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The Magellan-Elcano expedition was the first circumnavigation of the Earth.

Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire island, continent, or astronomical body (e.g. a planet or moon). This article focuses on the circumnavigation of Earth.

The first circumnavigation of the Earth was the Magellan Expedition, which sailed from Sanlucar de Barrameda, Spain in 1519 and returned in 1522, after crossing the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. Since the rise of commercial aviation in the mid 20th century, circumnavigating Earth is straightforward, usually taking days instead of years.[1] Today, the challenge of circumnavigating Earth has shifted towards human and technological endurance, speed, and less conventional methods.

Etymology

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Further information: Navigation § Etymology

The word circumnavigation is a noun formed from the verb circumnavigate, from the past participle of the Latin verb circumnavigare,[2] from circum "around" + navigare "to sail".[3]

Definition

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A person walking completely around either pole will cross all meridians, but this is not generally considered a "circumnavigation". The path of a true (global) circumnavigation forms a continuous loop on the surface of Earth separating two regions of comparable area.[citation needed] A basic definition of a global circumnavigation would be a route which covers roughly a great circle, and in particular one which passes through at least one pair of points antipodal to each other.[4] In practice, people use different definitions of world circumnavigation to accommodate practical constraints, depending on the method of travel. Since the planet is quasispheroidal, a trip from one Pole to the other, and back again on the other side, would technically be a circumnavigation. There are practical difficulties (namely, the Arctic ice pack and the Antarctic ice sheet) in such a voyage, although it was successfully undertaken in the early 1980s by Ranulph Fiennes.[5]

History

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The first circumnavigation was that of the ship Victoria between 1519 and 1522, now known as the Magellan–Elcano expedition. It was a Castilian (Spanish) voyage of discovery. The voyage started in Seville, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, and—after several stops—rounded the southern tip of South America, where the expedition named the Strait of Magellan. It then continued across the Pacific, discovering a number of islands on its way (including Guam), before arriving in the Philippines. The voyage was initially led by the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan but he was killed on Mactan in the Philippines in 1521. The remaining sailors decided to circumnavigate the world instead of making the return voyage—no passage east across the Pacific would be successful for four decades—and continued the voyage across the Indian Ocean, round the southern cape of Africa, north along Africa's Atlantic coasts, and back to Spain in 1522. Of the 270 crew members who set out from Seville, only 18 were still with the expedition at the end including its surviving captain, the Spaniard Juan Sebastián Elcano.[6]

The next to circumnavigate the globe were the survivors of the Castilian/Spanish expedition of García Jofre de Loaísa between 1525 and 1536. None of the seven original ships of the Loaísa expedition nor its first four leaders—Loaísa, Elcano, Salazar, and Martín Íñiguez de Carquizano—survived to complete the voyage. The last of the original ships, the Santa María de la Victoria, was sunk in 1526 in the East Indies (now Indonesia) by the Portuguese. Unable to press forward or retreat, Hernando de la Torre erected a fort on Tidore, received reinforcements under Alvaro de Saavedra that were similarly defeated, and finally surrendered to the Portuguese. In this way, a handful of survivors became the second group of circumnavigators when they were transported under guard to Lisbon in 1536. A third group came from the 117 survivors of the similarly failed Villalobos Expedition in the next decade; similarly ruined and starved, they were imprisoned by the Portuguese and transported back to Lisbon in 1546.[citation needed]

In 1577, Elizabeth I sent Francis Drake to start an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. Drake set out from Plymouth, England in November 1577, aboard Pelican, which he renamed Golden Hind mid-voyage. In September 1578, the ship passed south of Tierra del Fuego, the southern tip of South America, through the area now known as the Drake Passage.[7][8] In June 1579, Drake landed somewhere north of Spain's northernmost claim in Alta California, presumably Drakes Bay. Drake completed the second complete circumnavigation of the world in a single vessel on September 1580, becoming the first commander to survive the entire circumnavigation.

Thomas Cavendish completed his circumnavigation between 1586 and 1588 in record time—in two years and 49 days, nine months faster than Drake. It was also the first deliberately planned voyage of the globe.[9]

Jeanne Baret is recognized as the first woman to have completed a voyage of circumnavigation of the globe, which she did via maritime transport. A key part of her journey was as a member of Louis Antoine de Bougainville's expedition on the ships Boudeuse and Étoile in 1766–1769.

Captain James Cook became the first navigator to record three circumnavigations through the Pacific aboard the Endeavour from 1769 to 1771 and Resolution from 1772 to 1779. He was among the first to complete west–east circumnavigation in high latitudes.

For the wealthy, long voyages around the world, such as was done by Ulysses S. Grant, became possible in the 19th century, and the two World Wars moved vast numbers of troops around the planet. The rise of commercial aviation in the late 20th century made circumnavigation even quicker and safer.[1]

Nautical

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The nautical global and fastest circumnavigation record is currently held by a wind-powered vessel, the trimaran IDEC 3. The record was established by six sailors: Francis Joyon, Alex Pella, Clément Surtel, Gwénolé Gahinet, Sébastien Audigane and Bernard Stamm. On 26 January 2017, this crew finished circumnavigating the globe in 40 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes and 30 seconds.[10] The absolute speed sailing record around the world followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction.

Wind powered

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The route of a typical modern sailing circumnavigation, via the Suez Canal and the Panama Canal is shown in red; its antipodes are shown in yellow.

The map on the right shows, in red, a typical, non-competitive, route for a sailing circumnavigation of the world by the trade winds and the Suez and Panama canals; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route. It can be seen that the route roughly approximates a great circle, and passes through two pairs of antipodal points. This is a route followed by many cruising sailors, going in the western direction; the use of the trade winds makes it a relatively easy sail, although it passes through a number of zones of calms or light winds.[11]

The route of a typical yacht racing circumnavigation is shown in red; its antipodes are shown in yellow.

In yacht racing, a round-the-world route approximating a great circle would be quite impractical, particularly in a non-stop race where use of the Panama and Suez Canals would be impossible. Yacht racing therefore defines a world circumnavigation to be a passage of at least 21,600 nautical miles (40,000 km) in length which crosses the equator, crosses every meridian and finishes in the same port as it starts.[12] The second map on the right shows the route of the Vendée Globe round-the-world race in red; overlaid in yellow are the points antipodal to all points on the route. It can be seen that the route does not pass through any pairs of antipodal points. Since the winds in the higher southern latitudes predominantly blow west-to-east it can be seen that there are an easier route (west-to-east) and a harder route (east-to-west) when circumnavigating by sail; this difficulty is magnified for square-rig vessels due to the square rig's dramatic lack of upwind ability when compared to a more modern Bermuda rig.[11]

For around the world sailing records, there is a rule saying that the length must be at least 21,600 nautical miles calculated along the shortest possible track from the starting port and back that does not cross land and does not go below 63°S. It is allowed to have one single waypoint to lengthen the calculated track. The equator must be crossed.[13]

The solo wind powered circumnavigation record of 42 days, 16 hours, 40 minutes and 35 seconds was established by François Gabart on the maxi-multihull sailing yacht MACIF and completed on 7 December 2017.[14] The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction.

Mechanically powered

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Since the advent of world cruises in 1922, by Cunard's Laconia, thousands of people have completed circumnavigations of the globe at a more leisurely pace. Typically, these voyages begin in New York City or Southampton, and proceed westward. Routes vary, either travelling through the Caribbean and then into the Pacific Ocean via the Panama Canal, or around Cape Horn. From there ships usually make their way to Hawaii, the islands of the South Pacific, Australia, New Zealand, then northward to Hong Kong, South East Asia, and India. At that point, again, routes may vary: one way is through the Suez Canal and into the Mediterranean; the other is around Cape of Good Hope and then up the west coast of Africa. These cruises end in the port where they began.[11]

In 1960, the American nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton circumnavigated the globe in 60 days, 21 hours for Operation Sandblast.

The current circumnavigation record in a powered boat of 60 days 23 hours and 49 minutes[15] was established by a voyage of the wave-piercing trimaran Earthrace which was completed on 27 June 2008. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Panama Canal, Pacific Ocean, Indian Ocean, Suez Canal, Mediterranean Sea route in a westerly direction.

Solar powered

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The first solar-powered world tour was carried out by the ship MS Turanor PlanetSolar in 2012 by the Swiss explorer Raphaël Domjan.[16]

Aviation

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In 1922 Norman Macmillan (RAF officer), Major W T Blake and Geoffrey Malins made an unsuccessful attempt to fly a Daily News-sponsored round-the-world flight.[17] The first aerial circumnavigation of the planet was flown in 1924 by aviators of the U.S. Army Air Service in a quartet of Douglas World Cruiser biplanes. The first non-stop aerial circumnavigation of the planet was flown in 1949 by Lucky Lady II, a United States Air Force Boeing B-50 Superfortress.

Since the development of commercial aviation, there are regular routes that circle the globe, such as Pan American Flight One (and later United Airlines Flight One). Today planning such a trip through commercial flight connections is simple.

The first lighter-than-air aircraft of any type to circumnavigate under its own power was the rigid airship LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin, which did so in 1929.[18]

In 1936 American journalists Herbert R. Ekins, reporter for the New York World-Telegram, Dorothy Kilgallen of the New York Journal and Leo Kieran of The New York Times compteted in a race to travel around the world[19] on commercial airline flights. The race took 18 ½ days.

Aviation records take account of the wind circulation patterns of the world; in particular the jet streams, which circulate in the northern and southern hemispheres without crossing the equator. There is therefore no requirement to cross the equator, or to pass through two antipodal points, in the course of setting a round-the-world aviation record.

For powered aviation, the course of a round-the-world record must start and finish at the same point and cross all meridians; the course must be at least 36,770 kilometres (19,850 nmi) long (which is approximately the length of the Tropic of Cancer). The course must include set control points at latitudes outside the Arctic and Antarctic circles.[20]

In ballooning, which is at the mercy of the winds, the requirements are even more relaxed. The course must cross all meridians, and must include a set of checkpoints which are all outside of two circles, chosen by the pilot, having radii of 3,335.85 kilometres (2,072.80 mi) and enclosing the poles (though not necessarily centred on them).[21] For example, Steve Fossett's global circumnavigation by balloon was entirely contained within the southern hemisphere.[11]

Astronautics

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The first person to fly in space, Yuri Gagarin, also became the first person to complete an orbital spaceflight in the Vostok 1 spaceship within 2 hours on April 12, 1961.[22] The flight started at 63° E, 45° N and ended at 45° E 51° N; thus Gagarin did not circumnavigate Earth completely.

Gherman Titov in the Vostok 2 was the first human to fully circumnavigate Earth in spaceflight and made 17.5 orbits on August 6, 1961.

Human-powered

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Jason Lewis of Expedition 360 pedalling his boat Moksha on the River Thames in London, shortly before completing the first human-powered circumnavigation of the Earth (2007)

According to adjudicating bodies Guinness World Records and Explorersweb, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe on 6 October 2007.[23][24] This was part of a thirteen-year journey entitled Expedition 360.

In 2012, Turkish-born American adventurer Erden Eruç completed the first entirely solo human-powered circumnavigation, travelling by rowboat, sea kayak, foot and bicycle from 10 July 2007 to 21 July 2012,[25] crossing the equator twice, passing over 12 antipodal points, and logging 66,299 kilometres (41,196 mi)[26] in 1,026 days of travel time, excluding breaks.[27]

National Geographic lists Colin Angus as being the first to complete a human-powered global circumnavigation in 2006.[28] However, his journey did not cross the equator or hit the minimum of two antipodal points as stipulated by the rules of Guinness World Records and AdventureStats by Explorersweb.[29][30][31]

People have both bicycled and run around the world, but the oceans have had to be covered by air or sea travel, making the distance shorter than the Guinness guidelines.[citation needed] To go from North America to Asia on foot is theoretically possible but very difficult. It involves crossing the Bering Strait on the ice, and around 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) of roadless swamped or freezing cold areas in Alaska and eastern Russia. No one has so far travelled all of this route by foot. David Kunst was the first person that Guinness verified to have walked around the world between 20 June 1970 and 5 October 1974, by "[walking] 23,250 km (14,450 miles) through four continents".[32]

Notable circumnavigations

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Main article: List of circumnavigations
A replica of Magellan and Elcano's Nao Victoria, the first vessel to circumnavigate the planet
In 2012, the Swiss boat PlanetSolar became the first solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe.

Maritime

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  • The Castilian ('Spanish') Magellan-Elcano expedition of August 1519 to 8 September 1522, started by Portuguese navigator Fernão de Magalhães (Ferdinand Magellan) and completed by Spanish Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano after Magellan's death, was the first global circumnavigation[33][34] (see Victoria).
  • The survivors of García Jofre de Loaísa's Spanish expedition 1525–1536, including Andrés de Urdaneta and Hans von Aachen, who was also one of the 18 survivors of Magellan's expedition, making him the first to circumnavigate the world twice.
  • Francis Drake carried out the second circumnavigation of the world in a single expedition (and on a single independent voyage), from 1577 to 1580.[35]
  • Jeanne Baret is the first woman to complete a voyage of circumnavigation, in 1766–1769.[36][37]
  • John Hunter commanded the first ship to circumnavigate the World starting from Australia, between 2 September 1788 and 8 May 1789, with one stop in Cape Town to load supplies for the colony of New South Wales.[38]
  • HMS Driver completed the first circumnavigation by a steam ship in 1845–1847.
  • The Spanish frigate Numancia, commanded by Juan Bautista Antequera y Bobadilla, completed the first circumnavigation by an ironclad in 1865–1867.
  • Joshua Slocum completed the first single-handed circumnavigation in 1895–1898.
  • In 1942, Vito Dumas became the first person to single-handedly circumnavigate the globe along the Roaring Forties.
  • In 1960, the U.S. Navy nuclear-powered submarine USS Triton (SSRN-586) completed the submerged circumnavigation.
  • In 1969, Robin Knox-Johnston became the first person to complete a single-handed non-stop circumnavigation.
  • In 1999, Jesse Martin became the youngest recognized person to complete an unassisted, non-stop, circumnavigation, at the age of 18.
  • In 2001, the U.S. Coast Guard USCGC Sherman (WHEC-720) became the first Coast Guard vessel to circumnavigate the globe.
  • In 2012, PlanetSolar became the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe.[39]
  • In 2012, Laura Dekker became the youngest person to circumnavigate the globe single-handed, with stops, at the age of 16.
  • In 2017, trimaran IDEC 3 with sailors: Francis Joyon, Alex Pella, Clément Surtel, Gwénolé Gahinet, Sébastien Audigane and Bernard Stamm completes the fastest circumnavigation of the globe ever; in 40 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes and 30 seconds. The voyage followed the North Atlantic Ocean, Equator, South Atlantic Ocean, Southern Ocean, South Atlantic Ocean, Equator, North Atlantic Ocean route in an easterly direction.
  • In 2022, the MV Astra, a former Swedish Sea Rescue Society ship became the first sub-24m motor-powered vessel to circumnavigate the globe via the southern capes.[40][41]

Aviation

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Land

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  • In 1841–1842 Sir George Simpson made the first "land circumnavigation", crossing Canada and Siberia and returning to London.
  • Ranulph Fiennes and Charlie Burton are credited with the first north–south circumnavigation of the Earth.[5]

Cycling

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  • In 1884-1886 Thomas Stevens (cyclist) was the first and only cyclist to circumnavigate on a penny-farthing in eastward direction.
  • 1892 the third attempt to complete the journey was completed be William Sachtleben and Thomas Allan in eastward direction. Afterwards William Sachtleben wanted to find out about the second attempt to circumnavigate the planet by bike by Frank Lenz, who was killed in Kurdistan on his attempt to circumnavigate the planet in westward direction on a safety.

Human

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  • On 13 June 2003, Robert Garside completed the first recognized run around the world, taking 5+1⁄2 years; the run was authenticated in 2007 by Guinness World Records after five years of verification.[45]
  • On 6 October 2007, Jason Lewis completed the first human-powered circumnavigation of the globe (including human-powered sea crossings).[23][24]
  • On 21 July 2012, Erden Eruç completed the first entirely solo human-powered circumnavigation of the globe.[25][26]
  • On 4 April 2024, Latvian adventurer kārlis Bardelis completed a 2,898-day human-powered circumnavigation of the globe that involved rowing 46,326 km and cycling 11,972 km.[46]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Circumnavigation

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Circumnavigation is the complete navigation around an entire , such as an or , or around the itself, most often achieved by or air. The concept has profound historical significance, as early voyages demonstrated the Earth's and facilitated the expansion of global exploration, trade, and cultural exchange during the Age of Discovery. The first documented circumnavigation of the Earth was the Magellan–Elcano expedition, a Spanish-Portuguese venture that departed in 1519 under and completed its journey in 1522 under Juan Sebastián Elcano after Magellan's death in the . This expedition, consisting of five ships and about 270 men, traversed the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, proving the existence of a western route to the Spice Islands and providing additional information about the . Subsequent notable maritime circumnavigations include Sir Francis Drake's English expedition from 1577 to 1580, which raided Spanish holdings and returned with significant treasure, and Thomas Cavendish's 1586–1588 voyage, the first by an Englishman to fully replicate the feat. In the , James Cook's three Pacific voyages (1768–1779) included partial and full circumnavigations that mapped vast uncharted territories and advanced scientific understanding of and geography. The 19th and 20th centuries saw technological advancements enabling faster and more diverse journeys, such as the first steam-powered circumnavigation by HMS Driver in 1847 and the first submerged submarine circumnavigation by USS Triton in 1960. Today, circumnavigations continue in various forms, including solo sailing records—such as Ellen MacArthur's 2005 non-stop voyage—and aerial feats, underscoring the enduring human drive for global traversal.

Fundamentals

Etymology

The term "circumnavigation" derives from the Latin words circum, meaning "around," and navigare, meaning "to " or "to navigate," literally denoting the act of around something, particularly the . This etymological root reflects its origins in maritime exploration, where the concept emerged from the need to describe voyages encircling large bodies of land or water. The noun form entered English in the early , with the citing its earliest known use in 1727 in the writings of physician and satirist , who employed it in a discussion of global travel. Similarly, Etymonline records the first attested English usage around 1705, formed by adding the "-ion" (indicating an action or process, from Latin -ionem) to the verb "circumnavigate," which itself appeared in English by the 1630s from the Latin past participle circumnavigatus. Although the modern English term postdates the Age of Discovery, its conceptual foundation was influenced by Iberian explorers' accounts during the , when and Spanish navigators like described voyages that effectively encircled the , using equivalent terms in their languages such as circunnavegación in Spanish and circumnavegação in . These narratives, documented in contemporary chronicles, popularized the idea of global traversal by sea, paving the way for the standardized in European languages. For instance, descriptions of Magellan's 1519–1522 expedition, completed by Juan Sebastián Elcano, emphasized rounding the world via western routes to the Spice Islands, influencing later linguistic adoption despite the English variant emerging over a century later. The related term "circumnavigator," referring to a person who performs such a voyage, first appeared in English in 1770, as noted in the , in the work of historian William Guthrie describing explorers who had sailed around the world. By the , the term evolved beyond nautical contexts, extending to aerial and other forms of global traversal; for example, the Air Service's 1924 flight, the , adapted "circumnavigation" to describe flying around the , marking its broader application in aviation . This expansion highlights the term's adaptability from its origins to modern modes of transport. Early textual references to the concept, if not the precise word, appear in English collections like Richard Hakluyt's The Principall Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589), which detailed Sir Francis Drake's 1577–1580 voyage—later retroactively termed a circumnavigation—though the specific gained currency in subsequent editions and scholarly analyses. These works underscore the term's role in chronicling exploratory feats that shaped global understanding.

Definition and Principles

Circumnavigation refers to a journey that encircles a spherical body, such as , returning to the starting point after completing a full loop around its , typically by traversing all 360 degrees of in a single direction without specifying requirements for coverage. This process inherently demonstrates the of the body being navigated, as the path forms a closed loop that cannot be achieved on a flat plane. Geometrically, circumnavigation follows a route, which is the shortest path between any two points on a and represents the largest possible circle that can be drawn on its surface, dividing it into two equal hemispheres. The forms one such great circle, enabling an equatorial circumnavigation that measures approximately 40,075 kilometers, calculated using the formula for circumference C=2πrC = 2\pi r, where rr is Earth's mean radius of about 6,371 kilometers. In contrast, a polar circumnavigation might align with a meridian passing through the poles, also a great circle but oriented north-south, resulting in the same theoretical length yet different navigational challenges due to varying latitudes and proximity to the poles. Practically, a valid circumnavigation requires continuous travel under the same mode of without external lifts, such as air or mechanical assistance across water gaps, and must proceed in one consistent direction—either eastward/westward (crossing longitudes) or theoretically northward/southward along a meridian. Verification is typically handled by specialized bodies: for nautical voyages, the (WSSRC) mandates starting and ending at the same point, crossing all meridians of , passing the , and covering at least 21,600 nautical ; for aerial achievements, the (FAI) requires crossing all meridians in one direction over a minimum of about 36,788 kilometers. Circumnavigation differs from related endeavors like transoceanic crossings, which involve traversing a single basin without encircling the , or polar expeditions, which focus on reaching or exploring high latitudes but do not require completing a full longitudinal loop.

Historical Development

Ancient and Medieval Concepts

According to the Greek historian (c. 440 BCE), of (r. 610–595 BCE) commissioned Phoenician sailors to circumnavigate , departing from the and returning via the after three years, during which they observed the sun rising on their right in the south. This account, the earliest reported continental circumnavigation, is debated among historians due to its extraordinary details and lack of corroborating evidence, but it demonstrates ancient awareness of 's extent as a . In , conceptual foundations for circumnavigation emerged through early measurements of the Earth's spherical nature. Around 240 BCE, , chief librarian at , calculated the Earth's by comparing the angle of the sun's rays at noon in Alexandria and Syene (modern ), where the sun was directly overhead; his estimate of approximately 252,000 stadia—equivalent to about 39,000 to 46,000 kilometers depending on the stadion length—provided a remarkably accurate scale for global navigation ideas. Earlier, circa 320 BCE, the explorer of undertook a voyage northward from the Mediterranean, reaching Britain, the , and possibly as far as the , where he described phenomena like the midnight sun and a frozen sea he called "Mare Congelatum"; this journey, documented in his lost work On the Ocean, demonstrated practical long-distance sailing and circumpolar exploration, influencing later understandings of northern latitudes. During the medieval period, Islamic and Chinese scholars advanced cartographic knowledge without achieving full circumnavigations. In 1154, , working under , produced the , a detailed etched on silver that depicted , , and with longitudinal and latitudinal coordinates, drawing on Ptolemaic projections and traveler accounts to represent a divided into seven climate zones; this map emphasized interconnected oceans but stopped short of global encirclement due to incomplete eastern and western data. Concurrently, in , Admiral led seven massive expeditions from 1405 to 1433 under the , commanding fleets of up to 300 ships that sailed to , , the , and , covering over 50,000 kilometers per voyage to establish tribute relations and map coastal routes; these journeys explored vast maritime networks but focused on the rather than a complete equatorial loop. In medieval Europe, the rediscovery of Claudius Ptolemy's Geography around 1406 reinforced spherical Earth models and highlighted technological barriers to circumnavigation. Ptolemy's second-century CE treatise, translated from Greek to Latin by Jacopo d'Angelo in Florence, compiled coordinates for over 8,000 locations using a latitudinal-longitudinal grid on a conical projection, portraying the known world as spanning 180 degrees of longitude on a globe roughly 18,000 miles in circumference—though underestimated by about 28%—and inspiring Renaissance cartographers with its emphasis on systematic global mapping. However, prevailing sailing technologies, such as single-masted cogs and knarrs reliant on coastal hugging and limited open-sea provisions (fresh water and food lasting only weeks), restricted voyages to regional scopes; without reliable longitude determination or advanced rigging for consistent windward sailing, full circumnavigations remained impractical until later innovations. Norse explorations around 1000 CE exemplified practical challenges to misconceptions of a , as sagas depict voyages demonstrating through extended horizons. , son of , sailed from to —naming sites like (likely ), (Labrador), and (Newfoundland)—covering about 3,200 kilometers westward, with accounts in the and illustrating awareness of via star paths and seasonal daylight variations that aligned with classical knowledge. These expeditions, using clinker-built longships capable of transatlantic crossings, underscored that medieval mariners operated on a round- paradigm, countering modern myths of widespread flat-Earth beliefs among educated Europeans.

Age of Discovery

The , spanning the 15th to 17th centuries, marked the era when European powers, driven by the pursuit of new trade routes to , achieved the first documented nautical circumnavigations of the globe. These expeditions, primarily sponsored by and , overcame immense challenges including treacherous seas, mutinies, and hostile encounters, fundamentally reshaping global and commerce. The inaugural circumnavigation was Ferdinand Magellan's expedition, launched in 1519 under Spanish patronage with the goal of finding a western passage to the Spice Islands. Departing on September 20, 1519, with five ships—Trinidad (flagship), San Antonio, Concepción, Victoria, and Santiago—and approximately 270 crew members, the fleet navigated the treacherous at South America's tip, which they discovered and traversed from October 21, 1520, to November 28, 1520. Magellan perished on April 27, 1521, during a battle with indigenous forces in the , but Spanish Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano assumed command of the Victoria and completed the voyage, returning to , , on September 6, 1522. The journey covered roughly 60,440 kilometers (37,560 miles) across three oceans, with only 18 survivors from the original crew. The second circumnavigation followed with English explorer Sir Francis Drake's voyage from 1577 to 1580, commissioned secretly by Queen Elizabeth I to raid Spanish possessions and probe for a . Departing Plymouth on December 13, 1577, aboard the and four accompanying vessels, Drake traversed the from August 20 to September 6, 1578, before a storm propelled him into the Pacific, where he conducted extensive privateering raids on Spanish ports and ships along the western coasts of the and . As the first Englishman to navigate the Pacific and the first to circumnavigate in a single ship, Drake returned to Plymouth on September 26, 1580, laden with treasure valued at over £500,000—half the English treasury at the time—and without losing a single vessel to combat. Key technological advancements enabled these feats, including the Portuguese-developed , a versatile ship with sails for windward sailing and a shallow draft suitable for coastal exploration and river navigation. Navigational instruments like the , adapted from Arabic designs for measuring celestial altitudes to determine , and the cross-staff, an improvement over the quadrant for sighting the sun or stars without direct eye exposure, allowed more accurate positioning at sea. These tools, combined with the magnetic compass, provided the precision needed for transoceanic voyages previously deemed impossible. The expeditions' impacts were profound, establishing a western Spice Route that bypassed Portuguese dominance in the and facilitated direct European access to cloves, , and other valuables from the Moluccas. Magellan's mapping of the secured a vital southern passage around , while his claims in the and bolstered Spanish colonial assertions under the 1494 , dividing global exploration spheres between and . Drake's raids, capturing over 20 Spanish vessels and diverting resources to fortify Pacific defenses, heightened Anglo-Spanish tensions, contributing to the Spanish Armada's defeat in 1588 and shifting geopolitical power toward .

Industrial and Modern Eras

The Industrial and Modern Eras marked a transition in circumnavigation from exploratory voyages to scientifically driven expeditions and personal endurance challenges, facilitated by advancements in ship design, propulsion, and navigation technology. Captain James Cook's three Pacific-focused circumnavigations between 1768 and 1779 exemplified this shift, combining rigorous cartographic surveying with health innovations that minimized crew losses. On his first voyage (1768–1771) aboard , Cook mapped the coasts of and eastern , while the second (1772–1775) on HMS Resolution and Adventure explored the and South Pacific islands, refining global charts. The third voyage (1776–1779) sought a and charted and Alaska's coasts, advancing knowledge of Pacific geography. Cook's anti-scurvy measures, including daily rations of , malt wort, and fresh provisions, ensured no deaths from the disease on the first two voyages, earning him the Royal Society's in 1776. The 19th century introduced steam power to circumnavigations, blending mechanical assistance with scientific inquiry. The HMS Challenger expedition (1872–1876), the first global oceanographic survey, circumnavigated the world aboard a steam-powered corvette, covering 68,000 nautical miles across the Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern Oceans. Led by naturalist Charles Wyville Thomson, the crew conducted over 360 deep-sea soundings, temperature measurements, and biological collections, discovering the Mariana Trench's Challenger Deep at 26,850 feet. This voyage established oceanography as a discipline, yielding 50 volumes of reports that influenced marine science for decades. In the , individual achievements highlighted solo capabilities amid growing interest in non-stop voyages. completed the first documented solo circumnavigation in 1895–1898 aboard the 36-foot oyster sloop Spray, sailing 46,000 miles from through the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans in 1,087 days, without stopping at any port for more than brief provisioning. His account, Sailing Alone Around the World (1900), inspired generations of sailors. The era's push toward non-stop feats culminated in the 1968 , the first competition for solo, non-stop circumnavigation, where nine entrants attempted the challenge; British sailor succeeded in 1969 after 312 days, marking the inaugural such voyage. Modern circumnavigations from the late 20th century onward benefited immensely from the Global Positioning System (GPS), fully operational for civilian use by the mid-1990s after selective availability ended in 2000. GPS provided real-time, meter-accurate positioning, enabling sailors to plot courses with unprecedented precision and reducing dependence on traditional methods like sextants and chronometers during long voyages. This technology facilitated safer, more efficient routes, as seen in numerous solo and crewed expeditions post-1995. Recent developments emphasize sustainable propulsion, with trends toward solar and renewable energy accelerating after 2010 amid falling solar costs (down 89% since 2010). The MS Tûranor PlanetSolar, the largest solar-powered vessel, completed the first solar boat circumnavigation in 2010–2012, traversing 37,000 miles using photovoltaic panels generating 93 kilowatts. In aerial realms, NASA's super-pressure balloon achieved a mid-latitude circumnavigation in 16 days in May 2025, carrying scientific payloads to study atmospheric winds.

Nautical Circumnavigation

Sail-Powered Voyages

Sail-powered circumnavigations have historically depended on wind patterns, necessitating the evolution of sail types and rigging to maximize efficiency across varying conditions. During the Age of Discovery, vessels like caravels employed lateen sails or a combination of lateen and square rigging, allowing better maneuverability for exploration in unpredictable winds, while galleons favored predominantly square-rigged setups on multiple masts for downwind speed in trade routes. Over time, the 18th century saw increased adoption of fore-and-aft sails, such as jibs and staysails, which enabled ships to sail closer to the wind and handle tacking more effectively during long ocean passages. By the modern era, single-masted sloops with Bermuda or gaff rigs became prevalent for solo or small-crew circumnavigations, optimizing for both trade winds and upwind legs while reducing the complexity of handling multiple square sails in doldrums or variable breezes. Route planning for these voyages centers on exploiting global wind systems to minimize time and risk, with navigators charting paths through the steady northeast and southeast between 10° and 30° for reliable progress across the Atlantic and Pacific. These routes often skirt the doldrums near the , where calms can stall progress for days, and the horse latitudes around 30° north and south, characterized by high-pressure zones with erratic light winds that historically forced crews to jettison cargo or livestock to lighten ships. For faster eastern passages, sailors utilize the —strong westerly winds between 40° and 50° south —particularly in the , though this exposes vessels to severe storms, rogue waves up to 30 meters, and extreme cold that test rigging durability and crew resilience. Endurance on sail-powered voyages required meticulous provisioning for durations often spanning 2 to 3 years, as exemplified by Ferdinand Magellan's 1519–1522 expedition, where crews subsisted on salted meat, biscuits, and wine stored in barrels, supplemented by occasional fresh catches or landfalls. , caused by deficiency, emerged as a primary threat after 6–8 weeks without fresh produce, afflicting up to 80% of Magellan's men during a 98-day Pacific crossing and contributing to over two million sailor deaths across the Age of Sail. Prevention advanced through James Lind's 1747 on HMS Salisbury, where citrus fruits like proved effective, leading the British to mandate lemon juice rations from 1795 onward for voyages exceeding 10 weeks, drastically reducing incidence on long deployments. Crew management involved rotating four-hour watches to maintain sails and navigation, strict rationing to combat morale issues from monotony and hardship, and hygiene protocols to mitigate spread in cramped quarters. Modern records highlight advancements in sail technology, with the 105-foot trimaran IDEC 3, crewed by 6 under skipper Francis Joyon, completing a non-stop circumnavigation in 2017 in 40 days, 23 hours, 30 minutes, and 30 seconds at an average speed of 28.9 knots over 22,656 nautical miles. This feat, aided by lightweight carbon-fiber composites and optimized wing sails for high-speed downwind running, surpassed previous benchmarks and underscored the shift to designs for exploiting and efficiently.

Mechanically Powered Expeditions

Mechanically powered expeditions represent a significant in nautical circumnavigation, shifting from wind-dependent voyages to reliable engine that overcame limitations in calm zones, such as the doldrums, by providing consistent power regardless of weather conditions. Early efforts utilized engines, with the paddle HMS Driver achieving the first circumnavigation from 1845 to 1847, departing and returning after a five-year journey that demonstrated the feasibility of auxiliary power for global routes. This voyage, covering approximately 30,000 nautical miles, relied on a combination of and sails but marked the transition to mechanical assistance, reducing reliance on unpredictable winds. The advent of diesel engines post-1900 enabled full mechanical propulsion for and expedition vessels, with the MS Selandia in becoming the first large ocean-going diesel-powered ship, paving the way for routine long-distance voyages including circumnavigations without the frequent coaling stops required by steamers. By the mid-20th century, diesel systems dominated, offering greater efficiency and range; for instance, large vessels typically consume 100-200 tons of per day at cruising speeds of 20-25 knots, necessitating refueling at ports every 10-20 days to complete a 25,000-30,000 circumnavigation route. This propulsion allowed for predictable schedules and higher speeds, cutting transit times compared to sail, though range limitations still required strategic port calls in regions like the Pacific. Nuclear propulsion further advanced mechanical expeditions, exemplified by the USS Triton's 1960 submerged circumnavigation, the first of its kind, completed in 60 days and 21 hours over 26,723 nautical miles at an average speed of about 18 knots, powered by two reactors that eliminated refueling needs entirely. In modern contexts, diesel-powered luxury yachts like the Nordhavn series have undertaken notable circumnavigations, with models such as the Nordhavn 40 achieving global loops in the early 2000s at efficient rates of around 2 gallons per hour at 8 knots, enabling ranges exceeding 3,000 nautical miles per tank. Naval vessels continue this tradition, with diesel-electric ships reaching speeds up to 30 knots and completing circumnavigations in 40-60 days, as seen in various U.S. Navy operations that prioritize speed and endurance for strategic deployments. Hybrid systems combining diesel with electric or battery assistance have emerged for efficiency gains, reducing fuel use by 20-30% in variable conditions through optimized engine loading. These advancements have shortened expedition durations while addressing environmental concerns; post-2020, the International Maritime Organization's (IMO) sulfur cap regulation mandated a shift to low-sulfur fuels (0.5% maximum), slashing sulfur oxide emissions by about 80% and improving coastal air quality, though it has prompted adaptations like exhaust gas cleaning systems on many vessels. This regulatory change has driven the adoption of cleaner diesel variants, enhancing the sustainability of mechanically powered circumnavigations without compromising reliability.

Alternative Propulsion Methods

Alternative propulsion methods in nautical circumnavigation emphasize and human ingenuity, moving beyond traditional sails or engines to harness , human muscle power through or pedaling, and innovative wind assists like kites. These approaches prioritize zero-emission travel, often at the cost of slower speeds and greater logistical challenges, but they demonstrate viable paths for eco-friendly global voyages. Solar-powered vessels, for instance, rely on photovoltaic panels to generate electricity for electric motors, while human-powered options like and pedaling convert direct physical effort into , sometimes augmented by auxiliary systems for . In the , hybrid innovations have emerged in , such as solar-paneled boats generating power for onboard systems during transoceanic legs. The MS Tûranor PlanetSolar, a 31-meter launched in 2010, achieved the first fully solar-powered circumnavigation, departing from on September 27, 2010, and returning on May 4, 2012, after covering 60,023 kilometers across three oceans and 28 countries in 584 days. Equipped with 537 square meters of photovoltaic panels producing a peak output of 93.5 kW, the vessel stored energy in lithium-ion batteries to power four electric motors delivering up to 120 kW total, enabling average speeds of 5 knots without any fossil fuels. This feat, recognized by as the longest journey by a solar-powered boat, highlighted the potential of renewable despite dependencies on availability. Human-powered rowing has also enabled remarkable oceanic crossings contributing to circumnavigations, with British adventurer Roz Savage becoming the first woman to row solo across the Atlantic (2005–2006, 4,452 km), Pacific (2008–2010, 14,864 km), and Indian (2011, approximately 6,400 km) Oceans, totaling over 15,000 miles and nearly 500 days at sea. Pedal-powered efforts, such as British explorer Jason Lewis's Expedition 360 (1994–2007), marked the first human-only circumnavigation of the globe, using a 8.5-meter wooden pedal boat named Moksha to cross the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans at speeds up to 4.4 knots, combined with cycling and walking for land segments over 74,000 km total. These methods underscore the endurance required for propulsion without mechanical aid, often averaging 2–5 knots and relying on rowers' or pedalers' caloric intake for energy. Kite-assisted propulsion complements these by deploying large kites at altitudes of 100–300 meters to capture stronger winds, reducing reliance on primary power sources; systems like those from SkySails or Airseas can cut consumption by 20–30% on hybrid vessels, though fully kite-reliant circumnavigations remain rare due to variable wind patterns. Challenges across these methods include limitations—batteries for solar craft offer finite capacity compared to sails' renewability—and consistently low speeds of 2–5 knots, which extend voyages to months or years while exposing crews to weather extremes. In the , hybrid innovations have emerged in , such as solar-paneled boats generating 460 watts for onboard systems during transoceanic legs, as seen in the 2025 Pacific crossing by Scottish brothers , , and Lachlan Maclean, who set a record unsupported row of approximately 14,000 km in 139 days, blending human power with renewable auxiliaries for .

Aerial and Space Circumnavigation

Aviation Achievements

Aviation achievements in circumnavigation began in the early with pioneering flights that pushed the limits of aircraft endurance and navigation. In 1933, American aviator Wiley Post became the first person to complete a solo circumnavigation, flying his 5B monoplane, named Winnie Mae, over 15,596 miles in 7 days, 18 hours, 49 minutes, and 30 seconds, with 11 stops along a route from New York to Berlin, , , and back. This feat, which shaved significant time off previous multi-crew records, demonstrated the viability of individual piloting for global journeys despite challenges like variable weather and rudimentary instrumentation. Post's success highlighted the importance of lightweight design and efficient engines for long-haul flights in the propeller era. The accelerated circumnavigations, enabling faster and higher-altitude travel that optimized . In 1977, Pan American World Airways' Clipper New Horizons completed a polar circumnavigation in 54 hours, 7 minutes, and 12 seconds, crossing both the North and South Poles over four legs from , carrying 172 passengers to celebrate the airline's 50th anniversary. This flight, cruising at 43,000 feet to minimize drag in thinner air, showcased the advantages of for commercial-scale global travel. Later, in 1986, the , a designed by , achieved the first nonstop, non-refueled circumnavigation, covering 24,986 statute miles in 9 days, 3 minutes, and 44 seconds, piloted by and from . Voyager's innovative design, with a exceeding 110 feet and fuel load comprising 70% of its takeoff weight, emphasized extreme endurance over speed. Route selection plays a critical role in circumnavigations, balancing great-circle distances with wind patterns for fuel savings. Polar routes, like the 1977 Pan Am flight, reduce overall mileage by up to 20% compared to equatorial paths for east-west travel but require specialized cold-weather operations; equatorial routes, often used in early flights like Post's, follow to mitigate headwinds that can increase fuel consumption by 10-15%. High-altitude cruising at around 35,000 feet enhances by reducing air , lowering drag, and improving , allowing modern jets to achieve 1-3% better fuel burn on wind-optimized trajectories. These strategies have become standard for minimizing operational costs in long-distance flights. Advancements in sustainable propulsion marked recent milestones, with the 2016 Solar Impulse 2 achieving the first solar-electric circumnavigation, covering 42,000 kilometers in 17 legs over 16 months and 550 flight hours, powered entirely by 17,000 solar cells and batteries. Pilots and Borschberg alternated shifts, flying at altitudes up to 28,000 feet to harness sunlight, proving zero-fuel global travel feasibility despite low speeds averaging 45 mph. In the 2020s, electric tests have progressed toward potential circumnavigations, exemplified by Heart Aerospace's Heart X1, the largest all-electric aircraft slated for its first flight in early 2026 as of late 2025, aiming for 200-mile ranges with plans to scale for longer hybrid-electric journeys that could enable emission-free global routes. These developments build on Voyager's endurance legacy while prioritizing environmental impact.

Astronautical Orbits

Astronautical orbits represent a form of circumnavigation in the vacuum of space, where spacecraft achieve closed paths around celestial bodies without atmospheric support, distinguishing them from aeronautical flights reliant on lift. (LEO), typically at altitudes of 160 to 2,000 kilometers, qualifies as rapid circumnavigation of , with satellites completing a full approximately every 90 minutes due to their high velocity of about 7.8 kilometers per second. The (ISS), operating at an average altitude of 400 kilometers, exemplifies this, circling 16 times daily. The first human to achieve such an was Soviet cosmonaut aboard on April 12, 1961, completing one in roughly 89 minutes at altitudes between 189 and 327 kilometers. Key manned missions have extended circumnavigation beyond simple Earth orbits. Apollo 8, launched on December 21, 1968, achieved the first human lunar orbit, an elliptical path at about 112 by 313 kilometers above the 's surface, completing 10 orbits over 20 hours before returning to Earth; this mission marked a significant extension of circumnavitational scope, traversing interplanetary space to loop the . Since November 2, 2000, the ISS has hosted continuous human presence through sequential expeditions, enabling long-duration orbital circumnavigation—astronauts like have accumulated over 665 days in LEO across multiple missions, conducting research in microgravity. These expeditions underscore the feasibility of sustained space-based living, with the station's modular assembly supporting over 270 individuals to date. Achieving and maintaining these orbits demands substantial technical resources, including a delta-v budget of approximately 9.4 kilometers per second for insertion from Earth's surface to LEO, accounting for gravitational losses, atmospheric drag, and achieving orbital velocity. Radiation exposure poses a primary challenge, as cosmic rays and solar particles penetrate shielding; in LEO, the Earth's offers partial protection, but annual doses can approach NASA's limit of 0.50 sieverts, increasing risks of cancer and tissue damage—astronauts on the ISS receive about 80 millisieverts (0.08 Sv) over six months, necessitating monitoring and shielding strategies. Future concepts expand circumnavigation to interplanetary scales, with robotic missions like NASA's Mars Atmosphere and Volatile EvolutioN () orbiter, which entered Mars orbit on September 21, 2014, at an elliptical path of 150 by 6,200 kilometers, completing thousands of orbits to study atmospheric loss. Private ventures, such as SpaceX's , aim for crewed Mars missions in the late 2020s, involving orbital insertion around Mars for refueling and ; as of 2025, Starship has demonstrated orbital capabilities with multiple test flights, paving the way for uncrewed Mars transfers in 2026. These developments highlight evolving capabilities for orbital loops around other worlds, building on LEO precedents.

Land and Human-Powered Circumnavigation

Overland Journeys

Overland circumnavigations by vehicle or foot emphasize traversing continental landmasses while minimizing sea travel, often relying on automobiles, motorcycles, or specialized rigs to cover vast distances across , , and the . Early attempts were influenced by emerging infrastructure like the , a pre-World War I project that extended over 1,600 miles from through the to , providing a vital corridor for automobile explorers to link with and bypass longer sea routes. This railway's partial completion by the 1910s enabled initial overland probes into the , setting precedents for full global loops despite political disruptions from the war. The first documented full overland circumnavigation by automobile occurred between 1927 and 1929, when German adventurer Clärenore Stinnes, accompanied by Swedish mechanic Carl-Axel Söderström, drove an unmodified Adler Standard 6 for 28,622 miles starting from , Germany, and ending in . Their route spanned , the , via , , and back across the Atlantic by ship only for the final leg, navigating rudimentary roads, deserts, and mountains while dealing with mechanical breakdowns and geopolitical tensions. Key route challenges in overland journeys include impassable natural barriers and logistical complexities. The , a 60-mile swath of uninhabited rainforest, swamps, and mountains between and , remains the most formidable obstacle in the , with no drivable path due to and security risks, compelling travelers to arrange vehicle shipments by or cargo plane. In , crossing the Siberian demands rugged vehicles capable of enduring sub-zero temperatures, , and vast unpaved tracks, often extending travel times by weeks amid fuel scarcity and isolation. Additionally, securing visas and permits for 30 or more countries—spanning diverse bureaucracies from Russia's trans-Siberian requirements to South American border protocols—adds layers of delay, with teams typically spending months on paperwork to avoid denials or fines. Modern overland efforts have embraced diverse vehicles, showcasing technological evolution. Actor and actor undertook two notable motorcycle-based overland expeditions, documented in the "" (2004, covering approximately 19,000 miles across , , and North America with overland routes, brief ferries, and one flight for the bikes) and "" (2007, from through Africa to ), riding Adventures and relying on land connectivity with minimal sea crossings to explore multiple continents. Electric vehicles represent a growing frontier, with Australian explorer Rafael de Mestre pioneering EV routes; in 2023, he scouted global paths for a multi-team Tesla expedition, leveraging over 50,000 s worldwide to enable sustainable overland travel across continents, building on his 2012 Tesla Roadster circumnavigation. In November 2024, de Mestre completed his fourth such circumnavigation in a Tesla, highlighting continued EV infrastructure progress. Post-2020 EV attempts have benefited from infrastructure expansions, such as Tesla's addition of over 5,000 stations and more than 30,000 charging connectors since 2020, as of September 2025, allowing routes through remote areas like that were previously infeasible for battery-powered rigs. Border crossings and terrain adaptations further define these journeys, with participants prioritizing land connectivity to maintain the "overland" ethos. Short ferries, such as those across the or , are used sparingly to link continents without full ocean voyages, while extended drives avoid major seas like the via air-assisted vehicle transport. Seasonal hazards, including South Asian monsoons that transform roads into mudslides from June to September, require flexible itineraries, reinforced tires, and elevated vehicles to prevent stranding, as seen in recent expeditions where teams delayed legs by months to evade flooding.

Cycling Expeditions

Cycling circumnavigations represent a pinnacle of human-powered endurance, relying solely on pedal propulsion to traverse continents and oceans via land routes. The first recorded bicycle-based global loop was completed by Thomas Stevens, an English adventurer, who departed from on April 22, 1884, aboard a Columbia Standard bicycle. Covering approximately 13,500 miles over three years, Stevens navigated through the , , , and back via ship-assisted segments, facing rudimentary roads, wildlife encounters, and mechanical limitations of the era's high-wheeler design. In the , records have emphasized speed and self-sufficiency under strict unaided rules, prohibiting flights and requiring cyclists to be fully self-supported without external aid beyond basic resupply. Scottish cyclist Mark Beaumont set a landmark benchmark in 2008, completing a 18,187-mile journey in 194 days and 17 hours, averaging about 94 miles per day while carrying 30 kg of gear on a WorldTraveller touring bike equipped with a Rohloff 14-speed internal hub. This achievement surpassed the prior record by 81 days and adhered to criteria for longitudinal circumnavigation, crossing all meridians without . Typical equipment for such expeditions has evolved to balance durability, versatility, and load capacity. Modern cyclists often select steel-framed hybrid or touring bicycles with 20-30 via systems or internal hubs, enabling adaptation to varied terrains from flat plains to steep inclines. Panniers, such as waterproof Ortlieb models, provide 40-70 liters of storage per side for essentials like food, repair tools, and gear sufficient for multi-year journeys, while integrated GPS devices like Garmin units facilitate route tracking and navigation in remote areas. The physical demands are immense, with riders sustaining daily distances of 100-200 km to meet time goals, often pushing through , weather extremes, and nutritional challenges. High-altitude sections, such as the or , pose risks of , characterized by headaches, nausea, and reduced oxygen uptake above 3,000 meters, necessitating strategies like gradual ascents and hydration. In the , innovations in recumbent bicycles—offering ergonomic seating to reduce back strain and improve —have gained traction for long-haul tours, with models like the HP Velotechnik fs incorporating suspension and 14-speed hubs for enhanced comfort over extended distances.

Other Human-Powered Efforts

Human-powered circumnavigations beyond often involve walking or , pushing the limits of physical and mental endurance across continents and oceans. achieved the first verified global circumnavigation on foot, starting from , in June 1970 and completing 14,450 miles across four continents in October 1974, after four years and 21 pairs of shoes; tragically, his brother John was killed by bandits in during the journey. In a notable partial effort, British adventurer walked 19,019 miles unbroken from , , at the tip of to , between January 1977 and September 1983, setting records for the longest continuous walk while raising awareness for environmental causes. Ocean rowing represents another pinnacle of human-powered effort, often integrated into broader circumnavigations as a hybrid with walking or pedaling segments. Turkish-American adventurer completed the first solo human-powered global circumnavigation from July 2007 to October 2012, covering 29,000 nautical miles by across the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans—totaling over 2,000 days at sea—combined with and walking on land, without sails or engines. Such feats highlight 's role in conquering vast water barriers, as seen in earlier attempts like the 1996-1997 transatlantic rows that inspired full global efforts. Undertaking these endeavors requires meticulous and physiological to sustain extreme output. Long-distance walkers and rowers often consume 5,000 to 8,000 kilocalories daily to match expenditure, drawing from high-carbohydrate diets supplemented by fats for prolonged efforts, though many operate in a leading to of 20-30% body mass. focuses on gradual mileage increases (no more than 10% weekly), proper footwear rotation to avoid blisters and stress fractures, and for core and lower-body stability, reducing overuse risks like by up to 50% in endurance athletes. Mental resilience is equally critical, with successful participants exhibiting high —characterized by commitment, confidence, and positive coping—to endure isolation, , and setbacks, as evidenced in studies of ultra-endurance walkers where resilience correlates with completion rates exceeding 70%. In the 2020s, rare extremes include ongoing or innovative attempts, such as journalist Paul Salopek's Out of Eden Walk, launched in 2013 and projected to span 24,000 miles by 2029 following ancient routes from to , emphasizing narrative over speed. As of October 2025, Salopek has begun the North American leg, trekking from toward . British explorer , starting in 1998, continues his unbroken global walk into the 2020s, having covered over 24,000 miles and reached by May 2025, with an expected arrival in his hometown of Hull, England, by September 2026, defying geopolitical barriers without flights. Virtual reality-assisted simulations have also emerged for training or partial "walks," enabling participants to experience circumnavigational paths on treadmills while building endurance, though full physical equivalents remain scarce post-2010.

Notable Examples

Maritime Milestones

The first recorded circumnavigation of the Earth by sea was completed in 1522 by the Spanish ship Victoria, commanded by Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano after the death of Ferdinand Magellan. Departing from Spain in 1519 with a fleet of five ships, only the Victoria returned to Seville on September 6, 1522, with 18 survivors out of the original 270 crew members, having sailed westward across the Pacific and Indian Oceans. This voyage, spanning approximately 60,000 kilometers, provided empirical evidence of the Earth's spherical shape and approximate circumference, dispelling lingering doubts from the pre-Columbian era. The milestone of solo circumnavigation was achieved by , a Canadian-American mariner, who departed in 1895 aboard the 36-foot 9-inch Spray and returned in 1898 after a 46,000-mile journey. Slocum's three-year voyage, navigating through storms, shipwrecks, and remote ports from the Atlantic to the Pacific via the , marked him as the first individual to sail alone around the globe. His 1900 memoir, Sailing Alone Around the World, detailed the adventure's perils and joys, becoming a seminal work that inspired generations of sailors and adventurers with its vivid accounts of self-reliance at sea. In the modern era, solo non-stop circumnavigations have pushed records for speed and youth. British sailor set the women's for the fastest solo, non-stop, unassisted circumnavigation in , completing the 27,354-nautical-mile route in 71 days, 14 hours, 18 minutes, and 33 seconds aboard the 75-foot B&Q/Castorama. Australian teenager Jessica Watson became the youngest person to achieve a solo, non-stop, unassisted circumnavigation at age 16 in 2010, finishing her 23,000-nautical-mile voyage in 210 days on the 34-foot Ella's Pink Lady. For overall non-stop records in the race—a grueling solo yacht race around the world—François Gabart of France won the 2012–2013 edition in a record 78 days, 2 hours, 16 minutes, and 40 seconds on the 60-foot IMOCA MACIF, surpassing the previous mark by over six days. These maritime feats have profoundly influenced and diversity in . Slocum's , still in print and translated into multiple languages, has shaped narratives of exploration in and , fostering a legacy of individual endurance.

Aviation and Space Records

The first successful aerial circumnavigation was achieved in 1924 by a team from the using four aircraft, which departed from , Washington, on April 6 and completed the 26,345-mile journey after 175 days and 74 stops, with two planes finishing the route under the leadership of Lieutenant Lowell H. Smith. This multi-plane effort marked a pioneering demonstration of long-distance endurance, overcoming mechanical failures, harsh weather, and uncharted territories to circumnavigate the globe eastward. In aviation, a landmark non-stop solo circumnavigation was accomplished by Steve Fossett in the Virgin Atlantic GlobalFlyer, a single-engine jet aircraft designed by Burt Rutan, which flew 22,558 miles in 67 hours and 1 minute from February 28 to March 3, 2005, departing and returning to Salina, Kansas, without refueling. This flight set absolute world records for distance (36,911.76 km) and speed around the world (550.78 km/h), highlighting innovations in lightweight composite materials and fuel efficiency for ultra-long-haul flight. For speed in manned aviation, an Air France Concorde supersonic jet established a record for the fastest circumnavigation with stops for refueling, completing the 23,301-mile eastward loop in 31 hours, 27 minutes, and 49 seconds on August 16, 1995, averaging over 740 mph. In space, orbital circumnavigations began with early missions achieving multiple Earth loops at velocities of approximately 28,000 km/h in , enabling rapid global traversal. Valentina Tereshkova's flight on June 16, 1963, represented a milestone as the first woman's orbital circumnavigation, completing 48 orbits over 70 hours and 50 minutes before landing in , advancing diversity and endurance. For duration, astronaut Scott Kelly set a U.S. record with a 340-day continuous stay on the from March 27, 2015, to March 1, 2016, during which he completed over 5,000 orbits, supporting studies on long-term microgravity effects on the human body.

Land and Human-Powered Feats

In the realm of full land circumnavigations, Canadian adventurers Garry Sowerby and Ken Langley set a in 1980 by driving a GMC Sierra pickup truck around the world in 74 days and 18 hours, covering 28,000 miles through 28 countries while navigating political restrictions and logistical hurdles like the in , which required a short crossing. This achievement underscored the perseverance required for surface-only global travel, as the pair faced mechanical breakdowns, border delays, and extreme climates from tundras to equatorial jungles. Human-powered circumnavigations represent the pinnacle of endurance, relying solely on physical effort without mechanical assistance. British adventurer Jason Lewis achieved the first such feat from 1994 to 2007, traversing 46,505 kilometers using , a pedal-powered , a , and walking, crossing 13 countries and two oceans in 13 years while promoting environmental awareness. Similarly, ex-paratrooper began an unbroken walking circumnavigation in 1998 from , , covering over 47,000 kilometers across the and by 2025, though delayed by political borders such as Russia's denial of transit visas and the need to swim the . Another landmark human trek, though continental rather than global, was George Meegan's 19,019-mile walk from , , to , completed in 1983 after six years, enduring blizzards, rainforests, and injuries to document indigenous cultures along the way. These endeavors are fraught with challenges, including navigating political borders that restrict visa approvals and force route deviations— as seen in Bushby's 20-year halt due to Eurasian geopolitical tensions—and coping with diverse climates from Siberian winters to Saharan heat, which test physical limits and require adaptive strategies like seasonal timing. In the 2020s, hybrid human-powered efforts have emerged with e-bikes, blending pedal power and electric assistance; British cyclist Nick Sanders completed the first e-bike circumnavigation in 2024 on a Yamaha Wabash, covering approximately 20,000 miles in about 240 days across multiple countries, innovating routes through remote areas while adhering to Guinness guidelines limiting motor use to 25% of the journey. Such innovations highlight evolving perseverance in human-powered exploration, bridging traditional feats with sustainable technology.

References

  1. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/circumnavigate
  2. https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-is-circumnavigation.html
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