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Clothing in ancient Egypt
Clothing in ancient Egypt
Clothing in ancient Egypt
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The clothing of men and women of several social levels of ancient Egypt are depicted in this tomb mural from the Eighteenth Dynasty (15th century BC).
Ancient Egyptian
culture

Ancient Egyptian clothing refers to the garments, jewelry, footwear, and wigs worn in Egypt from the end of the Neolithic period (prior to 3100 BC) to the collapse of the Ptolemaic Kingdom in 30 BC. Fashions in ancient Egypt changed slowly over time and were influenced by foreign styles. Recognizable aspects of ancient Egyptain clothing includes white linen kilts, sheath dresses, bag-tunics, and mantles; usekh collars; sandals; and wigs.

Elements of Egyptian clothing

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Sample of ancient Egyptian linen from Saqqara, dating to 390-343 BC (Late Period)
Modern illustration of a man's tunic in the style popularized in the New Kingdom

In ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable in the subtropical heat. Linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibers from the stem of the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian societies. Plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural color. Wool was also used to a lesser extent, as were coir-type fibers such as hemp, grass, and reed, although fabric made from the latter group was not common.[1] The misconception that wool was considered unclean by the ancient Egyptians can be attributed to Herodotus.

Peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti (made of flax) was worn by all people. Slaves often worked naked.[2]

Unique headdresses included the khat, a loose headcloth worn by men of noble rank, and the nemes, a striped cloth reserved for monarchs.

Deities

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There were several ancient Egyptian deities related to fabrics, clothing and weaving, chiefly the god Hedjhotep and the goddess Tayt.[3]

Pharaohs

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Pectoral of Ramesses II.
Main article: Regalia of the Pharaoh

Royal clothing is particularly well documented, as well as the khat, nemes, and crowns of the pharaohs. The pharaohs would often wear animal skins, usually leopard or lion, as a sign of their station.[2]

Men

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Typical depiction of an Egyptian man in standard clothes

From about 2130 BC during the Old Kingdom, garments were simply constructed. Men wore wrap around skirts belted at the waist. This style of dress was consistent across class but higher class Egyptians wore more finely crafted pieces.[4]

While women's clothing stayed mostly the same during the Middle Kingdom, men's clothing changed in some regards (as evidenced by available art). The two most notable changes were the pleating of the skirts and the adoption of the triangular apron by upper-class men. This starched ornamented kilt was held up by a sash and worn over a loincloth.[5]

Two tunics and a chest of clothes, tomb of Kha and Merit, 14th century BCE, Museo Egizio in Turin

Artistic relics from the New Kingdom show the largest evolution in men's clothing. New Kingdom art depicts the use of sheer blouses with intricately pleated sleeves, as well as more elaborate pleating of the skirts with sheer overskirts.[6] Still, only wealthier citizens could afford these materials.[7]

Women

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Typical depiction of an Egyptian woman in clothing of the New Kingdom
Network dress. Faience, blue and black cylinder beads, two breast caps and two strings of Mitra beads. 5th Dynasty. From burial 978 at Qau (Tjebu), Egypt. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London
Egyptian woman in a kalasiris
Female statue with clothing
Female statue with clothing, 2118 - 1980 BC, Museo Egizio (Turin, Italy)

During the Old, Middle and New Kingdom, ancient Egyptian women mostly wore a simple sheath dress called a kalasiris,[8] which is shown to cover the breasts in statues, but in paintings and relief the single breast depicted in profile is exposed.[9] Women's clothing in ancient Egypt was more conservative than men's clothing. The dresses were held up by one or two straps and were worn down to the ankle, while the upper edge could be worn above or below the breasts. The length of the dress denoted the social class of the wearer.[10] Beading or feathers were also used as an embellishment on the dress.[11] Over the dress, women had a choice of wearing shawls, capes, or robes. The shawl was a piece of fine linen cloth around 4 feet wide by 13 or 14 feet long, which was mostly worn pleated. Surviving dresses consist of a body made from a tube of material sewn up one side, supported not by straps but by a bodice with sleeves. In contrast to dresses shown in art, such linen garments tend to be baggy, and would conceal rather than reveal the body. It was made of linen, a material that tends to sag but is shown to hug the body with no slag.[12]

Children

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Children wore no clothing until 6 years old. Once they turned six they were allowed to wear clothing to protect them from the dry heat. A popular hairstyle among children was the side-lock, an unshaved length of hair on the right side of the head. Even though children usually wore no clothing, they wore jewelry such as anklets, bracelets, collars, and hair accessories.[9]

Wigs

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Merit's wig from the tomb of Kha and Merit, 14th century BCE
See also: Sidelock of youth
Painting of a woman with a wig and head cone, circa 1250–1200 BCE

Wigs were worn by the wealthy of both sexes. Made from human hair and sometimes supplemented with date palm fiber, they were often styled in tight curls and narrow braids.[13] For special occasions, both men and women could top their wigs with cones of perfumed fat that would melt to release their fragrance and condition the hair.[14]

Jewelry

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See also: Ancient Egyptian flint jewelry, Pectoral (Ancient Egypt), Usekh collar, and Egyptian Finger and Toe stalls
Pectoral of Senusret II, Metropolitan Museum of Art

Jewelry was very popular in ancient Egypt, no matter the social class. It was heavy and rather voluminous. The main reason for wearing jewelry is because of its aesthetic function. The Egyptians were quite soberly dressed in white linen fabrics, and jewelry offered a possibility for contrast.[15] The Egyptian preference was towards the use of bright colors, lustrous stones and precious metals. Gold was won in large quantities in the eastern desert of Egypt, but also came from Nubia, that was an Egyptian colony for centuries.

On the other hand, silver was rare and was imported from Asia. Therefore, it was silver that was often considered more precious than gold. The eastern desert was also an important source for colorful semi-precious stones such as carnelian, amethyst and jasper. In the Sinai were turquoise mines, the deep blue lapis lazuli had to come from far away Afghanistan. Glass and faience (glaze over a core of stone or sand) were favorites to replace rocks because they could be produced in many colors.[16]

The Egyptians became very skilled when making jewelry from turquoise, metals like gold and silver, and small beads. Both men and women adorned themselves with earrings, bracelets, rings, necklaces and neck collars that were brightly colored. Those who could not afford jewelry made from gold or other stones would make their jewelry from colored pottery beads.[17]

One creation that was specific to ancient Egypt was the gorgerine, an assembly of metal discs worn on the chest, either over bare skin or over a shirt, and attached in the back.

Ancient Egyptian cosmetic set from c. 1550–1458 BC, featuring, from left to right, a kohl tube, a razor, a pair of tweezers, a whetstone, and a mirror
18th Dynasty sandals, circa 1390–1352 BCE

Cosmetics

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Main article: Beauty and cosmetics in ancient Egypt

Embalming allowed the development of cosmetics and perfumes.[clarification needed] The perfumes of Egypt were the most numerous, but also the most sought and the costliest of antiquity, which used them extensively. The Egyptians used makeup most of all the ancient people. Nails and hands were painted with henna.

Black kohl, which was used to mark eyes, was obtained from galena. Eye shadow was made from crushed malachite. Red, which was applied to lips, came from ochre. These products were mixed with animal fat to make them compact and to preserve them. Both men and women wore galena or malachite eyeliner to protect the eyes and enhance their beauty.

Findings were published by American Chemical Society in the journal Analytic Chemistry suggest that the use of lead in makeup was intentional. Findings suggest that the lead in combination with salts produced naturally by the body produce nitric oxide which boosts the immune system. It is believed that the production and result were intentional. The increase in immune productivity would help to prevent infections like conjunctivitis.[18]

Footwear

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Footwear was the same for both sexes. It consisted of coiled sewn sandals of leatherwork, or for the priestly class, papyrus. Since Egyptians were usually barefoot, sandals were worn on special occasions or at times when their feet might get hurt.[10]

New Kingdom of Egypt

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Women's fashions of this period were more elaborate than in any previous era. Both men and women in Egypt often shaved their heads to prevent lice and to reduce the time it took to maintain a full head of hair. Wigs were worn by both sexes to protect the scalp and for ceremonial purposes.[19]

See also

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References

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Clothing in ancient Egypt

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Clothing in ancient Egypt was characterized by simple, lightweight garments primarily made from , designed to suit the hot, dry climate and serving both practical and symbolic purposes across social classes and historical periods. These garments, often untailored and rectangular in form, included kilts and loincloths for men and sheath dresses or wraparound tunics for women, with variations in style reflecting , status, and . Linen, derived from the flax plant (Linum usitatissimum), was the dominant material due to its breathability and availability, woven into fine textures that could be plain or adorned with fringes, pleats, or colored bands, though was occasionally used but restricted in sacred contexts. Evidence from archaeological finds, such as preserved textiles from and , and visual depictions in reveal an evolution in styles: short schenti kilts dominated (c. 2686–2181 BCE), while the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE) saw more elaborate sash-kilts for men and high-waisted dresses with knots for women. Beyond functionality, clothing expressed identity and provided apotropaic protection, with elite members incorporating bead-net dresses or ornate elements to signify wealth and ritual roles. Lower classes wore simpler versions of these garments, often coarser , highlighting social hierarchies, while foreign influences like Kushite styles appeared in later periods.

Overview and Historical Context

Origins and Evolution

The origins of clothing in ancient Egypt trace back to the Predynastic Period (c. 6000–3100 BCE), with evidence of cultivation emerging around 5000 BCE in the Nile Valley, enabling the production of as the primary textile. Flax seeds recovered from Badari culture sites (c. 4400–4000 BCE), such as those analyzed at , confirm early processing of the plant for fiber, likely yielding simple wraps that offered breathability in the hot, dry climate. While animal skins may have served as initial coverings for practical protection, rapidly supplanted them due to its local abundance and ease of weaving into lightweight fabrics. During the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BCE), clothing underwent significant evolution toward more structured forms, influenced by the political unification of under the first pharaohs, which fostered cultural standardization. Surviving artifacts, such as the —a sleeveless, V-neck from a First Dynasty (c. 3000 BCE) at the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology—demonstrate early tailoring techniques, including seaming and pleating, marking a shift from purely draped wraps to fitted garments for enhanced mobility and aesthetics. This period's innovations are evident in royal palettes and early , where attire begins to symbolize emerging hierarchical order. Subsequent dynastic periods saw further adaptations in style and function, driven by societal and economic changes. In the (c. 2686–2181 BCE), formality dominated, with linen drapes arranged in rigid, symmetrical configurations to convey stability and divine kingship, as portrayed in pyramid temple reliefs and elite statuary. The Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BCE) emphasized practicality amid political fragmentation, featuring versatile wrapped linens secured by belts for everyday labor and travel, reflected in more dynamic provincial tomb scenes. By the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), prosperity from imperial expansion introduced luxurious refinements, including ultra-fine, pleated linens that highlighted transparency and elegance, often enhanced by imported dyes, as illustrated in Theban tomb paintings and artifacts. These evolutionary trends are primarily documented through archaeological evidence, including surviving textiles preserved by Egypt's arid conditions and visual representations in tomb art, reliefs, and sculptures, which collectively reveal shifts from utilitarian origins to symbolic expressions of power and refinement. Key repositories like the Petrie Museum and hold exemplars, such as early fragments and bead-net overlays, underscoring the reliance on such sources for reconstructing historical attire.

Cultural and Environmental Influences

The hot and dry climate of the Valley profoundly shaped ancient Egyptian clothing, necessitating lightweight and breathable garments to facilitate mobility and provide relief from intense heat and arid conditions. , derived from grown along the , was the predominant fabric due to its airy quality and ability to wick away moisture, allowing minimal coverage that prioritized comfort over insulation. This environmental adaptation is evident in preserved textiles from arid burials, where simple wraps and kilts dominated daily wear. Religious beliefs further influenced clothing design, embedding symbolism that linked attire to spiritual purity and . White linen, the color of undyed fabric, represented cleanliness and sanctity, particularly in preparations for the , where it symbolized rebirth and divine favor in funerary contexts. Animal motifs, such as those inspired by deities like or , were incorporated into embellishments for apotropaic purposes, warding off evil and invoking safeguarding forces in both daily and ritual garments. Gender norms dictated differences in attire, with women's generally more covering than men's in settings to align with societal expectations of , while still allowing in the heat. Men's kilts and loincloths offered greater exposure for labor and mobility, whereas women's sheath dresses or wraps extended to the ankles, reflecting roles tied to cults where female figures in temple art emphasized reproductive symbolism through draped forms. These distinctions underscored a cultural balance between practicality and propriety, with situational and often linked to lower-status labor rather than inherent traits. Social hierarchy was visibly manifested through variations in fabric quality and decorative elements, serving as clear status markers within Egyptian society. Finer, more transparent and intricate pleating denoted standing, while coarser weaves suited commoners; embellishments like beads, fringes, or metallic threads further amplified prestige, restricted to higher classes to signify wealth and . This stratification ensured clothing not only met environmental needs but also reinforced communal order and identity.

Materials and Production

Fabrics and Fibers

The primary fabric used in ancient Egyptian clothing was , derived from the plant ( usitatissimum), which was cultivated extensively along the fertile banks of the River due to the plant's preference for silty, well-irrigated soils. Flax fibers were processed into a lightweight, highly absorbent material that was particularly suited to Egypt's hot, arid climate, offering breathability and durability while allowing sweat to evaporate quickly. This made linen ideal for daily wear, as it resisted wrinkling and maintained comfort in high temperatures, contributing to its status as the cornerstone of Egyptian textile production from the Predynastic period onward. Wool, obtained from sheep and , was far less common in ancient Egyptian garments owing to religious and cultural taboos associating it with impurity and , as it was viewed as an animal product akin to rather than a clean plant fiber. These prohibitions, noted in classical accounts and supported by archaeological evidence of its limited presence in , restricted primarily to practical uses like blankets or outer layers in cooler regions such as the Delta or during later periods when foreign influences increased its sporadic adoption. A finer variant of known as , or "royal linen," was reserved for contexts, prized for its exceptional fineness—sometimes woven to threads as thin as a —and translucency, symbolizing and divine favor in priestly and noble attire. Cotton ( species) was absent from ancient Egyptian textiles until the Ptolemaic era (c. 305–30 BCE), when it was introduced through Hellenistic trade and cultivation, marking a shift from the linen-dominated tradition. Dyeing practices were limited, relying on natural plant-based sources such as for durable blues and (Carthamus tinctorius) for reds and yellows, applied through mordanting techniques to fix colors on the fibers of . However, undyed white was overwhelmingly preferred, embodying ideals of purity and cleanliness in both secular and religious life, with colored textiles appearing mainly in elite or decorative items.

Manufacturing Techniques

The production of ancient Egyptian clothing primarily involved transforming fibers into through a series of labor-intensive processes. , the dominant fiber used, was first processed by and to separate the fibers, which were then spun into thread predominantly by women using drop spindles—simple wooden sticks weighted with a whorl to twist the fibers consistently. This drop-spinning technique, often depicted in Middle Kingdom tomb scenes such as those at , allowed for the creation of fine, uniform threads suitable for high-quality . Weaving followed spinning, typically on horizontal ground looms where warp threads were stretched between two beams up to 1 meter wide, enabling the production of rectangular cloth panels. Weavers, kneeling and passing shuttles through the warp, interlaced weft threads to form fabrics, as evidenced by archaeological remains and artistic representations from the Old and Middle Kingdoms. These looms produced cloth in manageable widths, which were later assembled into garments. Sewing connected the woven panels using bone or copper needles, with straight seams and minimal stitching to maintain the fabric's integrity, a method inferred from surviving textile fragments and tool finds across dynastic periods. Pleating, a distinctive finishing technique for elite attire, involved applying starch—derived from wheat or barley—to stiffen the linen, followed by precise folding into uniform ridges, often 16 mm apart, and setting with heat or pressure, as analyzed in pleated samples from the Late Period. Labor in textile production was divided along domestic and institutional lines: women commonly spun and wove at home for household needs, while state-organized workshops, supervised initially by women in the Middle Kingdom and later by men, manufactured finer linens for elite and temple use. Finishing processes enhanced the cloth's appearance, including bleaching through exposure to sunlight and treatment with or alkaline solutions in water to achieve the prized whiteness symbolizing purity; these methods, applied post-weaving, are attested in chemical analyses of dynastic textiles. Embroidery was rare, limited to decorative accents on high-status items using colored threads or beads sewn onto the linen surface, as seen in New Kingdom artifacts like those from Tutankhamun's tomb.

Core Garments

Lower Body Garments

The primary lower body garments in ancient Egypt were the schenti kilt and its variants, including the loincloth, which provided essential coverage in the hot climate while allowing freedom of movement. These items were predominantly worn by men and formed the foundational attire for laborers, officials, and elites alike, emphasizing practicality and simplicity in design. The schenti kilt consisted of a rectangular piece of cloth wrapped around the and hips, secured by tucking one end into the or fastening with a belt. Typically reaching the knees for common wearers, it could extend to ankle length for higher-status individuals, reflecting subtle variations in . Traces of similar wrap-style garments appear in predynastic figurines, indicating early adoption before . A minimal variant, often termed the or , served as a basic wrap for laborers and was triangular in shape, tied at the waist to cover the genitals and upper thighs. Over 140 such s were discovered in Tutankhamun's , suggesting their use even among royalty as undergarments or simple attire. Pleated versions of the emerged for more formal contexts, with stiffened folds created through starching or weaving techniques. Materials for these garments were almost exclusively plain white derived from , chosen for its breathability and lightness in Egypt's arid environment. The design evolved from simple tied wraps in the predynastic and early periods to more elaborate pleated and belted forms by the New Kingdom, incorporating decorative elements like triangular aprons for added formality. Linen's fine weave, as seen in surviving examples, facilitated these advancements without compromising comfort. Functionally, the schenti and enabled ease of movement essential for activities such as farming, , and daily labor, while their minimal coverage suited the warm weather. Symbolically, these garments underscored in artistic representations, often depicted on figures in and statues to convey strength and .

Upper Body and Full-Length Attire

The kalasiris, a staple garment for , was a straight, sheath-like dress typically made from fine , extending from the shoulders or just below the breasts to the ankles. This sleeveless attire was held in place by narrow straps over the shoulders, often featuring a V-neckline or subtle pleats for added form and elegance, particularly among elite women during the New Kingdom (c. 1570–1069 BCE). Variations included sheer fabrics that provided a sense of transparency, emphasizing the garment's lightweight suitability for the hot climate while adhering to norms of modesty. Men's upper body clothing was less common and more utilitarian, with s or short shirts appearing primarily in the New Kingdom for cooler weather, labor, or formal settings. These were typically short-sleeved or sleeveless, made from and reaching the knees, worn over lower garments for added coverage; they were loose-fitting and often pleated for comfort and style among the upper classes. Archaeological evidence, such as tunic fragments from , indicates these were reserved for specific contexts rather than daily wear, reflecting practical adaptations to environmental needs. Full-length robes served ceremonial purposes, particularly for priests and elites, consisting of draped linen sheets that covered the entire body to symbolize purity and sanctity. In religious rituals, these white robes were sheer and flowing, often wrapped without extensive tailoring, as noted in historical accounts from the New Kingdom onward. Such attire underscored hierarchical roles, with transparency allowing glimpses of underlying garments in elite representations. Construction of these upper body and full-length pieces emphasized simplicity and efficiency, using minimal side seams on rectangular panels to reduce waste and labor. Adjustments for fit relied on ties, belts, or shoulder straps rather than complex stitching, enabling easy draping; pleating techniques, involving folding and pressing the fabric, added decorative elements without altering the basic form. This approach highlighted the ingenuity of ancient Egyptian textile practices, prioritizing functionality alongside aesthetic appeal.

Outer Garments and Wraps

In ancient Egyptian , outer garments such as cloaks and shawls served as additional layers of and , typically consisting of untailored rectangular pieces of draped over the shoulders or wrapped around the body. These wraparound items were constructed from flax-derived , a staple material valued for its and fine weave, and were often thrown loosely over primary attire like kilts or tunics for practical coverage during daily activities or symbolic enhancement in social contexts. Shawls and capes frequently featured decorative fringes or tassels along the edges, with color bands woven in for visual appeal, as seen in depictions from the Third Intermediate Period (ca. 945–715 BC). Women commonly used these for , draping them across the torso or shoulders, while men employed capes against wind or cooler conditions, particularly in elaborate outfits combining them with lower-body garments. Elites preferred longer variants, which extended to mid-calf or below, signaling higher status through the quality and length of the . Ceremonial mantles, worn over core garments during rituals, incorporated embroidery or beaded elements for heightened symbolic importance, distinguishing them from everyday wraps and emphasizing their role in religious or formal proceedings. Such decorated pieces were reserved for significant occasions, providing both physical coverage and ritualistic protection. Due to Egypt's predominantly hot climate, outer garments like these were less common during the day but saw increased use in cooler evenings or in the more temperate regions, where environmental factors such as higher humidity and occasional winds encouraged additional layering. Linen's lightweight nature made it suitable for these variable conditions without compromising comfort.

Attire by Social Group

Royal and Elite Attire

The pharaoh's attire served as a potent emblem of divine and kingship, distinguishing the ruler from all others through symbolic integrated with basic garments like the . The crook (heka) and flail (nekhakha), often crossed over the chest or held in the hands, represented pastoral care and the power to discipline, respectively, underscoring the pharaoh's role as and enforcer of (cosmic order). A bull's tail pendant hung from the side of the , evoking the virility and strength of the , a motif tied to royal epithets like "Strong Bull." The false beard, typically a ceremonial addition worn by both male and female pharaohs, symbolized gender transcendence and divine essence, linking the ruler to gods like and reinforcing the pharaoh's intermediary status between humanity and the divine. Elite men and women of the nobility and high priesthood wore refined variations of core garments, emphasizing luxury and status through superior craftsmanship and materials. For men, starched kilts—pleated wrapped and stiffened around the waist—were often accented with sashes tied at the front, creating a structured suitable for ceremonial duties; these were typically made from high-thread-count to maintain crisp folds. women donned finely pleated kalasiris, a form-fitting reaching the ankles, paired with broad collar necklaces of , carnelian, and faience beads that cascaded over the shoulders as a mark of prestige. These garments utilized sheer byssus , the finest flax-woven fabric known as "royal linen," prized for its translucency that revealed skin tones and allowed intricate pleating, sometimes incorporating threads for added opulence. Colors held symbolic weight: red dyes from madder or evoked vitality and power. In funerary contexts, royal and attire influenced mummification practices, where wrappings were layered to mimic the structure of living garments, ensuring the deceased's eternal embodiment of status. Mummiform shrouds and bandages formed pleated kalasiris-like coverings or simulations, often painted with broad collars and motifs to replicate , blending the physical body with symbolic representations of power and . These adaptations preserved the social hierarchy in the afterlife, with sheer s and dyed elements underscoring continuity between mortal and immortal existence.

Deities and Religious Representations

In ancient Egyptian art, temple reliefs, and ritual iconography, deities were portrayed in clothing that symbolized their cosmic roles, eternal nature, and divine powers, often using idealized forms to convey attributes like resurrection, fertility, and sovereignty. These representations, found across statues, wall paintings, and papyri, emphasized purity through white linen and specific regalia that distinguished gods from mortals, while avoiding the varied styles of human attire. Such depictions served not only aesthetic purposes but also reinforced theological concepts during worship and funerary rites. Osiris, the god of the and , was typically shown with green skin signifying renewal and , wearing a white shroud that wrapped his mummified form to symbolize eternal life and rebirth after death. Atop his head sat the crown, a tall white crown of flanked by ostrich feathers, often adorned with a , evoking his kingship over the . While the shroud dominated his attire, some representations included a minimal beneath, underscoring his pre-mortem vitality without elaborate folds, as seen in and temple carvings. Goddesses like and embodied and protection, frequently depicted in tight sheath dresses of white that clung to the body, highlighting feminine ideals and divine motherhood. , as the devoted wife of and mother of , wore this form-fitting garment paired with a headdress of cow horns cradling a solar disk, symbolizing her nurturing and magical powers. , the sky goddess associated with joy and abundance, shared similar , including the bovine horns and disk atop a long wig, often complemented by broad collars of beads and that invoked and protective magic, as evidenced in amulets and temple reliefs. Amun-Ra, the supreme creator and sun god, appeared in pleated kilts of fine linen that fell to the knees, fastened with a belt and bull's tail to denote strength and eternity, reflecting his fusion of hidden power and solar vitality. His regalia included a towering double-plumed crown with a solar disk at its base, encircled by a , emphasizing dominion over creation and the daily rebirth of the sun, as portrayed in Theban temple walls and statues. Priests in rituals emulated these divine forms to channel godly essence, donning pristine white garments to embody ritual purity, as 's unbleached state represented essential for approaching the sacred. For ceremonies involving animal-headed deities like or , priests incorporated leopard or other animal skins over their , symbolizing the god's ferocity and otherworldly nature, while avoiding impurities like ; this attire, seen in depictions and temple scenes, facilitated identification with the deity during processions and offerings.

Everyday Attire for Men and Women

In ancient Egypt, the everyday attire of common men, particularly laborers and farmers, consisted primarily of a short schenti made from coarse , wrapped around the waist and extending to mid-thigh or knee length for practicality during physical work. Scribes and artisans among the middle classes wore slightly longer versions of the schenti, often reaching below the knee, still fashioned from but of finer quality to reflect their status while maintaining functionality. Men across these groups typically went bare-chested, as the hot climate rendered upper-body coverings unnecessary and was reserved for essential lower garments. For common women engaged in household tasks or labor, daily wear centered on the simple kalasiris, a sleeveless of that fell from the shoulders to the ankles, or alternatively wrapped skirts secured at the waist. These were often supplemented with apron-like overlays for practical purposes, such as during milling, , or harvesting, where women tied additional panels around the hips to protect clothing from dirt and facilitate movement. The kalasiris was typically narrow and straight, allowing ease in daily activities, and made from readily available flax-derived that women themselves often spun and wove at home. Class differences in everyday attire were most evident in the quality of used, with farmers and laborers donning coarser, unbleached fabrics that were durable yet rough, while artisans and middle-class professionals like scribes utilized finer, softer weaves for greater comfort and subtle distinction. This variation stemmed from the labor-intensive production of , where coarser threads suited the demands of fieldwork, whereas refined versions indicated skilled craftsmanship without venturing into elite ornamentation. Gender distinctions in daily clothing emphasized functionality and cultural norms of exposure, with men routinely displaying more of their bodies through bare torsos and minimal kilts to accommodate labor in the heat, whereas women adopted fuller coverings like the kalasiris to observe , particularly after , shielding the breasts and lower body during routine tasks. This contrast highlighted practical adaptations to environment and social expectations, where men's attire prioritized mobility and women's focused on protection and propriety in communal settings.

Children's Clothing

In ancient Egypt, infants were typically swaddled in long strips of fabric known as nwdt, which tightly wrapped their bodies to restrict movement and promote hygiene in the hot climate, leaving only the face exposed; these bands were changed multiple times daily and often scented with lotus oil. This practice, resembling wrappings, is depicted in temple reliefs at sites like and Dendara, where even divine figures such as are shown her child . Protective amulets, such as those invoking the goddess , were commonly used for newborns to ward off evil spirits and ensure development, often enfolded in fabric and attached to the swaddling or worn around the neck. Young children, from weaning around age 2-3 up to approximately 5-6 years, were frequently depicted nude in paintings and sculptures, reflecting both the practical response to Egypt's intense heat and a symbolic representation of innocence and vulnerability; this was , with boys and girls shown playing or accompanying adults without garments. In some cases, young boys wore simple short kilts similar to miniature versions of adult male attire, while girls might don basic tunics or small sheath dresses post-weaning for modest coverage during daily activities. models from the Middle Kingdom onward provide evidence of this play attire, portraying children in lightweight tunics or wraps during scenes of household life and , emphasizing functionality over elaboration. As children approached adolescence around (typically 12-14 years), they transitioned to adult-style garments as a marking social maturity; boys adopted the schenti , a wrapped skirt tied at the waist, while girls wore the full-length kalasiris dress, signaling eligibility for marriage and adult roles. This shift is evident in where sidelock-wearing youths evolve into clothed figures, underscoring clothing's role in denoting age and status within Egyptian society. Amulets continued to be incorporated into these transitional outfits for ongoing protection against misfortune.

Accessories and Adornments

Headwear and Wigs

In , headwear and wigs served both practical and symbolic purposes, primarily among the elite classes, where they functioned as markers of while providing protection from the sun and maintaining on frequently shaved heads. Wigs, often constructed from human , were worn over closely cropped or bald scalps to prevent lice infestation, a common concern in the hot climate, and to convey an idealized youthful appearance. These artificial hairpieces evolved from simple extensions dating back to around 3400 BC, becoming more elaborate over time, particularly during the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC). The construction of ancient Egyptian wigs typically involved a foundational mesh base created by plaiting multiple lengths of horizontally and vertically, forming a netting-like structure that anchored additional strands. These strands, consisting of approximately 400 s each, were looped and wound around the base using a sub-strand of about 15 s, then secured with a mixture of (two-thirds) and (one-third) for durability and shape retention; this labor-intensive process could take up to 200 hours per . While the finest wigs were made entirely from human —an expensive material traded like or —lesser versions occasionally incorporated , , or palm fibers for padding or filling in the frame, though archaeological for such composites is limited in elite examples. The base often featured decorative elements, such as beads threaded into the netting for added aesthetic appeal. Styles varied by gender and period, with women's wigs often featuring shoulder-length bobs in (c. 2686–2181 BC), evolving into the tripartite form by the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1710 BC), where three sections of —two framing the face and one falling down the back—were styled straight or curled for fullness. Men's wigs, in contrast, were typically bobbed or shoulder-length as well but more structured, such as the "duplex" or double style popular in the 18th Dynasty (c. 1550–1295 BC), characterized by layered curls and plaits that denoted official status. Both curled and straight variants existed, with curls achieved through twisting and setting; black was commonly applied to the to symbolize youthfulness and vitality, while fats or oils were used to add shine and hold the style in place, often as a gel-like substance derived from animal or vegetable sources. Wigs were integral to daily life for preventing baldness from frequent head-shaving—a practice recommended every other day for ritual purity, as noted by ancient observers—and for ceremonial contexts where they provided a sense of fullness and formality during temple rituals or public appearances. Elite individuals, including officials and nobility, favored ornate versions to signify rank, while variations like Nubian-style wigs, featuring tight braids or curls mimicking southern ethnic groups, were adopted by the Egyptian elite during the New Kingdom to denote exoticism or foreign influence. Some high-status wigs incorporated gold-tipped strands or beads at the ends for further embellishment, enhancing their luxurious appeal in tomb depictions and artifacts.

Jewelry and Body Ornaments

Jewelry and body ornaments held profound significance in ancient Egyptian , serving both aesthetic and protective functions. These adornments were crafted to invoke divine favor, ward off malevolent forces, and symbolize rebirth and , often integrated into daily wear and funerary practices. Worn by individuals across social strata, they reflected personal status and religious beliefs, with designs drawing from natural motifs and mythological narratives. Common materials for jewelry included , prized for its association with the sun god and eternal life; , a glazed ceramic mimicking precious stones; , symbolizing the heavens and imported from afar; and , evoking vitality through its red hue. represented growth and resurrection, while steatite and glass provided accessible alternatives for broader use. Scarabs, often carved from or green jasper, embodied protection and renewal, modeled after the sacred to , the god of the rising sun. Lotus motifs, incorporated into pieces like broad collars, signified rebirth and creation, aligning with solar cycles and the Nile's regenerative floods. Prominent types included the broad collar, or wesekh, a layered of beads and pendants draped over the chest, essential for elite and divine representations. These collars featured rows of semi-precious stones in alternating colors, symbolizing harmony and divine power, and were worn in temple rituals or buried with the deceased as per the . Armlets and anklets, rigid bands or flexible cuffs, adorned both men and women, enhancing mobility while denoting prosperity; examples from show them in gold for nobility and simpler forms for commoners. Amulets such as the (wedjat), typically in blue , were suspended from necklaces to offer restoration and safeguard against harm, rooted in the myth of Horus's healed eye restored by . Symbolism permeated these ornaments, with amulets like scarabs placed on —heart scarabs over the chest inscribed with Spell 30B to prevent the heart from betraying its owner in judgment. The warded evil and promoted health, particularly for women and children, while lotus elements reinforced themes of regeneration. jewelry, using and imported lapis, contrasted with common variants in clay or , underscoring social hierarchies; the wealthy displayed opulence to affirm status, whereas everyday pieces prioritized apotropaic utility. Placement emphasized ritual and practicality: broad collars and necklaces centered on the , armlets encircled upper arms, and anklets secured ankles for both genders. Ear piercing was practiced in , particularly during the New Kingdom, with commonly worn through pierced ears by individuals across social classes. Some designs allowed attachment to headdresses or clipping. Women occasionally wore belts or girdles with dangling plaques and beads, adding rhythmic movement and symbols to their attire. These elements integrated seamlessly with garments, amplifying their wearer's connection to the cosmos.

Cosmetics and Grooming

In ancient Egypt, cosmetics and grooming were integral to daily life, serving purposes of hygiene, aesthetic enhancement, and ritual purity across all social classes. Both men and women applied makeup and used scented oils to maintain clean, attractive appearances, believing these practices protected against illness and ensured favor in the divine realm. Archaeological evidence from tombs and artifacts reveals a sophisticated array of natural substances and tools, often provisioned for the afterlife to sustain the deceased's beauty and vitality. Kohl, the most iconic cosmetic, was a black or green paste primarily made from galena (lead sulfide) or malachite (copper carbonate), ground and mixed with animal fats, oils, or gums for application around the eyes. Applied using thin sticks or fingers from small jars or tubes, it created bold, almond-shaped outlines that extended to the temples, enhancing expressiveness while providing practical benefits such as reducing glare from the sun and offering antimicrobial protection against infections like trachoma. This practice, documented from the Predynastic period onward, held symbolic significance, associating the wearer with deities like Horus and warding off the evil eye through its ritualistic use in both daily life and religious ceremonies. Henna, derived from the leaves of the plant, was crushed into a paste and used to hair a reddish hue, as seen in the preserved locks of the 3,500-year-old mummy Ahmose-Henuttamehu, and to stain palms, soles, and fingernails in vibrant orange or red tones for decorative and beautifying effects. This non-permanent not only improved appearance but also served in temporary , particularly for women during festivals or rites of passage. Scented oils and perfumes formed the foundation of , applied liberally to soften skin, prevent dryness in the arid climate, and mask odors as a form of deodorant. Common bases included castor, moringa, or almond oils infused with essences from lotus flowers (symbolizing rebirth), resin (traded from Punt for its balsamic aroma), and other botanicals like or , often stored in ornate jars. These unguents were massaged into the body during bathing rituals, sometimes worn as cones on the head that melted in the heat to release fragrance throughout the day. Grooming tools facilitated precise application and maintenance, emphasizing a cultural ideal of hairlessness for purity and cleanliness. Polished or mirrors, often shaped like umbels to evoke life and fertility, allowed users to check their appearance during makeup routines. with flint or blades, sharpened on grinding palettes, were used alongside to remove body and —a practice rooted in religious requirements for priests and the to achieve purity. While both genders embraced these practices, subtle differences reflected social norms: women often emphasized elaborate eye and lip enhancements with kohl and for allure, whereas men applied more formally, focusing on clean-shaven faces and scented oils for official or ceremonial roles. In the , such items were essential; like that of contained vast quantities of oils, kohl pots, and tools, ensuring the deceased could maintain their groomed state for eternal rebirth and by the gods.

Footwear

In ancient Egypt, the most common form of footwear consisted of sandals made from papyrus or palm fibers, featuring flat soles attached to the foot by simple straps that left the toes exposed. These materials were abundant and allowed for lightweight, breathable designs suitable for the hot climate, with papyrus strips often used for the insole and treadsole, while palm leaves—such as from the dom palm () or (Phoenix dactylifera)—formed the core structure of soles and straps. Leather, typically from or goatskin, was rarer and primarily reserved for or reinforced versions, providing greater durability for higher-status individuals. Designs varied by , with commoners typically wearing one-piece woven crafted through plaiting or coiling techniques that created sturdy, functional soles without elaborate decoration. For royalty and elites, incorporated more sophisticated elements, such as beaded accents or embroidered detailing, as seen in the over 80 pairs from Tutankhamun's , where and inlays added aesthetic and symbolic value. These elite variants often featured open-toed structures with straps that could be sewn or eared for secure fit, emphasizing both practicality and prestige. Barefoot walking was the norm in indoor settings, temples, and areas requiring ritual purity, as footwear was seen as potentially contaminating sacred spaces. Sandals were primarily donned for outdoor activities, including travel across sandy terrains and hunting expeditions, where they offered essential protection from the scorching ground while maintaining ventilation. Evidence from archaeological finds, such as worn soles from sites like Qasr Ibrim, indicates heavy practical use in these contexts, particularly among travelers and soldiers. Symbolically, royal often bore motifs of defeated enemies—such as bound captives or Asiatic figures—etched or inlaid on the insoles, allowing the to ritually trample adversaries with each step and assert dominance over chaos. These designs, prominent in New Kingdom examples like those from Tutankhamun's collection, underscored the footwear's role in and divine kingship, transforming a utilitarian item into a of power.

Period-Specific Developments

Old Kingdom Styles

During the (c. 2686–2181 BCE), ancient Egyptian clothing emphasized formality, simplicity, and symmetry, as evidenced by tomb statues, reliefs, and rare textile fragments, reflecting a stable society focused on eternal order (ma'at). Garments were primarily constructed from rectangles with minimal tailoring, draped or wrapped around the body to suit the hot, dry climate, which promoted lightweight, breathable designs over heavy or layered attire. Men's attire centered on the schenti or shendyt kilt, a rigid, pleated wrap made of fine that reached from the waist to the knees, secured by a belt of cloth, , or papyrus ; elite men wore starched versions with vertical or herringbone pleats for a structured appearance, while commoners used simpler, unpleated wraps. Pharaohs and high elites often paired the kilt with the , a striped headdress draped over the shoulders with a rear lappet, adorned by the symbolizing royal protection. In artistic depictions, laborers such as farmers and builders frequently appeared nude or in minimal loincloths to convey physical exertion and humility, contrasting with the idealized, symmetrical proportions of elite figures in statues that highlighted balanced, formal drapery. Women's clothing consisted of tight, straight sheath dresses, narrow rectangles of wrapped around the body from just below the breasts to the ankles, held by thin shoulder straps and sometimes featuring subtle pleats or decorative bands for wearers. These dresses were often starched for stiffness, emphasizing a slender that aligned with the symmetrical of , where female forms were portrayed with straight, columnar lines. Common women wore shorter versions to the knees without upper coverage, prioritizing practicality in daily labor. Pleating techniques, achieved with stiffening agents like on fine , added texture and airflow, as seen in early fragments from tombs. Among innovations, early broad collars (wesekh) emerged as key accessories, consisting of multiple rows of or beads in curved layers around the neck, worn by both men and women to denote status; these were the most common jewelry form, found in nearly twenty tombs alone, supplementing the otherwise minimal adornments of elite attire. This climate-driven minimalism, solidified during the pyramid-building era, prioritized functional over excess, with or scant covering in underscoring social hierarchies and the era's conservative trends.

Middle Kingdom Innovations

During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1710 BCE), ancient Egyptian clothing evolved to reflect greater social diversity and practical adaptability following the country's reunification, with innovations emphasizing functionality and variety in everyday and occupational attire. Visual depictions in scenes and models, alongside archaeological finds, illustrate a shift toward more flexible garment constructions compared to earlier periods, accommodating a burgeoning and expanded networks. , inscribed on wooden coffins from elite and non-royal burials, provide evidence of these changes through vignettes showing daily life scenes, including workers and officials in pleated and belted garments that highlight occupational roles. Men's clothing saw the introduction of longer bag-tunics, often reaching mid-thigh or length, worn alone or layered under kilts for added coverage during labor or ; these sleeveless, V-necked tunics were typically made from and secured with sashes. Cloaks emerged as practical outer layers, draped loosely over the shoulders and possibly crafted from for warmth in cooler regions, marking an early expansion in material use. attire featured high-waisted kilts extending to the calves, fastened with wide belts to support weapons and tools, as seen in representations of soldiers influenced by Nubian styles; loincloths were also adopted for durability in and fieldwork. Women's garments displayed increased variation in length and design, ranging from ankle-length wraparound to shorter sheath styles tied under the bust, allowing for mobility in domestic and agricultural tasks. The kalasiris, a form-fitting , often featured side slits for ease of movement, sometimes pleated for added elegance and airflow in the hot climate; these pleats were set using starch and plant gums like , as evidenced by fragments from the of at Deir el-Bahri. Pleating became a marker of middle-class status, appearing in models and stelae of non-royal women, symbolizing prosperity amid the period's . Material innovations included the wider use of colored dyes, with from madder, from woad or , and extracts applied to for visual distinction in social and contexts, as analyzed in surviving textiles and pigments. was introduced sparingly, primarily in fringes or as imported accents from trade routes, though remained dominant due to cultural preferences for plant-based fabrics. These developments prefigured further changes under rule at the period's close, where Levantine influences began blending with Egyptian styles in military and decorative elements.

New Kingdom Elaborations

During the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BCE), Egypt's imperial expansion and access to routes facilitated a peak in elaboration, characterized by luxurious materials, intricate techniques, and influences from foreign cultures. garments incorporated fine, sheer that allowed for transparencies, enhancing aesthetic appeal in the hot climate while signifying wealth and status. Pleating became highly refined, with damp twisted or pressed using and plant gums like to create crisp, uniform folds, often at intervals of 16 mm or less on luxury pieces. Imported foreign textiles, including dyed wool from the and , supplemented native , introducing new colors and weaves such as for decorative bands. beads, produced locally through advanced New Kingdom glassworking, adorned gowns in beadnet patterns, forming lozenge motifs over sheath dresses to evoke fertility and protection. Pharaohs wore pleated schenti kilts, triangular aprons of fine stiffened with starch, often featuring elaborate folds mimicking sun rays during the to symbolize divine power. Attached to the rear was a bull's tail, a traditional emblem of and strength, carved or depicted in royal from sites like . Queens exemplified layered and jeweled attire; for instance, Nefertiti appeared in tight-fitting, full-length bag-tunics of pleated , overlaid with diagonally tied shawls and enhanced by broad collars of beads and gold, as seen in Amarna reliefs promoting familial and religious unity. Among commoners, clothing enhancements reflected broader access to beauty practices, with increased use of like kohl for eye protection and wigs of human hair or vegetable fibers to denote age and status, evidenced by inventories and workshop depictions. Military attire evolved with reinforcements, including scale-covered tunics and helmets derived from Near Eastern influences, providing practical protection during campaigns while maintaining kilts underneath. These developments are primarily documented through Theban tombs, such as TT 100 of , which illustrate scenes with foreign textiles and weaving techniques, and , featuring relaxed, flowing styles on limestone reliefs like those from the Great Temple of the showing pleated royal garments.

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