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Bulk cargo
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 | This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. (April 2010) |
Bulk cargo is product cargo that is transported unpackaged in large quantities.[1]
Description
[edit] | This section needs additional citations for verification. (September 2022) |
Bulk cargo refers to material in either liquid or granular, particulate (as a mass of relatively small solids) form, such as petroleum/crude oil, grain, coal, or gravel. This cargo is usually dropped or poured, with a spout or shovel bucket, into a bulk carrier ship's hold, railroad car/railway wagon, or tanker truck/trailer/semi-trailer body. Smaller quantities can be boxed (or drummed) and palletised; cargo packaged in this manner is referred to as breakbulk cargo.[2] Bulk cargo is classified as wet or dry.[2]
The Baltic Exchange is based in London and provides a range of indices benchmarking the cost of moving bulk commodities, dry and wet, along popular routes around the seas. Some of these indices are also used to settle Freight Futures, known as FFA's. The most famous of the Baltic indices is the Baltic Dry Indices, commonly called the BDI. This is a derived function of the Baltic Capesize index (BCI), Baltic Panamax index (BPI), Baltic Supramax index (BSI) and the Baltic Handysize index (BHSI). The BDI has been used as a bellwether for the global economy as it can be interpreted as an indicator of an increase or decrease in the amount of raw commodities countries are importing/exporting.
Dry
[edit]Dry bulk is any cargo carried in bulk in solid form. Such carriage is often referred to as the "dry" trades.[3] They would include:
- Bauxite
- Bulk minerals (sand, gravel, copper, limestone, salt)
- Cements
- Chemicals (fertilizer, plastic granules and pellets, resin powder, synthetic fiber)
- Coals and cokes
- Agricultural products such as dry edibles (for animals or humans: alfalfa pellets, citrus pellets, livestock feed, flour, peanuts, raw or refined sugar, seeds or starches.)
- Grains (wheat, maize, rice, barley, oats, rye, sorghum, soybeans, etc.)
- Iron (ferrous and non-ferrous ores, ferroalloys, pig iron, scrap metal, pelletized taconite)
- Wood chips
Wet
[edit]Liquid bulk cargo includes any cargo carried in closed tanks and poured or pumped into the carrying vessel, such as:
Gallery
[edit]-
A milk tank car for bulk loading. -
DME 49328, a covered hopper owned and operated by the Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad -
-
Bulk loading of a feeder ship with rapeseed meal -
Specialized large ports
[edit] |
See also
[edit]Bibliography
[edit]- Bliault, Charles; Jonas, Martin; The North of England P&I Association (2016). Bulk Cargoes: A Guide to Good Practice (First ed.). UK: The North of England P&I Association. p. 280. ISBN 978-0-9574936-3-6. ASIN 0957493630.
- George, William (2005). Stability and Trim for the Ship's Officer. Centreville, MD: Cornell Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-87033-564-8.
- Hayler, William B.; Keever, John M. (2003). American Merchant Seaman's Manual. Cornell Maritime Pr. ISBN 0-87033-549-9.
- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2006). Review of Maritime Transport, 2006 (PDF). New York and Geneva: United Nations. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-28. Retrieved 2008-12-04.
- United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2007). Review of Maritime Transport, 2007 (PDF). New York and Geneva: United Nations.
References
[edit]- ^ Glossary of Shipping Terms (PDF) (Report). U.S. Department of Transportation. 2008. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-02-13. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ a b Rodrigue, Jean-Paul (2020). "Chapter 5.4: Maritime Transportation". The Geography of Transport Systems (5th ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-36463-2.
- ^ Dry Cargo Chartering. London: Institute of Chartered Shipbrokers. 2013. p. 38.
Bulk cargo
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Introduction
Definition and Characteristics
Bulk cargo refers to unpackaged commodities transported in large volumes, typically as loose solids (dry bulk) or liquids (wet bulk), without individual packaging or unitization.[2] This form of cargo dominates global maritime trade, accounting for a significant portion of seaborne shipments due to its efficiency in handling homogeneous materials over long distances.[2] Key characteristics of bulk cargo include its high volume relative to value per unit, often involving low-cost commodities that prioritize economies of scale in transportation.[2] It requires specialized vessels, such as bulk carriers for dry cargoes like coal, grain, and iron ore, or tankers for liquids like crude oil, to accommodate the loose nature of the goods and mitigate risks such as shifting during transit, which can affect vessel stability.[3][4] These properties enable cost-effective movement of massive quantities but demand careful stowage to prevent hazards like liquefaction in dry bulks or spills in liquids.[5] Bulk cargo differs from breakbulk, which consists of individually packaged or unitized items loaded separately, and from containerized cargo, which uses standardized intermodal containers for a mix of goods.[6] The unpackaged format of bulk cargo emphasizes bulk handling techniques, reducing packaging costs but increasing exposure to environmental and stability risks during loading, unloading, and voyage.[4] Bulk cargo is broadly classified into dry bulk, comprising granular or solid materials, and liquid bulk, involving fluids or liquefied gases, each requiring distinct infrastructure for safe and efficient transport.[2]Historical Development
The transport of bulk cargo originated in ancient civilizations around 2000 BCE, when Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans employed boats and rudimentary ships to move large quantities of grain, timber, stone, and ore along rivers like the Nile and across the Mediterranean Sea. These early vessels, often propelled by oars and sails, facilitated essential trade in staples such as Egyptian grain to feed growing urban populations and metals extracted from regional mines, laying the foundation for organized maritime commerce.[7] The 19th century marked a pivotal advancement during the Industrial Revolution, as rising demand for coal and iron ore spurred the creation of iron-hulled bulk carriers capable of handling heavier loads over longer distances. Britain's abundant coal and ore resources drove innovations in shipbuilding, culminating in the launch of the first purpose-built bulk carrier, the steam-powered John Bowes, in 1852; this 630-ton vessel, with its metal hull and water ballast tanks, could transport more coal in a single week than traditional sailing colliers achieved in a month, transforming industrial supply chains.[8] Post-World War II, bulk cargo shipping experienced rapid growth, with surplus Liberty Ships from the war effort being repurposed as economical bulk carriers due to their sturdy design and cargo-handling capabilities, enabling the resumption of global trade in commodities like grain and ore.[9] In 1951, the founding of Skaarup Shipping Corporation in New York by Ole Skaarup established it as a pioneering bulk operator, initially chartering modified Liberty Ships before innovating the OS-type design in 1954 for more efficient dry bulk transport.[10] The 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of specialized dry bulk carriers, including Handymax vessels (35,000–60,000 DWT) for versatile minor bulk trades and Panamax sizes (60,000–80,000 DWT) optimized for coal and grain via the Panama Canal, featuring large hatches and self-trimming holds to enhance loading efficiency.[11] A key milestone came in 1956 with the advent of containerization, pioneered by Malcolm McLean, which shifted break-bulk general cargo to standardized containers, thereby reducing port congestion and allowing dedicated bulk shipping to streamline operations for dry and liquid commodities through intermodal integration.[12] This evolution not only boosted overall maritime efficiency but also solidified bulk carriers' role in supporting industrial and agricultural trade.Types of Bulk Cargo
Dry Bulk Cargo
Dry bulk cargo consists of unpackaged solid commodities transported in large volumes, primarily by sea in specialized bulk carriers. These materials are typically granular or powdered, facilitating efficient loading and unloading via grabs, conveyors, or belts, and they form the backbone of global industrial and agricultural supply chains. Major dry bulk commodities dominate the trade, accounting for the largest shares due to their essential roles in manufacturing and energy production.[13] The primary major dry bulk cargoes include iron ore, coal, and grains. Iron ore, often shipped as pellets or fines, serves as the key raw material for steel production in blast furnaces and direct reduction processes. In 2024, global seaborne iron ore trade reached 1.68 billion metric tons, reflecting a 3.9% increase from the previous year driven by demand from steel mills in Asia. Coal is transported in two main varieties: coking coal, used in steelmaking to produce coke, and thermal coal, burned for electricity generation in power plants. Grains, such as wheat and soybeans, are vital for food security and animal feed; soybeans, for instance, support global livestock industries and biofuel production. These commodities together represent over two-thirds of dry bulk trade volumes.[14][15][16] Minor dry bulk cargoes encompass a wider array of materials that, while lower in volume, are critical to specialized sectors. Examples include bauxite, the primary ore for aluminum production; phosphates, used in fertilizers to enhance agricultural yields; cement, essential for construction; sugar, a key sweetener in food processing; and steel products like coils and slabs for manufacturing. These items often require tailored handling to prevent contamination or damage during transit.[17][16] A defining characteristic of many dry bulk cargoes is their granular form, which makes them susceptible to liquefaction under certain conditions, posing risks to vessel stability. Liquefaction occurs when fine-particled cargoes with high moisture content behave like a liquid during a vessel's rolling motion, potentially causing cargo shift, capsizing, or structural failure. To mitigate this, the International Maritime Solid Bulk Cargoes (IMSBC) Code, administered by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), mandates testing for transportable moisture limit (TML) and moisture content before loading Group A cargoes—those prone to liquefaction or dynamic separation. Compliance with the IMSBC Code ensures safe carriage by requiring proper stowage, ventilation, and monitoring to prevent free water accumulation and cargo flow.[18] In 2024, global seaborne dry bulk trade exceeded 5.6 billion metric tons for the first time, underscoring the sector's scale amid recovering post-pandemic demand. China played a pivotal role, importing approximately 41% of this volume—around 2.3 billion metric tons—to fuel its manufacturing and energy needs.[19][14]Liquid Bulk Cargo
Liquid bulk cargo encompasses liquid commodities transported en masse without individual packaging, typically in specialized tank vessels designed to handle fluids like petroleum and chemicals. The primary categories include crude oil, refined petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel, liquefied natural gas (LNG), and various chemicals ranging from industrial acids to edible oils like palm and soybean oil. These cargoes dominate global seaborne trade due to the energy and manufacturing sectors' reliance on them, with crude oil alone accounting for a significant portion of tanker movements.[20] Transportation of liquid bulk involves loading and unloading via pumping systems into and from segregated tanks within the vessel, allowing for efficient handling of large volumes while minimizing contamination between different cargoes. Key characteristics include the need for inert gas systems to prevent explosions in volatile liquids and double-hull constructions to reduce spill risks during collisions or groundings. Hazards associated with these cargoes are pronounced, including flammability and toxicity that can lead to fires, explosions, or chemical reactions, as well as the potential for catastrophic spills that threaten marine ecosystems. For hazardous chemicals, such as acids and alcohols, international regulations mandate compliance with the International Bulk Chemical (IBC) Code, which sets standards for ship design, equipment, and operational procedures to ensure safe carriage by sea.[21][22] Liquid bulk cargoes are broadly classified into edible and non-edible subtypes, reflecting their end-use and handling requirements. Edible liquids, primarily vegetable and animal oils, are transported under stringent hygiene protocols to preserve quality for food and biofuel production, often in coated tanks to avoid rancidity. In contrast, non-edible liquids like petrochemicals and industrial chemicals require robust containment to mitigate corrosion and reactivity risks. The scale of this trade is immense, with global seaborne volumes for oil—including crude and petroleum products—totaling approximately 2.2 billion tons in 2023 (as part of liquid bulk representing about 18% of total maritime cargo), highlighting the sector's economic centrality.[23][24]Transportation
Maritime Transport
Maritime transport dominates the movement of bulk cargo, accounting for the vast majority of global seaborne trade due to the efficiency of large-scale vessels in handling massive volumes over long distances. Dry bulk carriers are specialized ships designed for commodities like iron ore, coal, and grains, categorized by deadweight tonnage (DWT) to suit different trade requirements and port constraints. Handymax vessels typically range from 40,000 to 60,000 DWT, offering versatility for medium-volume routes with access to a wide array of ports. Panamax carriers, sized at 60,000 to 80,000 DWT, are built to navigate the Panama Canal's locks, facilitating efficient trans-Pacific and Atlantic crossings. Capesize ships, exceeding 150,000 DWT, are the largest dry bulk vessels, optimized for high-capacity hauls but limited to deep-water ports due to their size. For liquid bulk, very large crude carriers (VLCCs) handle oil transport, with capacities of 200,000 to 320,000 DWT, enabling the carriage of up to two million barrels per voyage. Key shipping routes underscore the strategic importance of maritime bulk transport, linking major exporters to importers across continents. Iron ore, a cornerstone dry bulk commodity, primarily flows from Brazil's Carajás mines and Australia's Pilbara region to China's steel mills, forming the world's longest and most ton-mile-intensive trade lanes. Coal shipments follow similar patterns, with Indonesia exporting thermal coal to India's power plants via shorter intra-Asian routes from Kalimantan ports to eastern Indian facilities like Paradip. Oil tankers, meanwhile, traverse from Middle Eastern producers through the Strait of Hormuz to refineries in Europe via the Suez Canal and to Asia through the Malacca Strait, supporting over 20 million barrels daily in global energy flows. Operational challenges in maritime bulk transport include ballast water management to prevent environmental harm, fleet expansion to meet demand, and inefficiencies from trade imbalances. Bulk carriers take on ballast water for stability during empty voyages, but the International Maritime Organization's Ballast Water Management Convention mandates exchange at sea—typically 200 nautical miles from land in waters over 200 meters deep—or treatment via systems like UV irradiation or chlorination to eliminate invasive species. The dry bulk fleet grew steadily, reaching approximately 1.05 billion DWT by the end of 2024, with further growth to approximately 1.08 billion DWT by late 2025, driven by newbuild deliveries amid rising commodity trade volumes.[25][26] Trade imbalances, where export-heavy regions like Australia and Brazil lack sufficient return cargoes, result in up to 45% of voyages sailing empty, increasing fuel costs and emissions while pressuring freight rates.Inland and Rail Transport
Inland and rail transport play a crucial role in moving bulk cargo over land and water for domestic and regional distribution, offering cost-effective alternatives to trucking for commodities like coal, grain, and iron ore. Rail systems utilize specialized hopper cars designed for dry bulk materials, enabling efficient long-haul shipments. In the United States, unit trains—dedicated consists of 100 or more hopper cars—commonly transport coal and grain, with a typical coal unit train carrying approximately 16,000 tons across an average of 131 cars.[27] These configurations allow railroads to handle large volumes economically, as evidenced by coal comprising 31.4% of originated tonnage for U.S. Class I railroads in 2018, though this share has declined to about 24% by 2023 due to shifts in energy production.[28][29] In Australia, rail transport excels in heavy-haul iron ore operations, particularly in the Pilbara region, where dedicated networks support mining giants. BHP Billiton's rail lines, including the Goldsworthy and Mount Newman railways, facilitate massive unit trains that set records for length and capacity; for instance, trains in this system can exceed 35,000 tonnes of iron ore per load, optimizing long-distance movement from mines to ports.[30] Rio Tinto's Pilbara Rail network, spanning over 1,800 km, similarly employs autonomous heavy-haul trains to move vast quantities, contributing to annual shipments of hundreds of millions of tonnes while minimizing operational costs compared to road alternatives.[31] Inland waterways complement rail by providing low-speed, high-capacity transport for bulk goods via barges on major rivers. In the United States, the Mississippi River system features standard dry cargo barges with a capacity of about 1,500 tons each, often configured in tows of 15 to 40 barges pushed by towboats, allowing a single 15-barge tow to carry the equivalent of over 1,050 truckloads and thus alleviate highway congestion.[32][33] On Europe's Rhine River, barges average 1,500 tonnes in deadweight capacity, with pushed convoys typically comprising 4 to 6 units for dry bulk cargo like aggregates and grains, enabling efficient navigation through locks and bends while supporting regional trade volumes.[34][35] Integration of inland and rail modes with maritime transport enhances overall logistics efficiency through intermodal transfers at ports and terminals. In the U.S., bulk cargo arriving by sea is often shifted to barges on the Mississippi or rail unit trains for inland distribution; for example, the South Carolina Ports Authority employs barge services from coastal terminals to inland facilities, reducing truck traffic on congested highways by diverting thousands of loads annually.[36] This approach not only lowers emissions per ton-kilometer but also optimizes domestic movement, with one 15-barge tow replacing the road equivalent of more than 1,000 trucks.[37]Handling and Logistics
Loading and Unloading Methods
Loading and unloading methods for bulk cargo are critical processes that ensure efficient transfer between vessels, vehicles, and storage systems while minimizing environmental impact and operational risks. These techniques vary depending on whether the cargo is dry or liquid bulk, with specialized equipment designed to handle large volumes at high speeds. For dry bulk cargoes such as coal and grain, mechanical grabs and conveyor systems are commonly employed, whereas liquid bulk cargoes like oil rely on pumping and pipeline infrastructure. Safety protocols, including dust control and spill prevention, are integrated to protect workers and the environment during these operations.[38][39][40] For dry bulk cargo, grab unloaders equipped with clamshell buckets are a primary method, particularly for materials like coal, where the buckets scoop cargo from ship holds and deposit it onto conveyors or trucks. These unloaders operate via cranes that lower the open bucket into the hold, close it to grasp the material, and lift it for transfer, achieving capacities suitable for large-scale operations. Conveyor belts are widely used for grain handling, providing a continuous flow from ship holds to shore facilities by utilizing self-unloading booms or fixed systems that transport the cargo horizontally or at inclines. Continuous unloaders, often rail-mounted or screw-type, further enhance efficiency for dry bulk, operating at rates of 2,000 to 6,000 tons per hour to rapidly empty vessels without interruption.[38][39][41] Liquid bulk cargo unloading typically involves pumping systems, with submersible pumps immersed directly in the cargo tanks of oil tankers to facilitate the transfer of viscous liquids like crude oil to shore facilities. These pumps, often centrifugal or turbine types, generate the necessary pressure to move large volumes efficiently, reducing unloading times and ensuring complete drainage. Pipelines connect the ship's manifold directly to onshore storage, allowing controlled flow through valves and meters to prevent backflow and enable precise measurement during the process.[40][42] Safety measures are paramount in these operations to address hazards specific to each cargo type. For dry bulk, dust suppression techniques such as water spraying or surfactant application are applied during unloading to minimize airborne particles from materials like coal or grain, reducing respiratory risks and environmental dispersion. In liquid bulk handling, spill containment systems—including floating booms and absorbent barriers—are deployed around the transfer area to capture any leaks from pipelines or pumps, preventing contamination of surrounding waters. Automation, such as pneumatic conveying systems for minerals, further enhances safety by enclosing the material flow in pipelines, eliminating direct exposure and reducing manual intervention.[43][44][45]Dry Storage
Dry bulk cargo, such as grains and ores, requires specialized storage facilities to maintain quality and prevent degradation from environmental factors. For grains, vertical silos equipped with aeration systems are commonly used to circulate ambient air through the stored mass, thereby cooling the grain and achieving uniform temperatures that inhibit mold growth and insect infestation.[46] Aeration typically involves fans pushing air at rates sufficient to lower grain temperatures to 10-15°C below ambient levels during fall storage, extending shelf life for months.[47] These silos, often constructed from steel or concrete, can hold capacities ranging from thousands to hundreds of thousands of metric tons, with automated monitoring for moisture and temperature to ensure compliance with food safety standards.[48] For non-perishable dry commodities like iron ore or coal, open-air stockpiles are prevalent, but weather protection is essential to mitigate oxidation, moisture ingress, and dust dispersion. Stockpiles are frequently covered with durable tarpaulins or polyethylene sheets that resist UV degradation and wind uplift, preventing rainwater accumulation that could lead to cargo liquefaction or environmental runoff.[49] In larger operations, conveyor systems integrate with covered stacking areas to form longitudinal piles up to 300 meters long, safeguarding the material until transport.[50] Coal storage yards, for instance, exemplify this approach, with representative facilities designed to hold approximately 100,000 metric tons in open but covered configurations to balance cost and protection.[51]Liquid Storage
Liquid bulk cargo demands sealed, temperature-controlled tanks to preserve chemical stability and prevent volatilization or contamination. Above-ground storage tanks (ASTs) are standard for crude oil and petroleum products, featuring double-walled steel construction with secondary containment to comply with spill prevention regulations; these tanks store millions of barrels at ambient temperatures, often with floating roofs to minimize vapor emissions.[52] For liquefied natural gas (LNG), cryogenic tanks maintain temperatures around -162°C using insulated double-wall designs with perlite or foam voids, enabling safe holding of vast volumes—up to 200,000 cubic meters per tank—while vapor recovery systems recapture boil-off gas.[53] Such facilities incorporate advanced monitoring for pressure and structural integrity to handle the material's expansion properties.[54] Chemical liquids, including acids and solvents, utilize dedicated blending facilities integrated with bulk tanks, where stainless steel or lined vessels allow for precise mixing before distribution. These systems employ closed-loop piping to transfer materials from rail or ship to storage, with capacities scaled to industrial needs, such as 50,000-100,000 gallon tanks per product line, ensuring homogeneity and reducing batch variability.[55] Blending occurs in agitated tanks to prevent stratification, followed by quality checks for purity.[56]Considerations in Storage Management
Effective inventory management is crucial for bulk cargo warehousing, particularly to address degradation risks in perishables. For grains, the first-in, first-out (FIFO) principle is applied by organizing silo discharges to prioritize older stocks, minimizing spoilage through rotational loading via conveyors or augers that access bottom layers first.[57] This method, supported by digital tracking systems, ensures that grain with higher moisture content—prone to fungal growth—is dispatched promptly, maintaining overall inventory turnover rates aligned with seasonal harvests.[58] Capacity planning also factors in surge demands, as seen in coal yards accommodating 100,000-ton stockpiles to buffer supply chain fluctuations without compromising structural limits.[51] Overall, these practices integrate ventilation, monitoring, and rotation to optimize space utilization while adhering to international standards for cargo integrity.Infrastructure
Major Bulk Ports
Major bulk ports serve as critical hubs for the global movement of dry and liquid commodities, handling vast quantities of iron ore, coal, grain, oil, and other bulk cargoes that underpin international trade. These facilities are ranked primarily by annual cargo throughput in metric tons, with many located in Asia due to surging demand for raw materials in manufacturing powerhouses like China. In 2024, the world's leading bulk ports collectively processed billions of tons, reflecting robust growth in commodity exports from resource-rich regions and imports to industrial centers.[59] Among the busiest, Ningbo-Zhoushan Port in China stands out as the global leader in total cargo tonnage, achieving a record 1.37 billion metric tons in 2024, a 4% increase from the prior year, driven largely by coal, oil, and iron ore handling.[60] This port's dominance stems from its strategic position on the East China Sea, supporting over 300 shipping routes and facilitating China's import needs for energy and metals. Similarly, the Port of Shanghai, another Chinese giant, managed approximately 753 million metric tons of cargo in 2024, blending bulk operations with container traffic but excelling in mixed bulk flows like crude oil and dry goods.[61] Its role as a mixed-use facility underscores the integration of bulk cargo in Asia's trade ecosystem, with bulk volumes contributing significantly to its throughput amid rising regional demand.[62] Port Hedland in Australia ranks as a premier specialized bulk exporter, focusing on iron ore, with 577.7 million metric tons handled in the 2024-2025 financial year, marking a 1% rise and solidifying its position as the world's largest iron ore export hub.[63] This port's efficiency supports Australia's mineral exports to Asia, processing shipments from major miners like BHP and Rio Tinto. Regionally, the Port of Dampier, also in Australia, complements Hedland by handling approximately 240 million metric tons annually of minerals and LNG, contributing to the Pilbara region's total of 775.7 million tons in 2024-2025.[64] In North America, the Port of South Louisiana emerges as a key grain and barge hub, recording 251 million short tons (equivalent to roughly 228 million metric tons) in 2024, positioning it as a major tonnage port in the Western Hemisphere.[65] Its focus on agricultural bulk exports via the Mississippi River system highlights U.S. strengths in grain and petrochemicals. Europe's Port of Rotterdam, a multi-modal bulk gateway, processed 435.8 million metric tons in 2024, with dry and liquid bulk like coal, iron ore, and oil forming the core, supported by extensive inland connections.[66] Asian ports, particularly in China, drove much of the sector's 2024 growth, fueled by import demand for energy and raw materials.| Port | Location | Primary Bulk Focus | 2024 Throughput (million metric tons) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ningbo-Zhoushan | China | Coal, oil, iron ore | 1,370 [60] |
| Shanghai | China | Oil, dry bulk (mixed) | 753 [61] |
| Port Hedland | Australia | Iron ore | 578 [63] |
| Rotterdam | Netherlands | Coal, iron ore, oil | 435.8 [66] |
| South Louisiana | USA | Grain, petrochemicals | 228 [65] |
| Dampier | Australia | Minerals, LNG | 240 [64] |