim this occurs states during sessions, conveying guidance or historical accounts as if speaking for the entity.

Historical Development

Etymology and Ancient Origins

The term "psychic" derives from the ancient Greek adjective psychikos (ψυχικός), meaning "of the soul," "of the mind," or "natural," stemming from psychē (ψυχή), which refers to the , breath, or life force. This root emphasized matters of the spirit or psyche, contrasting with the physical (somatikos). In English, the forms "psychical" (first attested in the 1640s) and "psychic" (first in the 1870s) initially described phenomena related to the human or spirit, gaining prominence within the emerging spiritualist movement that popularized concepts of perception and communication with the dead. In ancient civilizations, figures resembling modern psychics—intermediaries who claimed to access hidden knowledge or divine will through means—emerged as integral to religious and social life, often through practices like (interpreting bird flights or behaviors), (gazing into reflective surfaces for visions), and (reading celestial patterns). In , dating back to the Sumerian period around 3000 BCE, diviners known as bārû examined animal entrails (extispicy) or observed omens to advise rulers on matters of state and war, viewing these as direct communications from gods like . Egyptian practices, from onward (c. 2686–2181 BCE), included oracles where priests interpreted dreams or the movements of statues, as seen in the cult of at Thebes, where such consultations influenced pharaonic decisions. In ancient , during the (c. 1600–1046 BCE), involved inscribing questions on turtle shells or ox bones, heating them to produce cracks, and interpreting these as responses from ancestors or deities, a method that extended to for calendrical and imperial guidance. Greek culture featured prominent oracles, with the most renowned at Delphi, operational from the 8th century BCE, where the Pythia—a priestess of Apollo—entered trance-like states to deliver cryptic prophecies, consulted by leaders like Croesus of Lydia and Alexander the Great for political counsel. Indigenous cultures worldwide, such as those in Siberia and among early Native American and Inuit groups predating written records (evidenced from c. 5000 BCE in archaeological contexts), revered shamans as healers and seers who journeyed to spirit realms via rituals involving drumming or psychoactive plants to diagnose illnesses, predict hunts, or mediate community disputes. In the biblical tradition of the Old Testament, prophets like Samuel and Elijah (c. 9th–8th centuries BCE) functioned as divine conduits, receiving visions or auditory messages from Yahweh, though the texts distinguish their God-inspired revelations from condemned pagan divination methods. These ancient psychic-like roles held profound cultural significance in pre-modern societies, embedding within , , and daily decision-making; for instance, Mesopotamian kings required omen readings before battles, while Delphic oracles shaped Greek policies and colonial expansions, reinforcing through perceived access to cosmic or divine truths.

Traditional Seers and Prophets

Traditional seers and prophets emerged as pivotal figures in medieval and early modern societies, bridging the spiritual and temporal realms through visions, prophecies, and healing practices. In Europe, (1412–1431), a girl from Domrémy, claimed divine visions from saints that compelled her to support Charles VII's claim to the French throne during the . These visions led her to lead French forces to victories, such as the lifting of the Siege of Orléans in 1429, profoundly influencing military strategy and national morale. Similarly, Michel de Nostredame, known as (1503–1566), served as physician and astrologer to French kings including Henry II and Charles IX, publishing his famous in 1555, which contained cryptic quatrains interpreted as foretellings of future events. Beyond these prominent individuals, folk healers—often women in rural European communities—practiced herbalism and rooted in pre-Christian traditions, offering remedies for ailments and guidance amid uncertainty. In non-Western traditions, indigenous spiritualists in pre-colonial and the fulfilled analogous roles as mediators with the . African spiritual practices involved diviners and healers who interpreted omens and communed with ancestors to address community crises, drawing from oral traditions that emphasized with and spiritual forces. In the , shamans among indigenous groups, such as those in Mesoamerican societies, used rituals and visions to prophesy outcomes of hunts, wars, or environmental changes, integrating these insights into tribal . held central place in medieval , where figures invoked biblical models for inspired and apocalyptic visions, though the Church largely restricted active to canonical saints. In , prophetic traditions extended through holy men and apocalyptic texts like malhamat, which blended with eschatological forecasts to guide rulers during turbulent times. Renaissance Europe saw a surge in practices, including chiromancy (palm reading) and astromancy, often patronized by for personal and political foresight. These seers exerted significant societal influence, shaping responses to wars, plagues, and royal decisions, yet faced severe persecution. Joan of Arc's visions directly swayed royal policy, bolstering against and contributing to the war's eventual resolution in France's favor. During the (1347–1351), prophets and healers in and the Islamic world offered interpretations of divine wrath, advising quarantines or rituals that influenced communal behaviors and leadership choices amid widespread mortality. Nostradamus's prophecies, for instance, were consulted by royalty for omens during conflicts like the . However, such roles often led to accusations of ; during the European witch hunts from the 15th to 17th centuries, an estimated 30,000–60,000 individuals, including many folk healers and visionaries, were executed for alleged sorcery, as ecclesiastical and secular authorities conflated prophecy with demonic pacts. The Enlightenment marked a transition toward , diminishing the authority of traditional seers. The , beginning in the , promoted empirical inquiry over explanations, fostering toward and . English scholar Reginald Scot's The (1584) exemplified this shift, systematically debunking and prophetic claims as illusions or frauds, arguing they contradicted Christian doctrine and reason; the book was ordered burned by King James I yet influenced later rationalist critiques. By the , educated elites increasingly viewed seers as relics of , paving the way for secular governance and scientific dominance.

Modern Emergence in the 19th and 20th Centuries

The revival of interest in psychic phenomena during the 19th century began with the Spiritualist movement in the United States, catalyzed by the experiences of the Fox sisters in 1848. In Hydesville, New York, sisters Margaret (age 14) and Kate (age 11) reported mysterious knocking sounds in their home, which they attributed to communication with the spirit of a murdered peddler; by using a code of raps, they claimed to convey messages from the afterlife. This event drew widespread attention, leading to public demonstrations and the rapid spread of séances—gatherings where mediums purportedly channeled spirits through table-tipping, automatic writing, or physical manifestations like levitating objects. Spiritualism appealed to a grieving public amid high mortality rates from industrialization and war, positioning itself as a "scientific religion" that bridged the material and spiritual worlds. In , parallel developments institutionalized psychic beliefs. French educator (pseudonym of Hippolyte Léon Denizard Rivail) systematized Spiritism through empirical observation of , publishing in 1857; this foundational text compiled over 1,000 questions and answers from spirits on topics like , moral evolution, and the , emphasizing rational into psychic communications. Meanwhile, Russian occultist Helena Petrovna Blavatsky co-founded the in New York in 1875 with and , promoting a synthesis of Eastern philosophies, , and psychic abilities such as and to foster universal brotherhood and spiritual enlightenment. These movements elevated psychic practices from folk traditions to organized doctrines, attracting intellectuals and influencing global occult revivals. The 20th century saw further institutionalization and scientific scrutiny of psychic claims. The (SPR), founded in in 1882 by scholars including , (who coined "telepathy"), and Edmund Gurney, conducted rigorous investigations into , apparitions, and , aiming to apply empirical methods to phenomena often dismissed as . gained prominence from the 1910s onward, delivering trance-induced "readings" on medical diagnoses, past lives, and prophecies; by his death in 1945, he had provided over 14,000 such sessions, many documented and influencing holistic health movements. The movement crystallized in the 1960s and 1970s amid countercultural shifts, incorporating psychic elements like channeling and energy work from earlier Spiritualist and Theosophical roots, with communities forming around figures like David Spangler at the to explore personal transformation and . Key events highlighted both fascination and skepticism. Séances became social rituals, but exposés revealed widespread ; for instance, in 1888, Margaret Fox confessed in the that the original rappings were produced by snapping her toe joints, though she later recanted, underscoring ongoing debates about authenticity in . Psychoanalyst engaged with psychic research, expressing cautious interest in as a form of unconscious transmission in essays like "Dreams and Telepathy" (1922), suggesting it could align with psychoanalytic principles rather than . Psychic practices also spread globally, adapting to local contexts. In , developed in 1922 after a meditative experience on Mount Kurama, establishing the Usui Reiki Ryoho Gakkai society in to teach palm-healing techniques for channeling universal life energy (ki) to promote physical and spiritual well-being. In , emerged in in 1908 when medium Zélio Fernandino de Moraes, during a Spiritist session, channeled a spirit entity that rejected racial hierarchies in , blending African orixá worship, Indigenous , , and Catholic elements through possession rituals for healing and guidance. These developments reflected psychic phenomena's integration into diverse cultural frameworks during industrialization and modernization.

Cultural and Social Impact

Role in Religion and Spirituality

In , prophecy represents a sanctioned form of or divine communication, where individuals receive revelations from to guide or warn communities. In and , biblical prophets such as , , and are depicted as possessing abilities to foresee events and perform miracles through God's spirit, as detailed in texts like the Books of Samuel and Isaiah. Similarly, acknowledges a lineage of prophets culminating in , but the Quran explicitly condemns false prophets and soothsayers who claim unauthorized visions, viewing such practices as deception or satanic influence, as in Surah 7:188 and Surah 27:65. In , psychic-like abilities known as siddhis are integrated into spiritual practices as byproducts of advanced and , signifying mastery over the mind and subtle energies. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras outline eight primary siddhis, including (divya drishti) and (para citta jnana), attained through —a focused concentration, , and absorption that aligns the practitioner's with cosmic prakriti. These powers are seen as natural extensions of spiritual evolution but are cautioned against as distractions from ultimate liberation (), emphasizing their role in demonstrating yogic discipline rather than personal gain. Scholarly analyses link siddhis to psi phenomena, noting their parallels with reported extraordinary human experiences in meditative traditions. Spiritual movements like shamanism and modern paganism, including Wicca, incorporate psychic elements as tools for connecting with the divine or spirit world, often distinguishing between benevolent inspiration and harmful possession. In shamanism, practitioners induce trance states to channel spirit guides for healing and prophecy, interpreting these as extensions of ancestral or nature-based spirituality rather than demonic forces. Wicca integrates divination methods like tarot or scrying as sacred rites to access intuitive wisdom from deities, framing them as divine collaboration while rejecting coercive possession. Religious debates often pivot on intent and source: accepted as divine inspiration in cases like Catholic saints' visions (e.g., St. Teresa of Ávila's ecstatic revelations), but condemned as idolatry or occultism when unsanctioned, as per biblical prohibitions against mediums in Deuteronomy 18:10-12. Non-Western traditions further illustrate psychic roles in spirituality through structured divination and visionary rites. In Yoruba-derived African religions, divination employs binary oracle patterns (odu) cast via tools like palm nuts or shells to reveal destinies and restore cosmic balance, guided by the deity Orunmila and emphasizing harmony between human ori (inner head) and universal forces. Among Native American peoples, such as the Teton , vision quests involve and isolation to solicit guardians or prophetic insights, serving as rites of passage that impart lifelong spiritual direction through hallucinatory or clairvoyant experiences. In , state oracles enter deity-induced trances to deliver prophecies, where the medium's body is temporarily possessed by protective spirits like Nechung, aiding decision-making in religious and political affairs while underscoring the soteriological aim of transcending worldly attachments. These practices highlight ongoing intra-religious tensions, balancing acceptance of visionary gifts as pathways to enlightenment against fears of misuse as idolatrous or deceptive. Psychics have been a recurring motif in since the , often intertwined with themes of mystery, the , and human . In ' 1868 novel , psychic elements manifest through spiritualist influences and dream sequences that blur the line between rational detection and otherworldly intuition, reflecting the era's fascination with mesmerism and the . This genre popularized psychics as enigmatic figures aiding in crime resolution, setting a template for later . Arthur Conan Doyle's stories, beginning with in 1887, portray the detective's deductive prowess as an almost psychic intuition, drawing from Doyle's personal advocacy for spiritualism despite Holmes' . In 20th-century literature, horror author elevated psychic abilities to central plot drivers, exploring their psychological toll and societal isolation. Characters like in Carrie (1974), who wields amid trauma, and in The Dead Zone (1979), whose leads to moral dilemmas, embody psychics as both empowered outcasts and tragic victims, influencing perceptions of as a burdensome gift. King's works, such as The Shining (1977), popularized the "shine" as a hereditary psychic trait, blending horror tropes with empathetic portrayals of mental vulnerability. Film adaptations and original cinema have amplified these literary roots, evolving psychic portrayals from eerie mystics to heroic or flawed protagonists. Early silent films like (1920) depicted psychics through hypnotic and visionary sequences, symbolizing subconscious turmoil in expressionist style. By mid-century, Hollywood horrors such as The Night Has a Thousand Eyes (1948) showed clairvoyants tormented by foresight, while later entries like (1999) humanized mediums as empathetic communicators with the dead, shifting focus from villainy to redemption. Television has further diversified psychic representations, often in procedural formats that blend supernatural elements with crime-solving. The series Medium (2005–2011), inspired by real-life medium , features protagonist Allison Dubois using visions to assist , portraying psychics as reliable allies despite personal costs like family strain. In contrast, The Mentalist (2008–2015) subverts the trope with , a former fraudulent psychic who employs hyper-observation to mimic abilities, critiquing the while entertaining through clever misdirection. The comedy (2006–2014) satirizes psychic pretenders via , who fakes visions for detective work, using humor to lampoon commercial psychics and highlight genuine intuition's value without endorsing the . Science fiction media frequently casts psychics as emblems of otherness and ethical power struggles, reinforcing themes of alienation in futuristic or mutant societies. In Star Trek, telepathic species like Vulcans (e.g., Spock's mind melds) and Betazoids (e.g., Deanna Troi's empathy) explore psychic abilities as evolutionary traits that foster interspecies understanding yet provoke fears of mental invasion, as seen in episodes like "Where No Man Has Gone Before" (1966). The X-Men franchise, starting with Stan Lee and Jack Kirby's comics in 1963, depicts mutants with psychic powers—such as Professor X's telepathy and Jean Grey's Phoenix force—as metaphors for marginalized groups, grappling with discrimination, control, and the "otherness" of innate abilities that society fears or exploits. Commercial tropes peaked in the 1990s with psychic hotlines, epitomized by the Psychic Readers Network's ads, which aired ubiquitously on late-night TV and portrayed psychics as accessible advisors for love and fate, generating over $1 billion in calls by blending entertainment with . This era's satirical backlash appeared in media parodies, but it solidified psychics as pop culture commodities. In the streaming age, series like (2016–2019) continue this evolution, weaving psychic narratives into explorations of belief and community, adapting 19th-century mysticism to contemporary digital storytelling.

Contemporary Beliefs and Practices

In contemporary society, belief in psychic abilities remains prevalent, particularly , where a 2025 Gallup poll found that 48% of adults believe in psychic or spiritual , reflecting ongoing public interest in extrasensory phenomena. in (ESP) has declined in recent years; a 2005 Gallup poll reported 41% endorsement, but the 2025 Gallup poll found belief in ESP-related phenomena such as or at 24-29%. Demographic variations show higher belief among women compared to men and lower among graduates, as per the 2025 Gallup poll. Globally, a 2023 poll found varying belief levels, with 45% in endorsing ESP compared to 25% in the UK, highlighting cultural differences in acceptance. The modern psychic industry has expanded significantly through digital platforms, with online services growing from a market value of USD 2.8 billion in 2023 to a projected USD 5.4 billion by 2031, at a (CAGR) of 9.4%. Platforms such as Keen and Kasamba, established in the , facilitate virtual consultations via chat, phone, and video, making services accessible 24/7 and contributing to the industry's shift toward technology-driven delivery. Psychic fairs continue as in-person gatherings, often featuring multiple readers and vendors, while psychics like have boosted visibility; Henry, known for his Netflix series Life After Death with Tyler Henry, maintains a waiting list exceeding 600,000 people and has conducted high-profile readings for figures like and . Globally, psychic practices adapt to cultural contexts, with a notable rise in where consultants, often incorporating psychic elements like energy reading, assist clients in harmonizing environments for prosperity and well-being, particularly among Chinese communities. In , —a syncretic belief system blending spirit communication with Catholic and indigenous elements—remains widespread, influencing health, luck, and daily decisions through mediums who channel spirits in communal sessions. The digital age has introduced innovations like AI-assisted readings, with apps such as Tarotcards.io and Phuture Me offering personalized interpretations via algorithms that simulate traditional card draws, appealing to users seeking quick, affordable spiritual guidance. The accelerated the transition from in-person to virtual psychic sessions, as measures made physical gatherings unfeasible and increased demand for remote services, with many practitioners reporting a surge in online bookings for and . Virtual readings, once secondary, became the norm, enhancing accessibility but challenging the tactile aspects of tools like crystal balls or in-person energy sensing, a shift that persists post-pandemic. This digital pivot has democratized access but also raised questions about the authenticity of remote connections in psychic work.

Scientific Perspectives

Early Investigations

The (SPR) was established in in 1882 by a group of scholars, including Frederic Myers, , and Edmund Gurney, with the explicit aim of conducting scientific inquiries into claims of psychic phenomena, such as apparitions, hauntings, and . This organization marked the first systematic effort to apply empirical methods to what had previously been largely anecdotal reports, particularly those emerging from the 19th-century spiritualist movement. Early SPR investigations focused on mediums, including controlled sittings to test claims of spirit communication; for instance, they examined the cross-correspondences, a series of purported messages from deceased individuals that spanned from 1901 to the 1930s, aiming to verify telepathic or evidential links beyond fraud or coincidence. These studies emphasized documentation and witness corroboration, though they often grappled with the challenge of replicating phenomena under observation. In the United States, played a pivotal role in advancing similar efforts by co-founding the (ASPR) in 1885, which collaborated closely with the SPR to investigate mediums like , whose trance sessions James personally attended and analyzed for signs of genuine psi or subconscious cues. James's involvement underscored a commitment to rigorous scrutiny, as he advocated treating psychic claims as hypotheses worthy of psychological testing rather than outright dismissal. Complementing these field-based probes, early studies served as precursors to later protocols like the ganzfeld experiments; SPR researchers conducted thought-transference trials in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, such as those presented at international congresses from 1889 to 1905, where participants attempted to mentally transmit simple images or ideas under varying conditions of isolation and control. Additionally, the SPR undertook investigations of disturbances, documenting cases like the historical Epworth Rectory haunting of 1716–1717 and early 20th-century outbreaks involving object movements and noises, often linking them to stressed individuals rather than supernatural agents. A notable example of early investigative challenges was the SPR's examination of the photographs in the 1920s, where members like Edward Gardner initially endorsed the images as evidence of psychic reality, only for subsequent analyses to reveal inconsistencies and artificial elements, highlighting vulnerabilities to deception. This case, alongside broader SPR work on , contributed to early fraud exposures and reinforced the need for photographic and evidential verification. By the 1930s, J.B. Rhine advanced methodological rigor at University's Parapsychology Laboratory, established in 1930, where he developed ESP card tests using —decks featuring five symbols (circle, cross, waves, square, star)—to quantify and through repeated trials with subjects guessing hidden cards at rates exceeding chance. Rhine's approach shifted focus from mediums to laboratory settings, reporting hit rates around 25-30% in initial studies, though critics noted potential . Throughout these pioneering efforts, methodological debates centered on the tension between from spontaneous psychic experiences and the demand for controlled, replicable experiments to establish validity. SPR founders like Sidgwick prioritized sifting reliable testimony from , yet acknowledged the limitations of uncontrolled séances, while Rhine's lab paradigm explicitly critiqued anecdotal reliance by introducing statistical and double-blind protocols to minimize bias. This foundational shift laid the groundwork for psychical research as a quasi-scientific discipline, emphasizing empirical over unverified narratives, even as it faced from mainstream for its inconclusive results.

Modern Research and Skepticism

Modern research into psychic phenomena since the mid-20th century has focused on controlled laboratory experiments to test claims of anomalous cognition and psychokinesis, often using statistical methods to detect deviations from chance. The Princeton Engineering Anomalies Research (PEAR) laboratory, established in 1979 at Princeton University, conducted extensive tests over nearly three decades using random number generators to examine whether human intention could bias random physical processes. Researchers reported small but consistent effects across millions of trials, suggesting a subtle mind-machine interaction with odds against chance exceeding 1 in a billion. However, skeptical analyses have highlighted flaws in experimental design, such as inadequate randomization and selective reporting, rendering the results non-replicable and attributable to statistical artifacts rather than psi effects. The lab closed in 2007 amid funding challenges and ongoing criticism. Building on similar methodologies, the (GCP), launched in 1998 by former researchers, deployed a global network of random event generators to monitor correlations between machine outputs and major world events, positing that collective human focus might produce measurable non-random patterns. Initial analyses claimed significant deviations during events like the 9/11 attacks and global meditations, with cumulative odds against chance around 1 in 10^13. Critiques from statistical experts have emphasized post-hoc data selection, absence of pre-specified hypotheses, and failure in independent replications, concluding that apparent correlations arise from multiple testing biases rather than consciousness influences. Skeptical organizations have systematically challenged these and other psi claims through rigorous testing and advocacy for scientific standards. The (CSI), founded in 1976, investigates assertions via empirical scrutiny and publishes peer-reviewed critiques, contributing to the marginalization of in mainstream science. Complementing this, the James Randi Educational Foundation's One Million Dollar Challenge, active from 1964 until its termination in 2015, invited claimants to demonstrate psychic abilities under controlled conditions but awarded the prize to none of over 1,000 applicants, underscoring the absence of verifiable evidence. Meta-analyses of key experiments have reinforced by revealing non-replicable effects and conceptual errors. Daryl Bem's 2011 studies on , published in a top journal, reported of retroactive behavioral priming with p-values below 0.01, but large-scale replication efforts across multiple labs yielded null results, with effect sizes near zero and meta-analyses attributing original findings to questionable practices like optional stopping. Similarly, attempts to ground psi in —such as invoking observer effects or entanglement to explain non-local —have been dismissed as misinterpretations, as quantum principles apply to subatomic scales and do not extend to macroscopic psychic claims without violating established physical laws. Parapsychology occupies a fringe position in contemporary academia, with dedicated confined to a handful of specialized institutes and journals, lacking integration into broader psychological or curricula. Recent surveys of academic psychologists reveal low endorsement of psi, with fewer than 10% expressing belief in its existence, reflecting persistent evidential gaps and methodological concerns that prevent mainstream . As of 2025, persists through organizations such as the Parapsychological Association and , including annual conferences and studies employing new technologies to explore anomalous cognition, though these efforts remain outside mainstream scientific validation.

Fraud and Ethical Issues

Historical and Notable Frauds

Throughout history, psychic phenomena have been marred by numerous instances of deception, particularly in the 19th century when Spiritualism gained prominence. One early example involved the , Margaret and , who in 1848 claimed to receive communications from spirits through mysterious rapping sounds in their Hydesville, New York, home, sparking the modern Spiritualist movement. However, on October 21, 1888, Margaretta Fox publicly confessed that the raps were produced by cracking her toe joints, admitting it was a designed to frighten their mother and later exploited for profit. This revelation significantly undermined public confidence in Spiritualism, providing ammunition for critics who argued the movement was built on from its inception. Spirit photography emerged as another fraudulent practice in the mid-19th century, with William Mumler pioneering "ghost images" in the 1860s by producing photographs that appeared to show deceased individuals alongside living sitters. Mumler's technique relied on double exposures or staging living models as spirits, capitalizing on grief over Civil War deaths. In 1869, he was tried for fraud in after testified against him, but Mumler was acquitted due to insufficient evidence of intent to defraud. Despite the trial, his case highlighted the vulnerability of emerging technologies to manipulation and eroded trust in purported spirit evidence. Common techniques employed by fraudulent psychics included , where practitioners make vague, broadly applicable statements and observe the subject's reactions to refine their guesses, creating the illusion of specific knowledge. involved pre-obtaining personal details about clients through or to simulate psychic insight. In séances, mediums often used confederates—secret accomplices posing as audience members or spirits—to relay information or manipulate events, alongside props such as hidden wires for levitating objects, collapsible trumpets for spirit voices, or treated to resemble ectoplasm. These methods were exposed repeatedly by investigators, revealing a pattern of deliberate trickery rather than ability. In the late , Italian medium gained fame for table levitations and materializations during séances across and the . However, in 1894, during controlled sessions at Cambridge University, investigator Richard Hodgson caught her using her foot to tilt tables and free a hand to move objects, leading to her exposure as a . Palladino's deceptions, which fooled some prominent scientists, exemplified how skilled physical manipulation could mimic psychic powers under lax conditions. The 20th century saw high-profile cases amplified by media. Uri Geller rose to prominence in the 1970s with claims of telekinesis, particularly bending spoons without apparent force. In 1973, magician James Randi demonstrated on The Tonight Show that Geller's feats were achievable through sleight-of-hand techniques, such as pre-weakening metal with tension or misdirection, debunking his psychic assertions. Similarly, televangelist Peter Popoff conducted faith-healing revivals in the 1980s, appearing to receive divine details about audience members' ailments. Randi exposed this in 1986 by using a radio scanner to intercept coded messages broadcast by Popoff's wife from backstage, revealing a hot-reading scam via wireless earpiece that aired on The Tonight Show. The revelation caused Popoff's ministry to collapse temporarily, costing him millions in revenue. Television psychics faced scrutiny in the with the Psychic Readers Network, promoted through infomercials featuring "," a purported Jamaican shaman offering readings via . In reality, Cleo (Youree Dell Harris) was an American actress using scripted cold-reading tactics, while the company deceived callers about per-minute charges, leading to unauthorized billing. The filed suit in 2002, resulting in a settlement that required the forgiveness of approximately $500 million in outstanding charges, a $5 million payment to the FTC, and a ban on the deceptive practices. In November 2025, Australian police arrested a 53-year-old posing as a fortune teller and master, along with her 25-year-old daughter, for allegedly defrauding victims of approximately $46 million (A$70 million) by convincing them to take out loans under false promises of future wealth. The , which targeted the Vietnamese community in , involved predictions of becoming billionaires and lasted several years. These exposures collectively diminished public trust in psychic claims, as high-profile confessions and demonstrations illustrated the prevalence of trickery, prompting greater toward the field. For instance, the ' admission reverberated through Spiritualist circles, causing many adherents to question foundational events and contributing to a decline in unbridled enthusiasm for mediums. In the United States, psychic services are subject to federal and state laws prohibiting deceptive advertising and fraudulent practices, primarily enforced by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). For instance, in 2002, the FTC charged the promoters of the "Miss Cleo" psychic hotline with misleading consumers through false promises of free readings and unauthorized billing, resulting in over $360 million in consumer losses; the settlement required the forgiveness of approximately $500 million in outstanding charges and an additional $5 million payment to the FTC. Local regulations vary, with some municipalities requiring occupational licenses for psychics and imposing bans on practices like palmistry or clairvoyance for hire, though such restrictions have been repealed in places like Norfolk, Virginia, in 2024 amid growing industry acceptance. Globally, regulations on psychic services differ significantly, often treating them as potential or . In , fortune-telling and psychic practices are banned under laws prohibiting "feudal ," with enforcement targeting unauthorized spiritual services on platforms and in public; violations can lead to fines or detention, as seen in cases involving shamans prosecuted under anti-cult provisions. In the , the Consumer from Unfair Trading Regulations 2008 replaced the of 1951, shifting focus to general consumer protections against misleading claims while allowing honest psychic services, though psychics must avoid unsubstantiated guarantees to evade charges. Other jurisdictions, such as parts of the , apply similar consumer rules to prevent exploitative advertising. Ethical concerns in psychic practices center on the potential exploitation of vulnerable individuals, particularly those experiencing , , or emotional distress. Psychic readings can prey on these vulnerabilities by offering unsubstantiated reassurances about lost loved ones or future outcomes, leading to financial and emotional dependency without providing genuine therapeutic benefits. is another key dilemma, as clients may not fully understand the interpretive and non-scientific nature of readings, potentially forgoing professional support; ethical practitioners emphasize transparency to mitigate this risk. Organizations like the Association of Independent Readers and Rootworkers promote codes requiring non-judgmental advice, confidentiality, and avoidance of harm, underscoring the moral obligation to prioritize client . The psychic industry employs limited self-regulation through voluntary certifications and disclaimers to address these issues. Certifications from programs like the International Psychics Association or the Institute of Noetic Sciences' mediumship guidelines require adherence to ethical standards, such as accurate representation of abilities and no engagement in harmful activities, though no universal regulatory body exists. Modern services often include disclaimers stating that readings are for entertainment only, not substitutes for legal, medical, or financial advice, and are not guaranteed accurate, aiming to balance free speech protections with fraud prevention. Debates persist over whether such measures sufficiently protect consumers or if stricter licensing is needed to curb unethical practices. Contemporary challenges include the proliferation of online psychic scams in the digital era, where impersonators on platforms like and exploit to solicit payments for fake readings, targeting isolated individuals and causing significant financial losses—estimated at $3.5 million in alone since 2020. These schemes amplify psychological by fostering false hopes, delaying resolution, or exacerbating anxiety among vulnerable users, as evidenced by reports of emotional distress from misleading predictions. Scholarly surveys indicate that while some seek psychics for stress relief, reliance on such services can hinder access to evidence-based emotional support, underscoring the need for enhanced digital consumer safeguards.

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