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Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States
Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States
Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States
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  Caribbean group
  East and South Africa group
  Pacific group
  West African group
  Southern African group
  Central African group
  East Africa group

Key Information

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS, French: Organisation des États d'Afrique, des Caraïbes et du Pacifique) is a group of countries in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific that was created by the Georgetown Agreement in 1975.[1] Formerly known as African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP), the organisation's main objectives are sustainable development and poverty reduction within its member states, as well as their greater integration into the world's economy. All of the member states, except Cuba, are signatories to the Cotonou Agreement with the European Union.

The Cotonou Agreement (signed in Cotonou, Benin, in June 2000) is the successor to the Lomé Conventions. One of the major differences from the Lomé Convention is that the partnership is extended to new actors such as civil society, private sector, trade unions and local authorities. These will be involved in consultations and planning of national development strategies, provided with access to financial resources and involved in the implementation of programmes.

Many small island developing states are OACPS states; the fourth Lomé Convention was revised in 1995 in Mauritius and gives special attention to island countries in this agreement. Combined the EU and the members of the OACPS represent over 1.5 billion people and more than half of the seats at the United Nations.[2]

Member states

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Africa

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The African OACPS countries negotiate in five Economic Partnership Agreements groups[3] (West Africa, Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa, Southern Africa Development Community, East African Community, Eastern and Southern Africa) with the EU.

"West Africa group" (ECOWAS plus Mauritania)


"CEMAC plus São Tomé and Príncipe, DR Congo group" (ECCAS related)

EAC group

"Eastern and Southern Africa group" (COMESA related)


SADC group

Caribbean

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All countries of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) plus Dominican Republic group negotiate in the CARIFORUM Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with the European Union (EU). The Caribbean-bloc is sometimes co-represented at EU-LAC (Latin America and the Caribbean).

Pacific

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All developing member states of the Pacific Islands Forum group[5] and Timor-Leste negotiate in the Pacific EPA with the EU.

North Atlantic EU OCTs

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In this region are located the EU overseas countries and territories (OCTs) of Greenland and Saint Pierre and Miquelon, but there are no OACPS states.[6]

South Atlantic dependent territories

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In this region are located the U.K. overseas territories of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha and Falkland Islands, but there are no OACPS states.[6] Nevertheless, Saint Helena is developing links with the SADC EPA group.[7]

Uninhabited territories

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The uninhabited EU OCT does not participate in regional integration and does not receive development funding from the EU.

The uninhabited U.K. overseas territories are not OACPS states and do not receive development funding from the EU.

Special designations

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The Cotonou agreement recognises the specific challenges faced by less developed countries, land-locked countries, and islands in their economic development. Therefore, those countries are granted a more favourable treatment than other OACPS member countries. The text of the Cotonou agreement has been updated in 2005 and 2010, but the lists have not, despite the fact that the actual list of LDCs as defined by the United Nations has changed: Cape Verde has graduated from LDC status in December 2007, while Senegal has acquired the status in 2001 and Timor-Leste in 2003. The following lists should thus not be considered as the actual lists of OACPS LDCs and islands (a few islands are also not listed).

Annex VI of the Cotonou agreement lists the following designations:

Least-developed OACPS states

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Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cape Verde, the Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Kiribati, Lesotho, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mozambique, Niger, Rwanda, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Tuvalu, Togo, Uganda, Vanuatu, Zambia.

The Least developed OCTs are the following: Anguilla, Mayotte, Montserrat, Saint Helena, Turks and Caicos Islands, Wallis and Futuna, Saint Pierre and Miquelon.[9]

Landlocked OACPS states

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Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Central African Republic, Chad, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Lesotho, Malawi, Mali, Niger, Rwanda, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

Island OACPS states

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Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Cape Verde, Comoros, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Fiji, Grenada, Haiti, Jamaica, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mauritius, Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tuvalu, Vanuatu.

Organs

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See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States

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The Organisation of African, and Pacific States (OACPS) is an comprising 79 member states from , the , and the Pacific regions, formalized in 2020 through the revised Georgetown Agreement of 2019 as the successor to the African, and Pacific (ACP) Group established in 1975. Its core objectives center on fostering , eradicating poverty, enhancing trade, and integrating members into the global economy via collaborative actions in political, economic, social, and cultural domains. Historically rooted in preferential trade and aid arrangements with the under the Conventions (1975–2000), which introduced non-reciprocal trade preferences and stabilization mechanisms like Stabex for export earnings volatility, the OACPS-EU relationship evolved into the broader in 2000 and culminated in the Samoa Agreement signed in November 2023, emphasizing , peace, environmental sustainability, and migration management across protocols for , the Caribbean, and the Pacific. The organization's structure features a of Heads of State and Government as the primary decision-making body, supported by a General Secretariat to coordinate activities and reinforce member capacities. While the OACPS has sought to cultivate autonomy beyond its longstanding EU ties—evident in declarations like the Libreville and Santo Domingo commitments to intra-group solidarity—recent internal challenges have tested its viability, including allegations of financial irregularities such as suspected fraud involving tens of thousands of euros and nearly €1 million in unpaid staff salaries, prompting the to suspend in early 2025 due to management deficiencies deemed more severe than initially anticipated. These issues underscore ongoing tensions between the organization's aspirational independence and its reliance on external partnerships for operational .

History

Origins as the ACP Group (1975–2000)

The origins of the ACP Group trace back to the post-colonial era, building on earlier associations between the (EEC) and newly independent African states through the Conventions. I, signed on 20 July 1963, linked the EEC with 18 associated African states, primarily former French and Belgian colonies, establishing reciprocal trade preferences and development aid via the (EDF). II, signed on 29 July 1969 and effective from 1 January 1971, expanded to 20 states and refined financial mechanisms, but its reciprocal trade terms drew criticism from and other non-associated developing countries seeking unilateral preferences. These agreements laid groundwork for broader cooperation but excluded Caribbean and Pacific states, prompting calls for a unified developing-country framework. The ACP Group was formally established on 6 June 1975 via the Georgetown Agreement, signed in by 46 states from (40), the Caribbean (5), and the Pacific (1). This intergovernmental organization aimed to coordinate member positions in international forums, promote economic cooperation, and foster joint institutions like the ACP and Secretariat in . The Agreement's timing aligned with the I, signed on 28 February 1975 in between the EEC's nine members and the 46 ACP states, marking a shift to non-reciprocal access to EEC markets, STABEX for export earnings stabilization, and €3 billion in EDF aid over five years. This partnership emphasized equality and mutual respect, contrasting Yaoundé's reciprocity, though intra-ACP remained minimal at under 5% of members' total commerce. From 1975 to 2000, the ACP Group expanded to 77 members by 1997, incorporating new independences like (1984), (1990), and Pacific islands such as (1978). Successive renewals deepened EEC-ACP ties: II (1980) extended STABEX and added industrial cooperation; III (1985) focused on long-term structural adjustment; and IV (signed 15 December 1989, effective 1 September 1991) introduced systematic political dialogue on democracy and , with €12 billion in aid for 1991-1995, extended to 2000 amid WTO challenges to preferences. Joint bodies, including the ACP-EEC Council and Consultative Assembly (later Joint Parliamentary Assembly), facilitated dialogue, though critics noted dependency on EU aid, which averaged 10-15% of ACP budgets, with limited achievements. By 2000, the framework faced pressures from , prompting negotiations toward the .

Expansion and Cotonou Agreement Era (2000–2020)

The Cotonou Partnership Agreement, signed on 23 June 2000 in Cotonou, Benin, by representatives of the European Union (EU), its member states, and 77 African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries, marked a pivotal evolution in EU-ACP relations, superseding the Lomé Conventions. The agreement, which entered into force on 1 April 2003 following ratification by all parties, established a framework emphasizing political dialogue, development cooperation, and economic integration to eradicate poverty and foster ACP countries' gradual incorporation into the global economy. Its core pillars included non-reciprocal trade preferences transitioning toward reciprocal Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) compliant with World Trade Organization rules, financial aid via the European Development Fund (allocating €13.5 billion for 2008–2013), and provisions for joint parliamentary oversight through the ACP-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly. Cuba, an ACP member since 2000, did not sign the agreement due to its political stance toward the EU. The agreement underwent two revisions to adapt to evolving global dynamics. The 2005 revision, effective from 1 January 2008, intensified focus on trade liberalization through regionally negotiated EPAs, with interim agreements provisionally applied from 2008 onward for non-LDC ACP states to maintain post-Lomé expiration. By 2010, full or interim EPAs covered regions such as CARIFORUM (15 Caribbean states, signed 2008), Pacific (interim with and , 2009), and various African configurations, though ratification varied and some regions like faced delays due to domestic sensitivities over reciprocity. The 2010 revision, entering force in 2014, strengthened commitments to , , and , incorporating measures and involvement while allocating €30.5 billion under the 11th (2014–2020) for infrastructure, climate resilience, and private sector development. ACP membership expanded modestly during this period, reaching 79 states by the mid-2000s through accessions reflecting post-colonial and post-conflict integrations. joined on 9 July 2012, shortly after its independence from in 2011, bolstering the East African subgroup. acceded in December 2012, reintegrating after years of instability and aligning with Cotonou protocols on governance and aid. These additions, alongside stabilizations like Samoa's EPA accession in 2018, underscored the group's emphasis on inclusivity for least-developed and fragile states, though no wholesale enlargement occurred; the core roster of 48 African, 16 , and 15 Pacific members remained stable, with total aid disbursements exceeding €49 billion across the era. Challenges included uneven EPA implementation, with critics noting potential vulnerabilities for smaller economies, yet the framework sustained preferential access worth €20–25 billion annually in EU imports from ACP states.

Establishment of the OACPS (2020–present)

The Revised Georgetown Agreement, establishing the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS), was adopted by the Council of Ministers of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Group and endorsed by heads of state and government at the 9th ACP Summit held in Nairobi, Kenya, on 9–10 December 2019. This revision of the original 1975 Georgetown Agreement transformed the loose ACP Group—previously a framework for coordinating relations primarily with the European Union—into a formal international organization with legal personality, enabling independent action in global forums. The reform addressed the expiration of the Cotonou Agreement on 1 March 2020, aiming to foster greater intra-group solidarity, self-reliance, and a unified political voice amid shifting geopolitical dynamics, including reduced reliance on EU partnerships. The Revised Georgetown Agreement entered into force on 5 2020, after or accession by one-third of the ACP's 79 member states, officially renaming the entity the OACPS. This marked the OACPS's operational launch as a transcontinental body headquartered in , , with provisions for enhanced institutional structures, including a strengthened Secretariat, , and mechanisms for decision-making on , development, and . Member states progressively signed or ratified the agreement in 2020, with examples including on 5 March, on 27 May, on 9 June, and others following suit to achieve the required threshold. Since its establishment, the OACPS has pursued objectives outlined in the revised agreement, such as promoting , poverty eradication, and in multilateral arenas, while navigating challenges like divergent regional priorities and external withdrawals— announced its intent to exit in November 2022, citing misalignment with its . The organization formalized a new framework with the through the Samoa Agreement, initialled on 15 November 2022 and signed on 15 June 2023 in , , with provisional application from 1 December 2023, emphasizing shared values without supplanting the OACPS's autonomous intra-group agenda. By 2025, the OACPS continues to adapt, marking milestones like its 2nd Foundation Day in 2022 and focusing on implementation of the Nairobi Declaration from the 2019 summit to bolster unity.

Objectives and Principles

Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Goals

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) identifies and as foundational objectives, aimed at accelerating the political, economic, and social advancement of its member states through enhanced , trade promotion, and global . These goals emphasize supporting member states in leveraging trade advantages to foster and reduce vulnerabilities, with framed as a prerequisite for broader development gains. Established under the 2020 OACPS Declaration, these priorities build on prior ACP frameworks by prioritizing self-reliant strategies over aid dependency, though implementation relies heavily on partnerships like the EU's signed on 15 November 2023. Poverty reduction efforts specifically target eradication in alignment with (SDG 1: No ), viewing it as integral to the OACPS's unity and solidarity principles. The organisation supports member states in addressing multidimensional through domestic , engagement, and reformed financial , as evidenced by commitments in joint OACPS-EU declarations to mobilize finance for development without increasing debt burdens. For instance, a 2024 UN submission highlights OACPS assistance in enabling members to benefit from trade pacts while pursuing poverty alleviation via targeted economic reforms. Sustainable development goals encompass environmental, social, and economic dimensions, structured around sectors such as climate resilience and resource management, with explicit ties to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Paris Agreement. The Samoa Agreement reinforces this by promoting sustainable economic growth, human rights, and climate action, including calls for bold global financing reforms to achieve SDGs by 2030. Recent joint statements, such as the 23 October 2025 OACPS-EU declaration on United Nations Day, reaffirm pledges to eradicate poverty and advance SDGs through constructive collaboration, emphasizing measurable progress in areas like food security and inequality reduction. Challenges persist, including uneven ratification of the Samoa Agreement— with only partial implementation as of 2025—and reliance on external funding, which OACPS strategies seek to mitigate via internal reforms.

Principles of Solidarity and Self-Reliance

The principles of solidarity and self-reliance form core tenets of the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS), as enshrined in the Revised Georgetown Agreement, the organization's founding treaty adopted on 5 December 2019 and entering into force on 1 July 2020 upon ratification by a sufficient number of member states. Solidarity emphasizes mutual support and unity among the 79 member states spanning Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific, aiming to foster collective action on shared challenges such as sustainable development and poverty reduction, while respecting diversity in cultural, social, and political systems. This principle is explicitly articulated in Article 5(b) of the Revised Georgetown Agreement, which commits the OACPS to "promote and strengthen unity and solidarity among the Member States," enabling coordinated responses to external pressures like economic dependencies or geopolitical shifts. Self-reliance, in turn, underscores the pursuit of endogenous, self-sustained development independent of external dominance, rooted in member states' own cultural and social values to build economic resilience and reduce vulnerabilities. The of the Revised Georgetown Agreement reaffirms commitment to "self-reliant, endogenous and self-sustained development," extending to collective self-reliance through strengthened intra-OACPS relations in , , and as outlined in Article 5(d). This approach contrasts with prior dependencies on frameworks like the with the , prioritizing internal capacities for integration into the global economy on equitable terms, with empirical emphasis on measurable outcomes such as poverty alleviation metrics tied to member-led initiatives. These principles interconnect to advance , as reaffirmed in the treaty's , by translating into practical mechanisms for mutual reinforcement against asymmetrical global power dynamics. Article 4 aligns them with Charter objectives, promoting , , and as enablers of self-reliant growth, though implementation varies due to disparate member capacities—evidenced by ongoing intra-regional declarations like the Libreville Declaration of 2019, which calls for human-centered policies grounded in macro-economic stability and equity. Critics, including analyses of post-2020 performance, note challenges in operationalizing collective amid divergent national priorities, yet the framework persists as a causal driver for South-South cooperation, evidenced by joint positions on global issues such as and trade negotiations.

Membership

Regional Composition

The Organisation of African, and Pacific States (OACPS) consists of 79 member states organized into three primary regional groups: , the , and the Pacific. This structure preserves the historical framework from the original ACP Group, enabling region-specific coordination on issues such as negotiations and development priorities. The African group forms the largest contingent with 48 members, encompassing sub-Saharan countries that joined progressively since the organization's inception in 1975. For operational efficiency, African members are subdivided into four caucuses: (20 states, including , , , and ), (8 states, including , , and ), (12 states, including , , and ), and (8 states, including , , and ). These sub-groups facilitate consensus-building and representation in OACPS decision-making bodies. The Caribbean group comprises 16 members, primarily independent island nations and coastal states such as , , , , , Dominica, , , , , , , , , , and . This region emphasizes collective bargaining on economic vulnerabilities tied to small island development challenges. The Pacific group includes 15 members, consisting of island nations and territories like , , , , , , , , Timor-Leste, , , and , along with associated entities such as and . Pacific members focus on and maritime resource management, reflecting their geographic isolation and environmental exposures. Regional groupings ensure equitable voice in the OACPS Summit and , with decisions requiring broad consensus across regions.

Special Designations and Categories

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) accords special designations to member states based on internationally recognized categories of vulnerability, primarily (LDCs), (LLDCs), and (SIDS). These classifications, originating from frameworks, guide differentiated treatment in development cooperation, resource allocation, and policy responses to address structural disadvantages such as economic fragility, geographic isolation, and exposure to external shocks. The principles trace back to the (2000), which mandated special attention to LDCs alongside the vulnerabilities of landlocked and island states, a framework largely retained in the OACPS's evolution under the revised Georgetown Agreement (2019) and the Samoa Agreement (2023). As of 2024, at least 39 OACPS members qualify as LDCs, defined by criteria including below $1,088 (2023 thresholds), low human development indicators, and high economic vulnerability to shocks like commodity price fluctuations or climate events. These states, concentrated in with examples including , , and , receive prioritized support in areas such as and to mitigate risks of aid dependency and foster self-reliance. Fifteen members are designated LLDCs, such as , , and , which contend with high transport costs—often 30-50% above coastal peers—and reliance on neighboring countries for port access, constraining export competitiveness and . This category prompts OACPS advocacy for investments and transit facilitation agreements to reduce trade barriers. Seventeen OACPS members fall under the SIDS category, including Cape Verde, Comoros, and Pacific nations like Fiji and Papua New Guinea, characterized by small populations (under 2 million on average), limited resource bases, and acute risks from sea-level rise—projected to displace up to 10% of land area by 2100 in some cases—and cyclones. These states benefit from targeted OACPS programs on resilience, such as disaster risk reduction and blue economy initiatives, recognizing their disproportionate climate impacts despite minimal global emissions contributions (less than 1% collectively). Overlaps exist, with several members holding multiple designations (e.g., 12 LDCs that are also LLDCs), amplifying the need for integrated strategies that avoid siloed interventions. Such categories do not alter formal membership status but shape intra-OACPS coordination, particularly in joint EU dialogues under the Samoa Agreement, where vulnerability indices inform aid volumes exceeding €30 billion over 2021-2027.

Organizational Structure

Principal Organs

The principal organs of the Organisation of African, and Pacific States (OACPS) comprise the Summit of Heads of State and Government, the , the Committee of Ambassadors, the OACPS Parliamentary Assembly, and the Secretariat. These bodies, established under the revised Georgetown Agreement effective from 2020, form the core decision-making and administrative framework, with the Summit holding supreme authority to define general policy orientation. The Summit of Heads of State and Government serves as the highest decision-making body, convening periodically to set the OACPS's strategic direction and major policies. It has met ten times since 1997, with the most recent ordinary summit occurring in , , from December 6–10, 2022, marking the first in-person gathering post the revised Georgetown Agreement. The 11th Summit is scheduled for March 2026 in , . Decisions at the Summit guide implementation by subordinate organs and address priorities such as and international partnerships. The , the primary executive organ, implements the Summit's guidelines and oversees OACPS objectives. Composed of one designated government representative per member state, it includes a Bureau of nine members: the President, outgoing and incoming Presidents, and six regional representatives. It convenes in ordinary sessions twice annually, with special sessions as required, and holds supreme responsibility for policy execution, progress monitoring, and issuing decisions, resolutions, or recommendations. The Council also supervises sectoral ministerial committees on issues like and ; its 119th session, held May 23–25, 2025, in , , focused on reforms and regional solidarity. The Committee of Ambassadors functions as the secondary decision-making body, representing the between ministerial sessions and coordinating preparatory work. It consists of ambassadors or equivalent representatives from the 79 member states, organized through a Bureau of nine members and various sub-committees or working groups. The Committee monitors implementation, provides recommendations, and handled routine matters such as financial restoration and institutional transitions during the September 2025 handover from to . The OACPS Parliamentary Assembly, a consultative , engages elected parliamentarians from member states to debate policies and advise other organs. It operates in conjunction with the through the OACPS-EU Joint Parliamentary Assembly, featuring equal representation from both sides for balanced dialogue on development and governance. The Assembly's first session post-reform occurred February 21, 2024, in , , under the theme "A New Dawn in OACPS-EU Relations." The Secretariat, headquartered in , , acts as the chief administrative organ, headed by a Secretary-General serving as . It executes decisions from higher organs, manages partnerships like the Samoa Agreement, and delivers technical support across five departments, including Administration, and . Key functions encompass budget preparation, staff management, and servicing joint institutions, ensuring operational continuity for the 79-member organization.

Secretariat and Administrative Framework

The Secretariat of the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) serves as the executive institution and headquarters, located in , , since its establishment under the Georgetown Agreement on 6 June 1975. It implements decisions adopted by OACPS organs, executes agreements with development partners, and provides administrative services to OACPS bodies as well as joint institutions involving external parties, thereby supporting the operational needs of the organization across its 79 member states. Reforms initiated at the 1st ACP Summit in in 1997 strengthened its executive capacity to better coordinate cooperation and policy implementation among members spanning , the , and the Pacific. The Secretariat is headed by a Secretary-General, who acts as the chief executive officer responsible for overseeing its functions and strategic direction. As of February 2025, the position is held by H.E. Moussa S. Batraki, succeeding H.E. Georges Rebelo Pinto Chikoti (2020–2025). The Secretary-General is supported by a managing the Office of the Secretary-General, with overall staff organized into five specialized departments, each led by an Assistant Secretary-General. These departments form the core of the administrative framework:
  • Department of Administration, and (AFHR): Manages day-to-day administrative operations, financial oversight, budgeting, , and , ensuring the Secretariat's internal efficiency and compliance with organizational policies.
  • Department of Political Affairs and Human Development (PAHD): Oversees political monitoring in member states, human development initiatives, and international partnerships focused on , , and social issues.
  • Department of , Development and Programming (MFDP): Coordinates programming for financial and technical cooperation, including resource mobilization from partners like the , and supports macroeconomic policy alignment across members.
  • Department of Environment and (ECA): Addresses , , , and implementation to advance member states' integration into global frameworks.
  • Department of Structural Economic Transformation and Trade (SETT): Handles trade negotiations, economic diversification strategies, and participation in multilateral forums such as the .
This departmental structure enables the Secretariat to foster intra-OACPS collaboration, consolidate partnerships, and drive the organization's strategic priorities as outlined in the 2022–2025 plan, emphasizing and global without reliance on external narratives of dependency.

Partnership with the European Union

The partnership between the (EEC), later the (EU), and African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) states originated with the Yaoundé Conventions, which established association agreements primarily with former African colonies. Yaoundé I, signed on July 20, 1963, and effective from July 1, 1964, to June 30, 1969, provided development aid through the (EDF) and non-reciprocal trade preferences for 18 African states associated with the EEC under the . Yaoundé II, signed July 22, 1969, and running until January 31, 1975, expanded aid allocations to €920 million and included territories, introducing export stabilization mechanisms amid commodity price volatility, though these frameworks were critiqued for reinforcing dependency on EEC markets without reciprocal obligations. The Lomé Conventions marked a broader institutionalization of ACP-EU ties, with Lomé I signed on February 28, 1975, by 46 ACP states and the EEC, entering force April 1, 1976, and lasting until February 28, 1980. This framework formalized non-reciprocal duty-free access for ACP exports to EEC markets (except sensitive agricultural products), established the STABEX system to compensate for export earnings shortfalls in commodities like cocoa and phosphates, and allocated €3 billion in aid via the third EDF, emphasizing solidarity and self-reliance principles. Subsequent iterations—Lomé II (1980–1985, €5.6 billion EDF), Lomé III (1985–1990, €8.4 billion), and Lomé IV (1990–2000, including a 1995 revision with €12 billion)—introduced trade promotion councils, mineral export stabilization (SYSMIN), and increased political dialogue, but faced challenges from WTO rules incompatibility and limited diversification impacts, as ACP economies remained vulnerable to commodity cycles. The , signed June 23, 2000, and entering force April 1, 2002, succeeded amid pressures for WTO-compliant reciprocity, encompassing 77 ACP states and introducing Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) to phase in reciprocal trade liberalization by 2008 (later extended). It allocated €13.5 billion for 2000–2006 via the ninth EDF, emphasized via suspension clauses for violations, and banned arms trade, yet EPAs—regional pacts like the EU-West Africa EPA initialled 2007 and provisionally applied 2016—drew ACP criticisms for potential revenue losses (estimated at 1–2% of GDP in some cases) and agricultural market flooding, though proponents argued they boosted FDI and exports in covered sectors. Following the ACP Group's evolution into the Organisation of African, Caribbean, and Pacific States (OACPS) on April 5, 2020, via the revised Georgetown Agreement, the Agreement was initialled April 15, 2021, and signed November 15, 2023, in , , entering provisional application thereafter as the post- framework. Covering 79 OACPS members, it shifts from trade-centric / models to six priority pillars—, , , , human/social development, environmental , and —while preserving EPAs as separate trade instruments and committing €160 billion in EU funding over five years, reflecting adaptation to geopolitical shifts like multipolar trade dynamics and vulnerabilities, though implementation hinges on regional ratifications amid OACPS internal divergences.

Samoa Agreement and Current Dynamics

The Samoa Agreement, formally the Partnership Agreement between the and its Member States, of the one part, and the Members of the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States, of the other part, was signed on 15 November 2023 in , , by representatives of the EU, its member states, and 77 OACPS members, replacing the that expired at the end of 2020. Provisional application began on 1 January 2024, enabling immediate pending full , which requires approval by all EU member states and at least two-thirds (approximately 53) of OACPS members. The agreement spans 20 years and serves as the primary legal framework for EU-OACPS relations, emphasizing mutual principles like respect for and democratic governance while addressing shared global priorities. Key provisions focus on cooperation in human rights, democracy, and governance; sustainable economic growth and development; climate change and environmental sustainability; human development including health and education; migration and mobility; and peace, security, and resilience against crises such as pandemics or conflicts. Unlike prior frameworks, it promotes regional integration within OACPS groupings and joint advocacy in multilateral forums, while allowing for flexible, tailored implementation to accommodate diverse member needs, though trade elements largely defer to existing Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). The text explicitly rejects any supranational authority, preserving national sovereignty in decision-making. As of October 2025, progresses unevenly, with notable advancements including Cameroon's approval in 2025 and Timor-Leste's in June 2025, but delays persist across OACPS states, prompting the OACPS Parliamentary Assembly in September 2025 to urge acceleration to unlock full benefits like enhanced funding and dialogue mechanisms. Implementation under provisional terms includes joint OACPS-EU bodies such as the Joint Council of Ministers and Parliamentary Assembly, which convened meetings in 2025 to advance priorities like financing for development amid global economic pressures. Recent dynamics reflect collaborative efforts on and security, yet challenges arise from unresolved negotiation gaps—such as ambiguities in investment protections and aid conditionality—that risk impeding equitable execution, particularly for smaller Pacific and states vulnerable to external shocks. Non-signatories like and highlight internal OACPS divergences, potentially fragmenting unified bargaining power in future EU engagements.

Programs and Initiatives

Economic and Trade Cooperation

The economic and trade cooperation within the Organisation of African, and Pacific States (OACPS) centers on collective negotiation with external partners, particularly the (EU), to secure preferential , development financing, and capacity-building support. Established as a successor to the African, and Pacific (ACP) Group, the OACPS coordinates 79 member states in pursuing , including and economic diversification, through frameworks that emphasize bloc-level bargaining to amplify individual countries' leverage. This approach stems from historical precedents like the Conventions (1975–2000), which provided non-reciprocal trade preferences and aid, evolving into the Cotonou Partnership Agreement (2000–2020) that introduced reciprocal elements via Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs). The Samoa Agreement, signed on November 15, 2023, and provisionally applied from January 1, 2024, between the OACPS and the EU, reinforces this partnership by prioritizing sustainable economic growth alongside human development, climate resilience, and investment facilitation, though it explicitly defers detailed trade liberalization to existing or future EPAs rather than imposing new tariff or quota regimes. As of 2025, eight EPAs are in force, covering 33 OACPS members: 14 in the Caribbean (via CARIFORUM), 15 in Africa (including Central, Eastern, Southern, and West African regions), and 4 in the Pacific. These agreements grant duty-free, quota-free access to the EU market for substantially all OACPS exports immediately upon entry into force, while OACPS partners liberalize imports from the EU gradually over 5–25 years, with safeguards for sensitive sectors like agriculture and nascent industries to mitigate import surges. For instance, the EU-Kenya EPA, signed December 18, 2023, exemplifies ongoing expansions, aiming to boost exports in goods while preserving protections for local producers. Intra-OACPS trade remains limited, constrained by geographical dispersion across continents and varying regional economic blocs like the (AfCFTA) or CARICOM, with total intra-group comprising a small fraction of members' external commerce—often under 5% as estimated in analyses of ACP flows. To address this, the OACPS supports the Intra-ACP Indicative Programme, funded partly by EU contributions exceeding €2.7 billion from the 11th (2014–2020), targeting through investments in , agriculture, rural development, energy access, and private sector competitiveness. Complementary initiatives include the EU-backed Hub & Spokes program, which builds negotiation capacities in 36 OACPS via technical assistance for WTO compliance, promotion, and sanitary standards, alongside the ACP Business-Friendly Programme aiding reforms for climates in over 20 members. These efforts aim to enhance South-South linkages, though empirical data indicate persistent challenges in scaling intra-group volumes amid divergent national priorities and external dependencies.

Political and Security Dialogue

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) conducts political and security dialogue through its Department of Political Affairs and Human Development, which monitors political situations across member states and facilitates responses to regional instability. This department coordinates human development partnerships intertwined with governance, aiming to promote democratic processes and stability in line with the organisation's foundational Georgetown Agreement of 1975. The OACPS 2022-2025 Strategic Plan designates and as a key impact area, focusing on pillars such as , , , inclusive governance, , , stability, and migration management. These efforts align with , targeting peaceful and inclusive societies with effective institutions, and include strategic objectives to enhance the OACPS's role in monitoring global political agendas, issuing policy papers, and representing collective interests in international forums like the . Central to these dialogues is the , the OACPS's supreme decision-making body, which implements summit guidelines and convenes sessions to deliberate on political and issues, as demonstrated in its 119th meeting in May 2025 under the presidency of Eswatini's Minister of Foreign Affairs. The Council's agenda typically encompasses overlaps with , climate-related vulnerabilities, and internal reforms to bolster collective positioning. Through the Samoa Agreement with the , signed on 15 November 2023 and provisionally applied from 1 January 2024, the OACPS commits to enhanced bi-regional dialogue on peace and security, , , and governance as one of six priority areas. The agreement's OACPS-EU adopts guidelines for partnership dialogue under Article 3, enabling joint sessions to address conflict prevention, peacekeeping support, and regional threats, with provisional mechanisms ratified by September 2025. This framework builds on prior structures, emphasizing multilateral engagement, as evidenced by joint statements on reaffirming commitments to global security and . Leadership in these areas is underscored by Secretary-General Moussa S. Batraki, elected in February 2025, whose background includes expertise in peace and security operations. Dialogues extend to alliances with entities like the International Organisation of La Francophonie, formalized to advance cooperation in and security since the ACP era.

Development Aid and Capacity Building

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) coordinates primarily through its partnership with the , emphasizing , poverty alleviation, and among member states. Under the Samoa Agreement, signed on November 15, 2023, and provisionally applied from January 1, 2024, the EU commits to continued (ODA) via instruments succeeding the (EDF), focusing on economic growth, human development, and addressing global challenges like . The EU, as the world's largest ODA provider, directs substantial resources to OACPS countries, with joint commitments in 2025 reaffirming support for the 2030 Agenda for and Paris Agreement implementation. Historically, the 11th EDF (2014–2020) allocated €30.5 billion in grants from EU member states to African, , and Pacific (ACP, predecessor to OACPS) countries, targeting , , and support, with intra-ACP envelopes funding regional programs across all 79 member states. This included national indicative programs signed by 21 ACP countries for tailored aid allocation, alongside regional envelopes for cross-border initiatives. Post-2020, funding transitioned to the EU's Global Europe instrument, maintaining emphasis on OACPS priorities while integrating ODA with trade and political cooperation under the framework's development pillar. Capacity building forms a core component, with EU-OACPS programs enhancing institutional, technical, and human resource capabilities in member states. The ACP-EU and Programme provides comprehensive support to and private stakeholders, including training, policy development, and infrastructure to bolster R&I ecosystems for addressing local challenges. Specialized initiatives include the ClimSA Programme, funded by the EU and implemented by OACPS, which builds domestic resilience in through technical assistance on climate adaptation and disaster . Additional efforts target , such as Phase III of the Multilateral Environmental Agreements in ACP Countries , strengthening implementation capacities across 79 states via policy alignment, monitoring tools, and stakeholder training. In cultural sectors, the ACP-EU Programme in the Pacific enhances in through skills development and support. Intra-OACPS mechanisms supplement EU aid by promoting resource mobilization strategies, though implementation remains constrained by reliance on external grants and limited domestic financing. The Samoa Agreement prioritizes capacity enhancement for trade sustainability, including training for producers in value addition and green practices, to reduce aid dependency over time. Joint EU-OACPS evaluations under "Team Europe" approaches coordinate aid delivery, with 2025 statements highlighting € billions in ongoing ODA representing 42% of total global flows to these regions, though effectiveness varies by governance quality in recipient states.

Achievements and Empirical Impacts

Bloc Negotiation Successes

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS), formerly the ACP Group, has achieved several negotiation outcomes through unified bloc bargaining with the European Union, particularly in securing preferential trade access and financial aid mechanisms that addressed vulnerabilities in commodity-dependent economies. In the Lomé Conventions (1975–2000), the ACP states collectively negotiated non-reciprocal duty-free and quota-free access to the European market for most exports, a marked improvement over prior bilateral Yaoundé agreements that lacked such comprehensive preferences for non-associated territories. This bloc approach enabled the inclusion of innovative stabilization instruments, such as STABEX (Stabilization of Export Earnings), which provided compensatory transfers for shortfalls in agricultural export revenues due to price or volume fluctuations, disbursing approximately €1.5 billion across Lomé I–IV to mitigate economic volatility in 42 eligible ACP countries. Similarly, SYSMIN extended comparable support to mineral exports from 1980 onward, bolstering bargaining leverage by tying aid to specific developmental needs rather than ad hoc grants. Under the (signed June 23, 2000, effective April 1, 2002), OACPS predecessors maintained bloc cohesion to extend transitional preferences until 2008 while negotiating Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs), preserving market access amid WTO compatibility pressures. This yielded empirical gains, with ACP-EU volumes more than doubling between 2000 and 2017 to represent 5% of EU exports and 5.4% of imports, driven by sustained preferences in agriculture and fisheries. Financial commitments included the 9th (2002–2007) allocating €13.5 billion for infrastructure, health, and education projects across ACP states, with bloc negotiations ensuring joint oversight via the ACP-EU . EPAs, concluded regionally under Cotonou's framework, have shown positive ex-post effects in select cases, such as a 10–15% average increase in ACP exports to the EU for countries like and Côte d'Ivoire under interim agreements, per analyses. In the post-Cotonou era, OACPS unity facilitated the Samoa Agreement (initialed April 15, 2021; signed November 15, 2023), a 20-year framework covering 79 members and emphasizing political dialogue on , migration, and alongside €79.5 billion in programmable funding via the Neighbourhood, Development and International Cooperation Instrument (2021–2027), of which OACPS states access portions tailored to bloc priorities. Negotiators preserved transcontinental despite regional divergences (e.g., African states' parallel AU-EU ties), securing provisions for equitable burden-sharing in global challenges like pandemics and achieving provisional application from December 1, 2023, without fragmentation. This collective stance contrasted with bilateral alternatives, enabling broader commitments to human development and sustainable growth over individualized deals.

Measurable Development Outcomes

Empirical assessments of the OACPS-EU partnership, primarily through Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs), reveal heterogeneous trade effects rather than uniform development gains. A 2021 analysis of provisionally applied EPAs found no significant overall impact on aggregate bilateral trade flows between the and OACPS member states, though sectoral variations emerged: (SADC) countries experienced a 30.6% increase in total imports from the , including 134% in agricultural products and 28.3% in manufactures, while Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) saw a 41.3% rise in agricultural imports. These import surges potentially supported consumer access to goods but raised concerns over local producer displacement, with no corresponding broad boost to OACPS exports to the . Welfare impacts from full EPA liberalization, modeled for nine African OACPS members, show net gains in select cases outweighed by tariff revenue losses elsewhere. Botswana, Cameroon, and Namibia projected welfare improvements of 5.35%, 5.42%, and 10.07% respectively under long-run scenarios, driven by trade creation effects that exceeded diversion from non-EU partners. In contrast, Ghana faced a 1.12% welfare decline alongside $431.9 million in annual tariff revenue shortfalls, underscoring fiscal vulnerabilities without compensatory reforms. Such outcomes highlight causal challenges in attributing sustained growth to agreements amid confounding factors like commodity prices and domestic policies. Development aid via the (EDF), totaling €30.5 billion for 2014-2020 across OACPS regions, has supported targeted interventions with reported progress in poverty alleviation, though comprehensive causal metrics remain elusive. Evaluations of the 11th EDF note on-track delivery for outcomes in access, sustainable environments, and growth, including enhanced geological data systems and skills in minerals development projects. However, broader indicators like advancements in OACPS states show incremental rather than transformative shifts, often correlated with aid but not conclusively caused by OACPS frameworks alone.

Criticisms and Challenges

Aid Dependency and Economic Stagnation

Despite receiving over $1 trillion in development aid since the 1960s, many African countries—forming the bulk of OACPS membership—have experienced minimal sustained economic progress, with aid-dependent nations averaging an annual GDP growth rate of -0.2% over the past three decades. This inflow, primarily from Western donors including the through mechanisms like the (EDF), has constituted a significant portion of recipient budgets, yet failed to catalyze structural reforms or diversification away from raw commodity exports. In , net (ODA) has hovered around 3% of (GNI) consistently from 2000 to 2023, signaling entrenched dependency rather than a pathway to self-sufficiency. Aid's causal role in perpetuating stagnation stems from its distortionary effects: it often supplants domestic revenue mobilization, discourages fiscal discipline, and inflates economies via , where resource inflows appreciate currencies and undermine export competitiveness. Empirical analyses attribute this to aid's tendency to finance consumption and rather than productive , fostering and governance failures that erode incentives for growth. Labor across OACPS regions lags 24% below the global average, with Pacific and members showing the widest gaps, underscoring limited technological or skill upgrades despite targeted EU programs. EU-ACP trade frameworks, including Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs), have exacerbated revenue vulnerabilities by eroding —forecast to cut African ACP revenues by 71% on EU imports—without commensurate gains in value-added processing. Recent dynamics under the 2024 Samoa Agreement highlight ongoing challenges, as the EU suspended payments to the OACPS secretariat in February 2025 citing severe management deficiencies, further questioning aid absorption capacity. While the agreement emphasizes , historical patterns persist: ODA to totaled $36 billion in 2024, yet regional GDP per capita growth remains subdued at under 2% annually amid population pressures, contrasting with higher rates in aid-light East Asian comparators. Critics, including analyses of ACP-EU relations, argue that such aid sustains a status quo of and commodity reliance, with limited empirical evidence of or industrialization. In Pacific OACPS states, aid ineffectiveness is compounded by isolation, small scale, and weak , yielding projects with high overhead but marginal impact. Overall, this dependency cycle impedes the intra-OACPS aspired to in recent declarations, as external inflows delay necessary internal market integration and policy accountability.

Governance Failures and Corruption Risks

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) encompasses numerous member countries with persistently low scores on the (CPI), reflecting entrenched public sector that hampers effective governance. In 2024, the sub-Saharan African region—home to the majority of OACPS members—recorded the world's lowest average CPI score of 33 out of 100, compared to the global average of 43, indicating widespread perceptions of , , and in government operations. Countries such as (score 11), (13), and (17) exemplify this trend, where acts as a structural driver of state fragility, eroding institutional capacity and perpetuating cycles of poor policy implementation. These conditions stem from and institutional failures, including inadequate mechanisms and bloated bureaucracies that prioritize over public welfare. Within the OACPS framework, governance risks are amplified by vulnerabilities in aid disbursement and organizational management, particularly as () funding—totaling billions via instruments like the —flows through entities prone to diversion. A 2020 study found that EU aid conditionality, intended to enforce standards under agreements like , exerts minimal influence on reducing levels in recipient states, as suspensions are inconsistently applied and often politically motivated rather than systematically enforced. For instance, Article 96 consultations allow aid halts for severe graft, yet empirical evidence shows persistent irregularities, with the EU's anti-fraud office () documenting in external spending projects, including scams in power generation tenders across developing regions. Internal OACPS structures have faced direct scrutiny for risks, underscoring operational weaknesses despite formal pledges. In February 2025, reports emerged of suspected at the OACPS secretariat, involving €30,000 in questionable expenditures, unresolved queries over an additional €97,000, and nearly €1 million in unpaid staff salaries amid opaque financial controls—issues tied to EU-backed operations from 2013 to 2023. Such incidents highlight causal links between lax oversight, aid dependency, and elite , where bloc-level initiatives fail to mitigate member-state pathologies, potentially diverting resources meant for development into private gains. The Samoa Agreement's emphasis on and priorities has not yet yielded verifiable improvements, as delays and gaps persist amid these endemic risks.

Trade Liberalization Disputes

Trade liberalization disputes in the Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) primarily revolve around the Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) negotiated with the from 2002 to 2016, which mandate reciprocal market opening to replace the expiring non-reciprocal preferences of the and comply with rules. These EPAs require OACPS countries to liberalize an average of 80% of their import markets to EU goods over extended transition periods of 15 to 25 years, while gaining duty-free access to the EU market. However, member states have contested the agreements' terms, citing risks of overwhelming domestic industries with competitively superior EU products and substantial revenue losses from eliminated tariffs, which often comprise 20-30% of government budgets in least developed OACPS economies. In , the Economic Community of West African States () initialled a regional EPA in 2014 after protracted negotiations, but implementation has been stalled by internal divisions, particularly 's outright refusal to sign in April 2018. , accounting for approximately 72% of GDP in 2016, argued that would erode local and through import surges of subsidized goods like and , exacerbating and de-industrialization without adequate compensatory mechanisms. The responded by threatening to withdraw temporary market access preferences post-2016, intensifying tensions, though continued trading under generalized preferences. Similar resistance emerged in , where the 2009 EPA signature faced ratification delays due to comparable fears of market flooding and policy space erosion for . Empirical evidence on EPA impacts reveals mixed outcomes, with studies documenting increased EU exports to implementing OACPS regions—such as a 10-20% rise in flows post-provisional application—but also heightened import competition displacing local producers in vulnerable sectors, leading to welfare losses for net food-importing countries and limited broad-based export diversification. Critics, including OACPS stakeholders, contend that the agreements prioritize EU commercial interests over development needs, fragmenting unified OACPS negotiating leverage through region-specific deals and insufficient adjustment funds, as evidenced by unresolved disputes in Eastern and where interim EPAs have not evolved into full regionals. EU representatives counter that EPAs foster long-term growth via investment and supply-chain integration, rejecting claims of undue pressure and emphasizing voluntary . These disputes have persisted into the , influencing the 2023 Samoa Agreement's foundation on existing EPAs while highlighting intra-OACPS tensions over balancing with protective measures amid global trade shifts, such as the . Provisional implementations in Caribbean and Pacific regions have proceeded with fewer hitches, yet underscore uneven readiness across OACPS members, fueling calls for renegotiation to incorporate more flexible safeguards against asymmetric economic vulnerabilities.

Recent Developments

EU Funding Suspension (2024–2025)

In February 2025, the suspended payments to the Organisation of African, and Pacific States (OACPS), citing severe management deficiencies uncovered during audits that exceeded initial expectations. The halt affected direct operational , which had formed the bulk of the OACPS's €4.6 million annual budget, leaving the organization with minimal non-EU reserves of approximately €488,754 as of mid-2024. The suspension stemmed from documented financial irregularities, including suspected on €30,000 of expenditures—primarily for travel and unspecified purchases—along with unresolved queries over an additional €97,000 in related transactions. Compounding these issues were operational breakdowns, such as nearly €1 million in accumulated unpaid salaries affecting two dozen staff members, some of whom had not received pay for several months, leading to widespread internal disruptions. EU officials had signaled concerns as early as July 2024, privately rebuking the OACPS for strategic plans deemed detached from practical realities and overly dependent on European contributions, which covered over 90% of its funding at the time. The Commission's action aligned with broader scrutiny of aid efficacy under the post-Cotonou framework, including the Samoa Agreement provisionally applied from January 2024, though the funding cut targeted administrative support rather than broader development programs. By October 2025, no resumption of payments had been announced, with the conditioning restoration on verifiable governance reforms, including enhanced financial controls and transparency measures to mitigate risks of misuse in a bloc historically reliant on external aid for institutional survival. This episode underscored vulnerabilities in the OACPS's administrative capacity, potentially straining its role in EU-partnered initiatives amid calls for greater intra-bloc self-sufficiency.

Efforts Toward Intra-OACPS Autonomy

The Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) initiated efforts to bolster intra-group autonomy through the revision of the Georgetown Agreement in June 2019, which restructured the group from the ACP framework to emphasize independent operations, South-South cooperation, and reduced reliance on external partnerships, particularly with the European Union. This revision operationalized a new mandate for the OACPS Secretariat, established in April 2020, to prioritize internal cohesion, policy coordination, and self-sustained development agendas among its 79 member states. The changes sought to address criticisms of prior EU-centric dependencies by fostering unified positions in multilateral forums and promoting member-driven initiatives. Central to these autonomy efforts is the OACPS Strategic Plan for 2022–2025, which designates enhancing intra-OACPS cooperation as its primary objective, aiming to develop an Intra-OACPS Policy Framework for political, economic, and cultural collaboration. The plan targets outputs such as regular high-level engagements, capacity-building programs, and memoranda of understanding (MoUs) to support (SDGs) and the independently of external funding. It includes measurable indicators like increased intra-OACPS trade volumes and diversified partnerships, with mid-term reviews planned for 2023 to assess progress toward self-reliance. A parallel focus on sustainable financing under the plan's fifth objective promotes voluntary member contributions, an endowment fund, and resource mobilization strategies to lessen dependence on EU allocations, alongside new alliances via South-South and triangular cooperation platforms. Complementing these structural reforms, the OACPS has advanced South-South cooperation through the establishment of the Information Centre for South-South and Triangular Cooperation in , , inaugurated on October 5, 2018, to facilitate knowledge sharing, joint programs, and alternative development financing among members. This center supports initiatives in areas like cultural diversification and , emphasizing member-led partnerships over traditional donor models. Additional programs under the plan include intra-group trade promotion and for , though empirical data indicate persistent low intra-OACPS trade levels (under 10% of total member trade as of recent analyses), underscoring the challenges in achieving tangible autonomy amid divergent regional economies. These efforts reflect a causal emphasis on internal solidarity to counter external vulnerabilities, with ongoing commitments to deepen such collaborations as articulated in OACPS declarations.

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