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Potassium gluconate
Potassium gluconate
Potassium gluconate
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Potassium gluconate
Clinical data
AHFS/Drugs.comConsumer Drug Information
MedlinePlusa601072
ATC code
Identifiers
  • Potassium (2R,3S,4R,5R)-2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoate
CAS Number
PubChem CID
ChemSpider
UNII
E numberE577 (acidity regulators, ...) Edit this at Wikidata
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
ECHA InfoCard100.005.523 Edit this at Wikidata
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC6H11KO7
Molar mass234.245 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
Melting point180 °C (356 °F) (decomposes)
  • [K+].[O-]C(=O)[C@H](O)[C@@H](O)[C@H](O)[C@H](O)CO
  • InChI=1S/C6H12O7.K/c7-1-2(8)3(9)4(10)5(11)6(12)13;/h2-5,7-11H,1H2,(H,12,13);/q;+1/p-1/t2-,3-,4+,5-;/m1./s1 checkY
  • Key:HLCFGWHYROZGBI-JJKGCWMISA-M checkY
 ☒NcheckY (what is this?)  (verify)

Potassium gluconate is the potassium salt of the conjugate base of gluconic acid. It is also referred to as 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxycaproic acid potassium salt, D-gluconic acid potassium salt, or potassium D-gluconate.[1]

It contains 16.69% elemental potassium by mass. Thus 5.99 g of potassium gluconate contains 1 g of potassium.

It has a density of 1.73 g/cm3.[2]

Dietary uses

[edit]

Potassium gluconate is used as a mineral supplement and sequestrant. It is sold over-the-counter as tablets or capsules providing up to 593 mg of potassium gluconate, thereby containing 99 mg or 2.53 milliequivalents of elemental potassium. This is the permissible upper limit for each tablet or capsule of over-the-counter potassium supplements sold in the US. Potassium gluconate is also sold over-the-counter as bulk powder.

As a food additive, potassium gluconate is used as an acidity regulator and yeast food.[3][4] It is known as E number reference E577.

Safety

[edit]

Its oral median lethal dose (LD50) in rats is 10.38 g/kg.[5] This is not an indicator of a safe oral daily dose in rats or humans.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Potassium gluconate

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Potassium gluconate is the potassium salt of , a naturally derived compound with the molecular formula C₆H₁₁KO₇ and a molecular weight of 234.25 g/mol. It exists as a white to off-white, odorless crystalline powder that decomposes at approximately 180°C and exhibits high in (approximately 590 mg/mL at 25°C). As a bioavailable source of , it functions primarily as a to prevent and treat (low serum potassium levels), supporting essential physiological processes such as impulse transmission, , and cardiac rhythm regulation. Medically, potassium gluconate is indicated for individuals at risk of potassium depletion, including those using loop or diuretics, experiencing chronic diarrhea or vomiting, or undergoing treatment for conditions like . It is typically administered orally in tablet, capsule, or liquid form, with dosages ranging from 500 to 600 mg (providing 90 mg of elemental ) one to four times daily, adjusted based on serum levels and taken with and to minimize gastrointestinal irritation. The compound is affirmed as (GRAS) by the U.S. (FDA) under SCOGS Report 78 for use as a direct , where it acts as a supplement, acidity regulator, and in products like baked goods and beverages. Pharmacologically, potassium gluconate dissociates to release ions that participate in the sodium- ATPase pump, maintaining cellular membrane potentials and electrolyte balance. It demonstrates approximately 94% absorption in the , comparable to from natural food sources like potatoes, with over 90% of the absorbed amount excreted renally. While generally well-tolerated, potential adverse effects include , , , and ; severe risks such as , arrhythmias, or allergic reactions necessitate monitoring, particularly in patients with renal impairment or those on potassium-sparing medications.

Chemistry

Molecular structure

Potassium gluconate is the salt of D-gluconic acid, with the systematic name 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanoic acid salt. Its molecular formula is \ceC6H11KO7\ce{C6H11KO7}, consisting of the gluconate anion (\ceC6H11O7−\ce{C6H11O7-}) electrostatically bound to a cation (\ceK+\ce{K+}). The gluconate anion is derived from D-gluconic acid, which originates from the oxidation of D-glucose at the C1 carbon to a group, resulting in an aldonic acid structure with five hydroxyl groups along a six-carbon chain. This oxidation preserves the chiral centers of the original , giving potassium gluconate the D-stereochemistry that matches the configuration of natural D-glucose, specifically with the (2R,3S,4R,5R) designation at the relevant carbons.

Physical and chemical properties

Potassium gluconate appears as a to off-white, odorless, crystalline powder. Its is 234.25 g/mol, with a of 1.74 g/cm³. The compound has a of approximately 180°C, at which it decomposes. It exhibits high in , approximately 59 g/100 mL at 25°C, and is slightly soluble in alcohol while being insoluble in . Potassium gluconate is chemically stable under normal ambient conditions and non-flammable. A 1% has a of approximately 7.0, indicating neutral to slightly basic behavior. It is generally non-reactive with most substances but decomposes upon exposure to high heat. The compound contains 16.69% elemental by mass; for instance, 595 mg of potassium gluconate provides about 99 mg of elemental potassium. This percentage can be calculated from the of (39.10 g/mol) relative to the molecular weight of potassium gluconate (234.25 g/mol).

Production

Laboratory synthesis

Potassium gluconate is synthesized in the laboratory through the neutralization of with , a straightforward acid-base reaction that forms the potassium salt. The balanced for this process is: \ceC6H12O7+KOH−>C6H11KO7+H2O\ce{C6H12O7 + KOH -> C6H11KO7 + H2O} This method is commonly employed for small-scale preparation, as serves as the direct precursor, typically derived from the oxidation of glucose. A standard laboratory procedure begins by dissolving gluconic acid in to form a clear solution, typically at a concentration of around 20-50% w/v. An equimolar amount of solution (e.g., 50% aqueous KOH) is then added slowly with stirring, while monitoring the to reach neutrality, approximately 7, to ensure complete reaction without excess base. The resulting solution is heated gently if needed to facilitate mixing, then concentrated by under reduced or at low to promote . The crude potassium gluconate crystals are collected by , washed with cold water or , and further purified through recrystallization from hot water or a water- to remove impurities and achieve high purity. An alternative approach utilizes as the neutralizing agent, which is particularly useful when minimizing addition or handling basic residues is desired. The reaction proceeds as: \ceC6H12O7+1/2K2CO3−>C6H11KO7+1/2H2CO3\ce{C6H12O7 + 1/2 K2CO3 -> C6H11KO7 + 1/2 H2CO3} The byproduct spontaneously decomposes into and , evolving gas during the process. In practice, is dissolved in , and solid or its is added gradually until the reaches about 7, followed by the same and recrystallization steps as above. This method yields potassium gluconate with similar efficiency to the KOH route. Laboratory syntheses of potassium gluconate typically achieve high yields after purification, depending on reagent purity and handling. For applications in dietary supplements, food-grade and potassium bases are recommended to ensure compliance with safety standards.

Commercial production

Potassium gluconate is commercially produced on a large scale through a biotechnological process that starts with the of to generate , primarily using the mold under aerobic conditions. This method leverages the fungus's enzyme to oxidize efficiently, yielding high-purity as an intermediate, and emphasizes sustainability through the use of renewable carbohydrate sources. The subsequent step involves neutralizing the with or to form the salt, ensuring a cost-effective and scalable operation favored by major producers. The fermentation occurs in large-scale aerobic bioreactors where a glucose substrate is inoculated with Aspergillus niger spores or , maintained at a of 4-6 and a of approximately 30°C for 48-72 hours to achieve optimal conversion rates. Post-fermentation, the broth undergoes to separate the fungal , followed by acidification if needed to liberate free , purification via or treatment, and then neutralization in dedicated reactors with a base under controlled conditions to prevent side reactions. The resulting solution is concentrated through and dried via spray-drying to produce a fine, anhydrous powder suitable for industrial packaging and distribution. Global production of potassium gluconate has grown with demand in supplements and food applications, with significant output from biotech-focused facilities in and . Key producers include Jungbunzlauer Suisse AG in and Corbion N.V. with operations spanning and , utilizing advanced technologies. Commercial products must comply with rigorous quality standards, including the (USP) and (FCC), requiring a minimum purity of 97% on a dried basis, with limits on (typically <10 ppm lead), arsenic (<3 ppm), and microbial contaminants to ensure safety for pharmaceutical and food use. These specifications are verified through assays for content (16.0-16.9%) and gluconate identification via or .

Uses

Medical indications

Potassium gluconate is primarily indicated for the treatment and prevention of , defined as a serum potassium concentration below 3.5 mEq/L. This condition is particularly common in patients receiving diuretics, those on therapy, or individuals experiencing gastrointestinal losses such as or . As an adjunctive therapy, potassium gluconate is used in to address associated , often alongside agents like citrate or . It also serves as supportive treatment in toxicity when exacerbates cardiac effects, and in where depletion contributes to the acid-base imbalance. Prophylactically, it is employed in patients at risk of due to dialysis or use, as well as in eating disorders like or bulimia where purging leads to recurrent loss. Typical oral dosage for adults is 20-40 mEq of per day in divided doses, adjusted based on serum levels and clinical response; for example, 600-1200 mg of potassium gluconate tablets daily provides approximately 99-198 mg of elemental (equivalent to 2.5-5 mEq). This formulation is favored for its palatability and lower risk of gastrointestinal irritation compared to chloride salts. The use of potassium gluconate as a replacement is supported by FDA approval for management. Clinical studies demonstrate its efficacy in elevating serum levels, with noticeable improvements often within 24-48 hours of initiation in mild to moderate cases, though full normalization may take longer depending on severity and underlying causes.

Dietary supplementation

Potassium gluconate serves as an over-the-counter primarily to help maintain adequate levels in individuals with diets low in potassium-rich foods, such as fruits and , thereby supporting overall balance. The Adequate Intake (AI) for is 3,400 mg per day for adult men and 2,600 mg per day for adult women (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2019), and supplementation is particularly relevant for groups at risk of mild , including athletes and those engaged in high-sweat activities like endurance sports. It is commonly available in various forms, including tablets providing 99 mg of elemental per 595 mg dose of potassium gluconate, as well as solutions and powders for easier administration. Typical daily supplementation ranges from 99 to 200 mg of elemental , with recommendations to limit single doses to no more than 99 mg without medical consultation to avoid gastrointestinal discomfort. Among healthy individuals, potassium gluconate supplementation may enhance muscle function and contribute to regulation by counteracting sodium's effects. A 2020 meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials indicated that potassium supplementation reduces the risk of in populations with low dietary intake, with an average reduction in systolic of about 3-4 mmHg. The U.S. (FDA) classifies potassium gluconate as (GRAS) for use in dietary supplements when consumed within recommended limits, with product labels typically indicating it provides approximately 2% of the daily value (DV) per serving based on a 4,700 mg DV.

Food industry applications

Potassium gluconate serves as a multifunctional in the industry, primarily functioning as an acidity regulator, sequestrant, and potassium fortifier to enhance product stability and . As an acidity regulator under the EU designation E577, it helps maintain optimal levels in various formulations, while its sequestrant properties bind metal ions to prevent unwanted reactions like oxidation or discoloration. Additionally, it enriches content in foods, particularly dietetic products, to support nutritional without significantly altering sensory attributes. In beverages such as soft drinks and isotonic drinks, potassium gluconate stabilizes and extends , typically incorporated at low concentrations under good manufacturing practices (GMP). It is also used in products like drinks and cheeses to regulate acidity and fortify levels. In baked goods, it acts as a partial substitute for in breadmaking, contributing to conditioning and mineral enrichment. For formulas and processed foods, including low- items like certain meats, it provides essential potassium fortification while serving as a buffer salt. Compared to other potassium salts like , potassium gluconate offers advantages such as a milder, less bitter and higher , making it preferable for applications where sensory quality is critical. Its neutral flavor profile allows for effective sodium reduction—up to 40% in some blends—without compromising or texture in products. Furthermore, with approximately 16.7% elemental by weight, it enables straightforward nutritional labeling; for instance, adding about 300 mg per serving can provide 50 mg of potassium to meet goals. Regulatory approval supports its widespread use, with the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) affirming it as (GRAS) for direct addition to food at levels consistent with GMP. In the , it is permitted as E577 at levels under (EC) No 1333/2008, including in infant formulas per (EC) No 609/2013. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has established an of "not specified," indicating low toxicity concerns at typical usage levels.

Pharmacology

Mechanism of action

Upon ingestion, potassium gluconate dissociates in the into potassium cations (K⁺) and gluconate anions, facilitated by the acidic environment of the , with primary absorption of the ions occurring in the . The K⁺ ions are actively transported into cells via the sodium- pump (Na⁺/K⁺-), which maintains the across cell membranes by pumping three sodium ions out of the cell in exchange for two ions into the cell, thereby preserving the resting essential for cellular excitability. plays a critical role in repolarizing action potentials in neurons and muscle cells, including cardiac myocytes, where efflux of K⁺ through voltage-gated channels restores the after , ensuring proper impulse transmission, , and cardiac rhythm stability. Additionally, K⁺ regulates intracellular by contributing to osmotic equilibrium and supports acid-base through shifts between intracellular and extracellular compartments in response to changes. The gluconate anion, once absorbed, is metabolized in human tissues, primarily in the liver, , and , where it is phosphorylated by gluconokinase to form 6-phosphogluconate; this intermediate enters the oxidative phase of the , generating NADPH for reductive and defense, or is further converted to glucose-6-phosphate for energy production via , serving as a non-toxic metabolic byproduct. Compared to inorganic potassium salts like , the gluconate form is less likely to cause gastrointestinal due to its organic anion component, which is non-acidifying and provides buffering capacity that mitigates local disturbances and osmotic effects in the gut.

Absorption and metabolism

gluconate is primarily absorbed in the through passive diffusion and paracellular transport mechanisms, achieving a of approximately 94% following . This high absorption rate is comparable to that of from dietary sources such as potatoes. Peak serum concentrations are typically reached within 1 to 2 hours after ingestion. Once absorbed, potassium ions rapidly distribute throughout the body, with approximately 98% equilibrating intracellularly, primarily in muscle cells, while the remaining 2% resides in the . The volume of distribution for potassium approximates total , around 40 liters in adults. Potassium itself undergoes minimal metabolism and is largely recycled through renal handling, whereas the gluconate anion is metabolized via oxidation pathways, yielding products such as D-galactaric acid () or ultimately and . In mammalian studies, a significant portion of gluconate-derived radioactivity is exhaled as CO₂, with additional metabolites appearing in and . Excretion of potassium occurs predominantly via the kidneys, where about 90% of filtered potassium is reabsorbed in the and , with excess amounts secreted into the urine for elimination. The plasma half-life of potassium is approximately 3 to 4 hours, though this can vary; renal excretion is regulated by aldosterone, which promotes secretion, and urinary pH, where reduces excretion. Small amounts are also lost through and sweat. Several factors influence handling from gluconate supplements; for instance, concurrent intake does not impair absorption and may support overall gastrointestinal tolerance, while loop and diuretics reduce retention by enhancing renal excretion.

Safety

Adverse effects

gluconate supplementation commonly causes gastrointestinal side effects, including , , , , and , attributed to the osmotic effects of the gluconate component. These effects are typically mild and occur due to local in the digestive tract. In clinical settings, such symptoms often resolve upon dose reduction or administration with . Serious adverse effects primarily involve , particularly when intake exceeds physiological needs, manifesting as , , and cardiac arrhythmias such as or . is rare in individuals with normal renal function but poses a greater in those with renal impairment, diabetes, or heart failure. Rare allergic reactions may include , , or , requiring immediate medical attention. Monitoring for adverse effects includes serum level assessments, especially in at-risk patients, with electrocardiogram (ECG) evaluation for signs of such as peaked T-waves, particularly in cases of overdose or renal compromise. Clinical trials of supplements, including gluconate forms, report gastrointestinal issues as the predominant tolerable side effect, with occurring infrequently under normal function.

Toxicity and contraindications

Potassium gluconate exhibits low in animal models, with an oral LD50 of 6.06 g/kg (95% : 5.64–6.51 g/kg) reported in Wistar rats following a single gavage exposure and 14-day observation period. In humans, overdose primarily risks , defined as serum potassium exceeding 5.5 mEq/L, which can lead to cardiac arrhythmias and ; levels above 8 mEq/L are often fatal without prompt intervention due to potential respiratory or . Contraindications for potassium gluconate include preexisting , severe renal impairment such as with creatinine clearance below 10 mL/min characterized by , , or , untreated , and , as these conditions impair potassium excretion and exacerbate . Drug interactions that potentiate hyperkalemia risk include concurrent use with (ACE) inhibitors such as enalapril or lisinopril, potassium-sparing diuretics like , and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen, which reduce renal potassium clearance and can lead to severe elevations in serum . Management of hyperkalemia from potassium gluconate overdose prioritizes cardiac stabilization with intravenous (typically 1 g over 2–3 minutes) to antagonize 's effects on cardiomyocyte membranes, followed by insulin (10 units regular) with glucose (25–50 g dextrose) to promote intracellular shift, alongside measures to enhance elimination such as diuretics or dialysis in severe cases. The U.S. (FDA) advises caution for of potassium supplements like gluconate in children, recommending close monitoring due to risks of in pediatric populations with immature renal function. Potassium gluconate was affirmed as (GRAS) by the FDA in SCOGS Report 78 () for use as a direct . Caution is advised for high-risk groups including those with renal impairment or on potassium-altering medications.

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