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Jeolla Province
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Jeolla Province (Korean: 전라도; Hanja: 全羅道, [tɕʌ̹ɭɭa̠.do̞]) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as well as Jeju Province. The provincial capital was Jeonju, the current capital of North Jeolla. The entire inland region was called Honam (lit. 'south of the lake'), which is still commonly used today.
Key Information
Jeolla-do, including North and South Jeolla,was the first province/state out of the Eight Provinces system to have its 1000th year anniversary in 2018, as the name 'Jeolla-do' was established in 1018, during Hyeonjong of Goryeo's 9th year in power.[1]
The population of Jeolla-do is 4,973,834 as of January 2024.
History
[edit]Samhan and Samguk
[edit]
During the Samhan era of Korean history, the area of Jeolla was controlled by the Mahan confederacy and the Tamna kingdom on Jeju. Fifteen of the 45 Korean tribes had their bases in this region. When Baekje overtook Mahan by the 5th century, the Three Kingdoms era began and the region became part of southern Baekje. Jungbang was the center of the province during this period.
Unified Silla
[edit]When Silla conquered Baekje with the help of Tang China in 660, it became a territory of Later Silla during the 16th year of the reign of Munmu of Silla. Silla reorganized this territory into nine ju (주) and five gyeong (경), three of the ju belonging to the former Baekje. The northern territory of former Baekje, Ung (Ungju; 熊州), corresponds to modern-day South Chungcheong Province.
The middle area consisted of Wansan (完山州) and Namwon, which correspond to modern-day North Jeolla. Wansan was later renamed Jeonju. The southern area consisted of Mujin (Mujin-ju), which was renamed Mu (武州) in 757, the 16th year of the reign of Gyeongdeok of Silla. Mu consisted of one gun and 43 hyeon, and corresponds to modern-day South Jeolla.
Goryeo dynasty
[edit]In 983, during the second year of the reign of Seongjong of Goryeo, the country was reorganized into 12 mok. Jeonju became Jeonju-mok (全州牧), while Muju was split into the two mok of Naju and Seungju. In 995, King Seongjong again reorganized the country, this time into 10 do (Korean: 도; Hanja: 道; lit. province). Jeonju-mok was renamed Gangnam-do (lit. 'province south of the river') while Naju and Seungju were reunited and renamed Haeyang-do (lit. 'ocean province').
In 1018, during the 9th year of the reign of Hyeonjong of Goryeo, the country was again reorganized into 5 do, and the provinces of Gangnam and Haeyang were merged to form the province of Jeollaju (全羅州道). The name derived from the names of the principal cities of Jeonju (全州) and Naju (羅州). (The difference between na- and -la is due to the (initial sound rule of modern Korean). This was the first time the area currently known as Jeolla was united under one administrative division, and it would remain this way for nearly eight centuries.
Joseon: 1392–1910
[edit]In 1413, during 13th year of the reign of Taejong of Joseon, the territories were once again reorganized into 8 do. This is the era of the historic Eight Provinces. Jeollaju-do was variously known as Gwangnam, Jeongwang, and Jeonnam, but the original name persisted, and was eventually shortened to simply Jeolla-do (全羅道).
The Donghak Peasant Revolution of 1894–1895 began in Jeolla-do, which was a peasant revolt fueled by the fervor of the believed coming of a local messiah and protests over Seoul's high taxes on rice and the increasing number of Japanese traders in Joseon. There was anti-Japanese sentiment due to the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598).
On May 26, 1895, Gojong of Korea replaced the 8 do system with a 23 bu district system and Jeolla was replaced by the districts of Jeonju (Korean: 전주부; Hanja: 全州府; RR: Jeonjubu) in the northwest, Naju (나주부; 羅州府; Najubu) in the southwest, Namwon (남원부; 南原府; Namwonbu) in the east, and Jeju (제주부; 濟州府; Jejubu) on Jeju-do.
On August 4, 1896, Emperor Gojong issued Royal Order 36, repealing the district system and restoring the province system. Jeolla was divided north-south into North Jeolla Province and South Jeolla Province.[2] Also divided were Chungcheong Province, Gyeongsang Province, Hamgyong Province and Pyongan Province, bringing the total to 13 provinces.
Republic of Korea: 1948–present
[edit]North Jeolla Province consisted of the Jeonju and northern Namwon districts, while South Jeolla Province consisted of the southern Namwon districts, Naju district, and Jeju island. Jeonju was retained as the capital of North Jeolla, with Gwangju being made the capital of South Jeolla. The capital of South Jeolla was later moved to Namak in 2005, and Gwangju was designated a Special City.
Geography
[edit]Jeolla Province was bounded on the north by Chungcheong Province, on the east by Gyeongsang Province, on the south by the East China Sea, and on the west by the Yellow Sea. The region is bordered on the east by the Sobaek Mountains and is drained by the Yeongsan, Seomjin and Mangyeong rivers. The largest city in the region is Gwangju. Apart from Jeonju and Naju, other cities of note include Iksan (formerly Iri), Gunsan, Mokpo, Namwon, Suncheon, and Yeosu.
References
[edit]- ^ "전북소개 > 일반현황 > 역사 | 전북특별자치도".
- ^ "History | jeollanamdo". www.jeonnam.go.kr. Retrieved 26 May 2024.
External links
[edit]
Jeolla Province
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Jeolla Province, historically Jeolla-do, constitutes the southwestern region of the Korean Peninsula, now split into North Jeolla Province (Jeollabuk-do) and South Jeolla Province (Jeollanam-do) since 1896 as part of South Korea's administrative divisions.[1] The combined provinces cover approximately 20,314 square kilometers, with North Jeolla encompassing 8,067 km² and South Jeolla 12,247 km², and support populations of about 1.8 million each based on recent data.[2][3]
Characterized by western alluvial plains, eastern mountains, and a 6,100-km coastline dotted with over 2,000 islands, the region benefits from abundant rainfall and the peninsula's warmest climate, fostering prolific agriculture including rice, tangerines, and strawberries, as well as fisheries and aquaculture.[1][4][5]
Jeolla-do holds cultural prominence as the birthplace of pansori, a narrative singing tradition designated UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage, and Jeonju bibimbap, alongside hanok villages and historical sites linked to the Joseon Dynasty's founding.[6][7]
Despite its agricultural strengths, the region grapples with depopulation, outmigration to urban centers, and historical underinvestment in infrastructure compared to southeastern provinces, contributing to persistent regional economic disparities and a strong local identity rooted in past marginalization.[8][9]
History
Prehistoric and Mahan Period
Archaeological evidence indicates human occupation in the Jeolla region during the Neolithic period, with settlements concentrated in coastal and riverine zones conducive to early foraging and incipient agriculture. Sites in areas like Haenam County reveal relics dating back to this era, marking the onset of sustained habitation amid fertile alluvial soils. By the Bronze Age (circa 1500–300 BCE), dolmen clusters proliferated, particularly in Hwasun and Gochang counties, where over 20,000 such megalithic tombs—used for burials and rituals—represent the highest density worldwide, signaling organized labor and social complexity in proto-agricultural communities.[10][11] Bronze artifacts unearthed at the Daegok-ri site in Hwasun, including Korean-style daggers, axes, and mirrors dating to approximately 1000 BCE, attest to metallurgical advancements and trade networks, likely supporting maritime activities along the southwestern coast.[12] Concurrently, wet-rice cultivation emerged around 1500 BCE in river basins such as Naju, leveraging the region's expansive plains to generate surpluses that underpinned settlement growth and hierarchical structures.[13] These developments fostered decentralized communities reliant on cereal farming and coastal resources, laying groundwork for later confederative polities. The Mahan confederacy, one of the Samhan groupings, coalesced in the 1st century BCE across southwestern Korea, encompassing 54 tribal statelets with roughly 100,000 households primarily in the Jeolla and adjacent areas.[14] Characterized by chieftain-led polities rather than centralized rule, Mahan emphasized alliances among proto-urban centers, evidenced by fortified settlements and woodland management practices that integrated agriculture with resource extraction.[15] Trade with Chinese states, documented in Han dynasty records, facilitated iron tools and luxury goods, enhancing economic surplus from the fertile Honam plain and enabling cultural exchanges until Mahan's eclipse by emerging kingdoms in the 4th century CE.[14] This era's decentralized model, sustained by agricultural productivity, shaped enduring patterns of regional autonomy and maritime orientation.Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
The region of modern Jeolla Province formed part of Baekje's core territory during the Three Kingdoms period (c. 57 BCE–668 CE), with the kingdom exerting dominance over southwestern Korea from the 1st to 7th centuries CE as it expanded from Mahan tribal statelets in the fertile plains.[16] Baekje leveraged the area's agricultural potential and river networks for economic strength, while developing fortifications and religious infrastructure; archaeological evidence from Iksan in North Jeolla includes the 6th-century Mireuksaji temple complex, showcasing advanced wooden architecture and the kingdom's role in disseminating Buddhism regionally.[17] These sites highlight Baekje's strategic positioning amid inter-kingdom rivalries, with defenses oriented against Silla expansions from the southeast. In 660 CE, Silla forces, allied with Tang China, conquered Baekje through coordinated assaults culminating in the Battle of Hwangsanbeol, where Baekje general Gyebaek's 5,000 troops were overwhelmed by Silla general Kim Yu-sin's larger army, leading to the kingdom's collapse and the capture of its Sabi capital.[18] This event triggered mass displacements in the Jeolla region, with Baekje refugees migrating to Japan—estimated in the tens of thousands—facilitating cultural transmissions like Buddhist iconography and continental technologies, while local populations experienced disruption followed by gradual assimilation under Silla-Tang occupation.[19] By the late 7th century, after Silla expelled Tang forces by 676 CE and achieved unification, the Jeolla area was integrated into the kingdom's administrative framework of nine ju (provinces) and subordinate gun (counties), with centers like Naju established to manage local taxation and defense.[20] Silla extended its Hwarangdo system—an elite youth corps trained in martial arts, ethics, and horsemanship—to incorporate regional warriors, fostering loyalty and military cohesion across former Baekje lands.[21] Hydraulic projects, including dikes and canals inherited and expanded from Baekje precedents, supported intensified rice cultivation in Jeolla's alluvial basins, underpinning economic stabilization amid post-conquest recovery.[22] This era marked a shift toward centralized governance, blending Baekje's localized traditions with Silla's bone-rank aristocracy for administrative efficiency.Goryeo Dynasty
In 983, during the reign of King Seongjong, the Goryeo court reorganized the kingdom's territory into twelve mok for improved administrative centralization, establishing Jeolla-do by integrating the Jeonju and Naju regions to streamline governance over the southwest.[23] The province's name derived from these core cities—Jeonju providing the "Jeon" syllable and Naju the "lla" (with phonetic variation from "na").[24] Jeolla-do's alluvial plains and river systems, including the Yeongsan and Seomjin Rivers, fostered rice paddy agriculture that bolstered Goryeo's granary reserves and supported military conscription from a growing rural populace. Southern locales such as Gangjin hosted major celadon kilns, yielding high-fired stoneware prized for its jade-green glaze and inlaid designs, which supplied aristocratic demand and entered regional trade networks. Ports along the Noryang Strait enabled maritime exchanges, exporting ceramics and agricultural surplus amid the dynasty's Buddhist-influenced economy. Dynastic turbulence strained Jeolla-do's feudal ties, as Mongol incursions from 1231 onward repeatedly devastated southwestern circuits, with a 1235 campaign specifically razing parts of Jeolla and adjacent Gyeongsang to coerce submission.[25] Culminating resistance appeared in the Sambyeolcho Rebellion (1270–1273), where anti-Mongol Sambyeolcho guerrillas, remnants of Goryeo's elite forces, conducted raids and seized coastal enclaves in Jeolla Province after retreating to offshore islands like Jindo and Jeju.[26] These events underscored frictions between Kaesong's aristocracy and provincial warrior elites, exacerbated by tribute demands and foreign domination, though Jeolla's economic base aided Goryeo's eventual vassalage stabilization.Joseon Dynasty
Jeolla-do, established as one of the eight provinces (p'aldo) of Joseon in 1413 under King Taejong, served as the kingdom's primary agricultural heartland, producing surplus rice that supported central taxation and elite wealth accumulation.[27] Centered in Jeonju, the provincial capital and ancestral seat of the Yi royal clan, Jeolla hosted a dense concentration of yangban scholar-officials who dominated local governance and extracted resources from tenant farmers through land rents and labor obligations.[28] This socio-economic structure, while enriching the yangban class, fostered systemic exploitation, as local elites often prioritized factional patronage over effective administration, contributing to peasant indebtedness amid fluctuating harvests and mounting corvée demands.[29] During the Imjin War (1592–1598), Jeolla-do's fertile plains and coastal access enabled it to function as a logistical base for Joseon defenses, supplying grain, troops, and naval resources despite initial Japanese advances.[30] Key fortifications at Jeonju and Jinju repelled invasions, preserving the region's output as an agricultural center essential for sustaining righteous armies and Ming reinforcements.[31] However, wartime disruptions exacerbated post-war factional strife, with Jeolla yangban aligning variably in the Easterners-Westerners divide; Westerners (Seoin), often rooted in Honam (Jeolla-Gyeongsang fringes), faced purges under Easterner dominance after 1598, as central authorities in Seoul targeted regional power bases perceived as threats to royal control.[32] By the late 19th century, entrenched yangban corruption—manifest in embezzlement of tax revenues and collusion with moneylenders—intensified peasant grievances in Jeolla, where high land productivity amplified extraction burdens without corresponding infrastructure improvements.[33] The Donghak Peasant Revolution erupted in 1894 from Gobu county, triggered by local uprisings against exploitative magistrates and foreign (Japanese) economic encroachments that undercut traditional livelihoods.[34] Led by figures like Jeon Bong-jun, rebels demanded redress for taxation abuses and elite impunity, but the movement was brutally suppressed by Joseon government forces augmented by Japanese troops, resulting in thousands of deaths and reinforcing central authority's reliance on foreign intervention.[35] This event underscored causal links between yangban malfeasance, fiscal overreach, and social instability, rather than abstract ideological fervor alone.Japanese Colonial Period and Korean Independence
Following Japan's annexation of Korea in 1910, the colonial administration conducted a comprehensive land survey from 1910 to 1918 to formalize ownership records and tax assessments, which disproportionately benefited Japanese interests by invalidating undocumented Korean claims and facilitating land transfers to Japanese owners and corporations.[36] In Jeolla Province, a key rice-producing region targeted for export-oriented agriculture, this process exacerbated tenancy rates, with Japanese development of areas like Gimje in North Jeolla intensifying cultivation for shipment to Japan via ports such as Gunsan, doubling local rice prices while suppressing them in Japan.[37] Nationwide, tenancy rose sharply, reaching over 70 percent of farmers as partial or full tenants by 1942, a trend acutely felt in fertile southwestern provinces like Jeolla where smallholders struggled to meet evidentiary requirements, leading to foreclosures and absentee Japanese landlordism.[38] While the survey introduced cadastral modernization, its causal structure—prioritizing bureaucratic proof over customary tenure—systematically dispossessed Koreans, heightening economic grievances without uniform resistance, as some adapted through land sales or administrative roles under colonial rice export incentives. These hardships fueled anti-colonial activism in Jeolla, with the province seeing thousands participate in the March 1 Movement of 1919, a nationwide uprising against Japanese rule that drew broad involvement from peasants and intellectuals amid widespread demonstrations.[39] Subsequent unrest included peasant protests like the 1927 Okgu Uprising in Gunsan against exploitative rents and taxes, reflecting adaptations to colonial markets alongside resentment.[40] In later years, guerrilla resistance emerged in Jeolla's mountainous terrain, with organized armed groups conducting operations against Japanese forces, as documented in regional histories of southern provincial insurgency.[41] Resistance was not monolithic; empirical records indicate collaboration in some quarters, including Korean elites acquiring foreclosed lands or serving in colonial administration, which mitigated total uniformity in opposition while underscoring causal links between land dispossession and sporadic violence. Japan's defeat in World War II on August 15, 1945, ended colonial rule, placing Jeolla Province—located entirely south of the 38th parallel—under the U.S. military government in the southern zone amid Korea's provisional division for occupation administration.[42] With the establishment of the Republic of Korea on August 15, 1948, the unified colonial-era Jeolla was administratively redivided into North Jeolla Province (centered on Jeonju) and South Jeolla Province (including areas around Muan and Gwangju) to streamline governance in the new state, reflecting post-liberation efforts to restore pre-colonial provincial structures while adapting to southern-only jurisdiction.[43] This split preceded immediate postwar challenges but avoided direct national partition effects, as Jeolla's southwestern position ensured its integration into the Republic without northern territorial loss.Post-Korean War Division and Modern Era
Following the Korean War's armistice on July 27, 1953, Jeolla Province, encompassing what became North and South Jeolla Provinces in South Korea, faced severe devastation from battles and occupation, with infrastructure largely destroyed and agricultural output plummeted due to disrupted irrigation and farmland damage. Reconstruction efforts, supported by U.S. aid channeled through the United Nations Korean Reconstruction Agency, prioritized national recovery, enabling Jeolla's shift from a predominantly agrarian economy toward semi-industrialization through land reforms and basic infrastructure rebuilding by the late 1950s.[44] Under President Park Chung-hee's export-led industrialization from the 1960s to 1970s, Jeolla experienced marginal gains in urbanization, particularly in Gwangju and Mokpo, but lagged behind Gyeongsang Province due to uneven infrastructure investments favoring the southeast, where Park originated, resulting in Jeolla's per capita income remaining below national averages and reliance on rice farming and fisheries.[45][46] This regional disparity exacerbated political tensions, culminating in the Gwangju Uprising of May 18–27, 1980, where citizens in Gwangju, the de facto capital of South Jeolla, protested Chun Doo-hwan's military coup, leading to a violent crackdown by paratroopers that killed an estimated 200 civilians and injured thousands, galvanizing anti-dictatorship sentiment nationwide.[47] The June 1987 democratic movement amplified Jeolla's role in South Korea's democratization, fostering local political mobilization against authoritarian rule and reducing overt regional exclusion in policy-making. The election of Kim Dae-jung, a native of Mokpo in South Jeolla, as president in 1998 marked a pivotal milestone, as the first leader from the historically underrepresented Honam region (comprising North and South Jeolla), whose administration pursued the Sunshine Policy of engagement with North Korea, earning him the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize while addressing some infrastructural neglect through balanced regional development initiatives.[48][49] Administratively, the historical split of Jeolla into North and South Provinces in 1896 persisted post-war, with formal distinctions maintained under South Korea's 1948 constitution and reinforced by local government laws in 1963, allowing independent governance while preserving cultural unity in the Honam area. By the 2000s, urbanization accelerated with Gwangju's designation as a metropolitan city in 1995, integrating Jeolla into South Korea's high-tech economy, though agricultural strengths like Jeonju's bibimbap heritage and fisheries persisted alongside emerging sectors in biotechnology and logistics.[45]Geography
Topography and Landforms
Jeolla Province encompasses the southwestern sector of the Korean Peninsula, featuring a varied topography that transitions from inland highlands to expansive lowlands and a fragmented coastal fringe. The northern interior rises into the Noryeong Mountains, a southeastern extension of the Taebaek Mountains, where peaks such as Mai Mountain reach elevations exceeding 600 meters and form rugged terrain dissected by valleys.[50] These mountains, composed largely of Precambrian gneiss and schist overlain by younger sedimentary layers, create a natural divide separating Jeolla from the more elevated eastern provinces, influencing drainage patterns and limiting intensive settlement to intermontane basins.[51] Southward, the landscape flattens into the Honam Plain, a broad alluvial expanse extending across much of North and South Jeolla, bounded by the Yellow Sea to the west and the Noryeong foothills to the east. This plain, formed by sediment deposition from major river systems, covers approximately 4,000 square kilometers and historically supported dense agricultural populations due to its deep, loamy soils derived from fluvial and marine origins.[52] The Seomjin River, originating in the central highlands and traversing 212 kilometers through southeastern North Jeolla and eastern South Jeolla before entering the South Sea, and the parallel Yeongsan River, spanning 129 kilometers from its headwaters in the same region, have shaped deltaic features and floodplains that enhance soil fertility while predisposing the area to seasonal inundation.[53] The southern coastline is highly irregular, fringed by the Dadohae Archipelago, a complex of over 1,700 islands and islets within Dadohaehaesang National Park, many of which exhibit steep, granitic cliffs and sheltered bays resulting from tectonic uplift and erosion during the Cenozoic era.[54] Geologically, the province's basement includes Mesozoic granitic batholiths intruded during Jurassic to Cretaceous subduction events along the eastern margin of the Eurasian plate, exposing weathered outcrops that contribute to tors, domes, and localized mineral veins exploitable for historical mining activities.[55][56] These features, combined with the peninsula's overall compressional tectonics, have yielded a landform mosaic that favored lowland rice paddies over upland pursuits, underpinning the region's longstanding economic orientation toward plains-based cultivation.[52]Climate and Environmental Features
Jeolla Province exhibits a temperate monsoon climate with humid subtropical traits, particularly in its southern coastal areas, marked by distinct seasonal variations driven by the East Asian monsoon system. Annual precipitation averages 1,100 to 1,500 mm, with over 60% concentrated in the summer months of June through September, often resulting in heavy downpours that contribute to flooding risks. Mean annual temperatures range from 13°C to 14.2°C, with mild winters featuring January averages of 2–5°C in lowland areas and hotter, humid summers where July and August means reach 25–28°C.[1][57][58] The province's environmental landscape encompasses coastal wetlands, estuarine mudflats, and inland forests, fostering biodiversity hotspots along migratory flyways. Suncheon Bay, a Ramsar-designated wetland, supports over 100 waterbird species, including internationally significant populations of black-faced spoonbills (Platalea minor) and Chinese egrets (Egretta eulophotes), which rely on the area's reedbeds and tidal flats for foraging during winter migrations. These ecosystems provide essential services like sediment trapping and nutrient cycling, though they remain vulnerable to typhoon-induced storm surges and gradual sea-level rise observed at rates of 2–3 mm per year in the Yellow Sea region.[59][60] Intensive rice cultivation and sloping terrain amplify soil erosion during episodic heavy rains, with typhoons—such as those landing in the southwest—frequently causing localized landslides and farmland degradation, as evidenced by events damaging thousands of hectares in recent decades. Historical deforestation peaked during the late Joseon era due to agricultural expansion and fuelwood demands, reducing forest cover to under 20% nationally by the mid-20th century; subsequent government-led reforestation since the 1950s has restored coverage to over 60%, though Jeolla's tree cover has seen net losses of 7–12% since 2000 from urban development and selective logging, underscoring ongoing sustainability pressures.[61][62][63][64]Natural Resources and Biodiversity
Jeolla Province possesses limited terrestrial mineral resources, primarily gold deposits exploited through operations such as the Eunsan and Gasa-do mines in South Jeolla Province, which contributed to national gold production in recent years.[65] Anthracite coal reserves exist but have declined significantly nationwide since the mid-20th century due to depletion and shifts to imported fuels, with Jeolla's contributions minimal compared to historical peaks.[66] Other minerals like zinc and tungsten are present in South Korea but not prominently documented in Jeolla-specific geological surveys, reflecting the province's overall scarcity of economically viable metallic ores. Granite and other building stones are quarried locally for construction, though extraction volumes remain modest relative to national aggregates.[67] Marine resources dominate, with Jeolla's extensive coastline and archipelagos supporting key fisheries for species such as squid and anchovy, historically central to the regional economy. Squid catches in South Korean waters, including Jeolla-adjacent seas, plummeted from an annual average of 200,000 tons in the 2000s to 23,000 tons by 2023, driven by overfishing, overcapacity in fleets, and rising sea temperatures altering migration patterns. Anchovy production has similarly declined, contributing to a 11.6% drop in overall marine fishing output in 2024, as documented in national statistics reflecting sustained pressure since the 1990s.[68] FAO assessments attribute these trends to chronic overexploitation, with Korean fisheries production falling from a 1986 peak of 3.1 million tons to under 2 million tons by the early 2000s, exacerbating stock depletion in coastal zones like those off Jeolla.[69] Biodiversity in Jeolla is characterized by coastal and island ecosystems, with the Dadohaehaesang National Park encompassing over 1,700 islands and serving as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve focused on marine conservation.[70] The province hosts approximately 686 vascular plant species across 117 families, supporting diverse habitats from wetlands to tidal flats, though habitat fragmentation from agriculture and urbanization poses ongoing risks. Protected areas harbor endangered taxa, including otters and certain orchids, alongside marine fauna like minke whales, but populations of key species remain vulnerable to fishing pressures and climate-induced changes.[71] Efforts to mitigate declines, such as reintroduction programs, face challenges from these anthropogenic factors, underscoring the need for evidence-based management over unsubstantiated optimism.Administrative Divisions
Historical Administrative Evolution
During the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1897), Jeolla-do was established as one of the eight provinces (do) in 1413, governing the southwestern Korean Peninsula with administrative centers including Jeonju-bu as a key district.[20] The province's boundaries remained stable for nearly five centuries, subdivided into bu (districts) and gun (counties) for local governance.[72] In 1895, the Gabo Reforms abolished the eight-province system, replacing it with 23 bu across Korea; Jeolla-do's territory was reorganized into districts such as Jeonju-bu.[1] This 23-bu system lasted briefly until 1896, when provinces were restored as a 13-province framework, splitting Jeolla-do into Jeollabuk-do (North Jeolla-do) and Jeollanam-do (South Jeolla-do) to enhance administrative efficiency.[1][73] Following Korea's liberation in 1945, the Republic of Korea retained the North and South Jeolla divisions, with the peninsula's administrative structure comprising 15 do, including these, plus bu and gun.[20] Minor boundary adjustments occurred in subsequent decades, such as transfers of counties like Geumsan-gun from Jeollabuk-do to neighboring provinces.[74] In 1986, Gwangju separated from Jeollanam-do as a Directly Governed City (Jikhalsi).[75] It was elevated to metropolitan city (Gwangyeoksi) status in 1995, removing it from provincial jurisdiction and establishing direct central oversight.[75] Today, Jeollabuk-do comprises 6 si (cities) and 8 gun (counties), while Jeollanam-do includes 5 si and 17 gun, reflecting ongoing refinements in si/gun configurations for local administration.[74]Modern Provincial Structure
Jeollabuk-do, redesignated as Jeonbuk Special Self-Governing Province on January 18, 2024, constitutes North Jeolla Province with enhanced autonomy under special legislation to promote regional development.[76] [77] Its capital is Jeonju, and the province encompasses Gunsan, a key port city facilitating maritime trade and logistics.[20] The population was recorded at 1,732,439 residents as of April 2025.[78] Jeollanam-do forms South Jeolla Province, with its provincial government headquartered in Muan County since the relocation in 2005 to centralize administration.[79] The province includes prominent coastal cities such as Mokpo, a southwestern port serving as a gateway to offshore islands, alongside Yeosu and Suncheon as larger urban centers.[79] [80] It administers 5 cities and 17 counties, incorporating extensive island territories including those accessible via Mokpo's ferry routes.[81] Population estimates place it at approximately 1,851,124 as of late 2020, reflecting ongoing rural depopulation trends.[1]Economy
Agriculture and Fisheries
Jeolla Province dominates South Korea's rice production, with South Jeolla Province alone yielding 709,000 metric tons in 2024, the highest among all regions.[82] Combined output from North and South Jeolla accounts for roughly 40% of national rice totals, supported by fertile plains and extensive paddy fields developed through historical land reforms and modern irrigation. The region also leads in barley cultivation, contributing to national increases such as the 30.1% rise to 92,000 tons in 2025 driven by expanded acreage and favorable yields.[83] Garlic production remains significant, bolstered by intensive farming in areas like Goheung County since the 1960s, though national leaders like Gyeongsangnam-do hold the largest share at 31.6% or 98,000 tons in 2025.[84][85] Agricultural productivity surged following the Green Revolution in the 1970s, when high-yield rice varieties like Tongil-type and increased fertilizer use, combined with the Saemaul Undong rural modernization campaign, achieved rice self-sufficiency by 1977.[86] Mechanization accelerated in the 1990s, with widespread adoption of tractors, harvesters, and irrigation systems reducing labor intensity and boosting per-hectare outputs across Jeolla's flatlands. However, challenges persist, including an aging farmer population—over half of South Korean farmers exceed 65 years old as of 2024—and declining rural youth engagement, exacerbating labor shortages.[87][88] Fisheries form a cornerstone of Jeolla's economy, leveraging its extensive coastline and mudflats for aquaculture, which contributes substantially to national seafood output—approximately 20% overall, with South Jeolla dominating seaweed production at 78% of the country's total in 2023. Coastal areas support capture and farming of species like octopus, with resource management efforts including the release of 50,000 juvenile octopuses into South Jeolla waters in October 2025 to sustain stocks amid overfishing pressures.[89] Aquaculture has grown to comprise 62% of Korea's seafood production by 2024, driven by government subsidies for sustainable practices, though vulnerabilities to climate variability and marine pollution pose ongoing risks.[90]Industry, Energy, and Infrastructure
Jeollanam-do's industrial base centers on petrochemicals, with the Yeosu National Industrial Complex—established in 1967 and formalized in 1979—serving as Korea's primary hub for production, contributing significantly to national output through facilities processing naphtha and other feedstocks.[91][92] Adjacent Gwangyang hosts POSCO's steelworks, the world's largest single-facility crude steel producer with annual capacity exceeding 21 million tons as of recent expansions.[93] Shipbuilding and marine logistics thrive in southwestern coastal zones, including Mokpo and Yeosu, where yards support vessel construction and offshore industry diversification amid global demand for specialized ships.[94][1] In Jeollabuk-do, manufacturing emphasizes machinery, automotive parts, and electronics, with clusters in Gunsan and Iksan producing components for vehicles and communication equipment; the Gunsan National Industrial Complex has pursued smart manufacturing upgrades since 2022 to boost efficiency in metalworking and assembly.[95][96] These sectors rely increasingly on migrant labor, as South Jeolla's foreign resident population surpassed 61,000 in 2024—more than double the 2013 figure—primarily filling roles in manufacturing and fisheries amid domestic shortages.[97] Energy development prioritizes renewables, with Jeollanam-do leveraging coastal winds and solar potential for green industry growth; provincial initiatives align with national goals of 20% renewable power by 2030, including offshore wind auctions targeting sites off Yeosu and other bays.[1][98] Petrochemical restructuring, prompted by global oversupply, involves capacity cuts of up to 25% in facilities like Yeosu as of 2025, shifting focus toward sustainable feedstocks.[99][100] Key infrastructure includes the Saemangeum Seawall, completed in 2010 after 19 years of construction spanning 33.9 km between Gunsan and Buan in Jeollabuk-do—the world's longest artificial embankment—designed to reclaim 40,100 hectares for industrial and agricultural use, though sluice gate operations have altered tidal flows, reducing phytoplankton biomass and estuarine biodiversity per post-construction monitoring.[101][102][103] High-speed rail via the Jeolla and Honam KTX lines, operational since 2010 and 2015 respectively, links provincial hubs like Gwangju, Jeonju, and Mokpo to Seoul in under two hours at speeds up to 300 km/h, facilitating industrial logistics and commuting.[104]Tourism and Emerging Sectors
Jeolla Province's tourism sector leverages its natural landscapes and cultural assets, drawing domestic and international visitors to sites such as the Boseong Green Tea Fields in South Jeolla, which feature terraced plantations established in 1957 and renowned for their scenic appeal, attracting tea enthusiasts and photographers year-round.[105] The Suncheon Bay Wetland Reserve, encompassing expansive tidal flats and reed beds designated as a Ramsar wetland site, saw visitor numbers surge to approximately 2 million in 2023, reflecting post-pandemic recovery and its role as a key ecological draw.[106] These attractions contribute to provincial tourism revenue, though specific economic impact data remains limited compared to national figures, where South Korea recorded 16.37 million foreign visitors in 2024.[107] The 2025 Namdo International Culinary Expo, held from October 1 to 26 in Mokpo, South Jeolla, highlighted the region's marine and fermented food traditions, drawing participants from ASEAN nations and promoting cultural tourism through exhibits on local products like seafood and kimchi variants.[108][109] This event aligns with broader efforts to position Jeolla as a hub for experiential travel, emphasizing UNESCO-recognized sites like Suncheon Bay, which gained biosphere reserve status for the surrounding city in 2018.[110] Emerging sectors in Jeolla focus on sustainable development, with South Jeolla Province advancing low-carbon initiatives, including a supported naphtha cracking project aimed at reducing emissions in petrochemical processes.[111] The province is also prioritizing renewable energy through solar and wind developments, targeting semi-permanent eco-energy production to support industrial clusters.[112] Additionally, agricultural innovation emphasizes low-carbon and regenerative organic farming, integrating marine resources for resilient practices amid national carbon neutrality goals.[113]Demographics
Population Distribution and Trends
The combined population of North Jeolla Province (Jeollabuk-do) and South Jeolla Province (Jeollanam-do) has hovered around 3.7 million in the early 2020s, with North Jeolla recording approximately 1.8 million residents in 2023 and South Jeolla a similar figure, reflecting a gradual decline from 2020 census levels of about 1.80 million for North Jeolla.[114][115] Population density averages lower than the national figure, at roughly 220 persons per square kilometer in North Jeolla, but concentrates heavily in urban centers such as Jeonju (the provincial capital, with over 650,000 residents as of 2023) and southern hubs like Mokpo and Yeosu in South Jeolla, where metropolitan densities exceed 1,000 persons per square kilometer.[116] Rural inland areas exhibit sparse distribution, while coastal zones sustain modestly higher rural populations tied to fisheries and agriculture, mitigating complete depopulation in those locales.[117] Demographic trends indicate ongoing decline driven by net out-migration of younger cohorts to the Seoul metropolitan area for employment opportunities, compounded by sub-replacement fertility rates below 1.0 in most districts, though South Jeolla recorded a regional total fertility rate of 1.03 in 2024.[118][119] Projections from Statistics Korea forecast further shrinkage, with Jeolla provinces losing up to 10-15% of their populations by 2052 amid national patterns of rural exodus, as economic incentives favor urban industrialization over provincial agriculture and fishing.[115] This migration economics dynamic exacerbates an urban-rural divide, where cities like Jeonju absorb intra-provincial inflows but fail to offset inter-regional outflows to the capital.[117] Jeolla exemplifies South Korea's super-aged society, with over 25% of residents aged 65 or older as of December 2024—North Jeolla at 25.23% and South Jeolla at a national-high 27.18%—far surpassing the overall proportion of 20% and signaling intensified pressures on rural pension systems and healthcare from youth outmigration.[120] The elderly skew is pronounced in rural counties, where low in-migration and birth rates accelerate population aging, contrasting with slightly younger profiles in urban metros; median ages in South Jeolla districts are projected to reach 64.7 by 2052, underscoring the need for targeted retention policies to counter economic hollowing.[121][115]Migration, Ethnicity, and Social Composition
Following the Korean War, rural areas in Jeolla Province experienced substantial internal out-migration as residents sought employment in rapidly industrializing urban centers like Seoul and Busan, contributing to net population losses in the region during the 1960s and 1970s.[118] This trend accelerated with South Korea's urbanization drive, where inter-provincial migration data indicate consistent outflows from agricultural provinces including North and South Jeolla to metropolitan areas through the 1980s.[122] By the 2000s, net migration rates in Jeollanam-do and Jeollabuk-do had sharply declined due to ongoing depopulation, exacerbating aging demographics and labor shortages in local sectors.[118] In contrast, inflows of foreign workers have risen markedly to address these gaps, particularly in labor-intensive industries. South Jeolla Province's foreign resident population more than doubled from 26,697 in 2013 to over 61,000 in 2024, with the majority comprising non-professional migrants from Southeast Asian countries such as Vietnam and Thailand employed in agriculture and fisheries.[97] North Jeolla Province similarly hosts around 42,366 foreign residents as of recent census data, representing approximately 2.3% of its total population and primarily consisting of seasonal and contract workers in comparable rural occupations.[123] These increases reflect broader national policies facilitating temporary foreign labor, though integration challenges persist as 88% of such workers express intent to remain long-term despite regional settlement preferences.[97] Ethnically, Jeolla Province maintains high homogeneity, with over 99% of residents identifying as ethnic Koreans, mirroring South Korea's overall demographic profile and featuring negligible indigenous or pre-modern ethnic remnants following centuries of assimilation.[124] The small foreign presence introduces limited diversity, concentrated among migrant laborers rather than permanent settlers or multicultural families, with no significant non-Korean ethnic enclaves documented in the region.[97] Social composition metrics highlight a predominantly native-born population, with foreign nationals accounting for under 3% across both North and South Jeolla, underscoring minimal ethnic diversification amid ongoing internal outflows.[123][125]Culture
Language, Dialect, and Literature
The Jeolla dialect, part of the broader Honam dialect group spoken in southwestern Korea, features a slower tempo and melodic intonation with pronounced rises and falls in pitch, distinguishing it from the flatter Seoul standard.[126][127] This sing-songy quality arises from regional phonetic patterns, including elongated vowels and unique vocabulary items not prevalent in central dialects, such as specific terms for local flora, fauna, and daily expressions rooted in agrarian life.[128] Philological analyses highlight these traits as adaptations to the area's topography and historical isolation, preserving archaic Korean elements amid national standardization efforts post-1945.[129] Pansori, an epic narrative singing tradition originating in the Jeolla region around the late 17th century, embodies the province's oral literary heritage through improvised storytelling drawn from historical tales, folklore, and moral allegories.[130] Performed by a solo singer (sorigun) with drum accompaniment (gosu), it integrates poetic diction, emotional vocal techniques, and dialect-inflected delivery, often lasting hours and reflecting Jeolla's shamanistic and rural influences.[131] Designated as Korea's National Intangible Cultural Heritage No. 5 in 1964 and inscribed on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2003, pansori's texts—such as "Chunhyangga" set in Namwon, North Jeolla—preserve regional idioms and narrative structures that influenced later Korean prose and drama.[132] Jeolla's literary output includes contributions to sijo, a three-line poetic form that gained prominence during the Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), with regional poets adapting it to local themes of nature and ethics amid the 15th–17th century flourishing.[133] Though sijo emerged nationally in the Goryeo-Joseon transition, Jeolla scholars incorporated dialectal rhythms into verses evoking provincial landscapes, as seen in works by figures like Yun Seon-do (1587–1671), whose "Eosa Ga" cycle draws on southwestern motifs despite his broader yangban background.[134] In modern times, authors from Jeolla, such as Shin Kyung-sook (born 1963 near Jeongeup) in novels like "Please Look After Mom" (2009), weave folklore and migration narratives tied to the province's identity, while poets like Kim Sa-i (born 1971) explore labor and rural decay in dialect-infused verse.[135] These works maintain philological ties to pansori's epic style, prioritizing empirical depictions of causal social forces over idealized tropes.Cuisine and Culinary Traditions
Jeolla Province, encompassing North and South Jeolla, is celebrated as the epicenter of Namdo cuisine, a regional style emphasizing fresh, seasonal ingredients sourced from its fertile plains, mountainous herbs, and extensive coastline, resulting in dishes noted for their richness, abundance of banchan (side dishes), and layered flavors often enhanced by fermentation and seasoning.[136][137] Namdo meals typically feature dozens of banchan accompanying rice, soups, and proteins, reflecting a tradition of hospitality and resourcefulness that prioritizes bold, savory profiles over minimalism.[138] This culinary approach leverages the province's agricultural bounty, including vegetables like mustard greens for gat kimchi and wild greens (namul) for herb-infused rice preparations, alongside seafood staples that underscore the region's maritime heritage.[28][139] Signature dishes highlight fermented seafood, such as ganjang gejang (soy sauce-marinated raw crab) and jeotgal (salted fermented seafood), which preserve and intensify oceanic flavors using methods dating back centuries and drawing from the province's fishing grounds around Yeosu and Mokpo.[139] Inland specialties include Naju gomtang (beef bone soup simmered for hours to extract gelatinous broth) and Jeonju bibimbap, a mixed rice bowl with seasoned namul, gochujang (chili paste), and egg, where the gochujang contributes to the spicy-savory notes characteristic of Jeolla kimchi varieties.[140][141] Chueotang (loach soup in hot bean paste), spiced with highland vegetables and peppers from areas like Jirisan, is valued for its purported medicinal properties, including vitality enhancement.[142][143] These preparations often incorporate small whole fish or sea cucumbers, aligning with broader East Asian dietary patterns linked to nutritional density from omega-3s and minerals.[144] Culinary traditions are preserved through markets and festivals that promote empirical aspects of food production and consumption. Seafood markets in Yeosu offer fresh hoe (sliced raw fish) and ganjang gejang, while specialized streets like Naju Gomtang Street and Damyang Noodle Street facilitate daily immersion in these foods.[145][139] The Namdo International Culinary Expo, hosted annually in South Jeolla since 1994, features demonstrations of traditional techniques and tastings that highlight the province's role in Korean gastronomy, with the 2025 edition in Mokpo incorporating global elements alongside local dishes like fermented seafood.[108] Jeonju's UNESCO-recognized gastronomy status, affirmed in 2012, underscores ongoing research into home cooking and fermentation, while events like the Jeonju Bibimbap Festival emphasize the dish's historical evolution and nutritional balance from vegetable-heavy compositions.[146][147] High seafood and vegetable intake in the region supports diets rich in iodine, proteins, and antioxidants, consistent with national surveys showing elevated marine product consumption in coastal areas correlating with markers of metabolic health, though direct causality requires further longitudinal study.[148][149]Performing Arts, Festivals, and Heritage Sites
Pansori, a traditional Korean epic chant performed by a solo singer accompanied by a drummer, originated in the southwest region of Korea, particularly Jeolla Province, during the seventeenth century as an evolution of shamanic narrative songs.[130] This art form gained prominence in Jeolla's southern areas post-mid-Joseon Dynasty, with key narratives like Chunhyangga drawing from local folklore and settings in places such as Namwon, North Jeolla Province.[150] Recognized by UNESCO as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2003, pansori preserves oral storytelling traditions emphasizing vocal technique, gesture, and improvisation, with ongoing transmission through master-apprentice training in Jeolla communities.[130] The Jeonju International Sori Festival, held annually in Jeonju, North Jeolla Province, celebrates pansori alongside regional folk music like pungmul, featuring performances by hereditary artists and attracting over 100,000 attendees in recent editions.[151] Festivals in Jeolla Province highlight both traditional crafts and narratives. The Jeonju Hanji Culture Festival, established in 1997, promotes hanji (mulberry paper) through workshops, exhibitions, and demonstrations of its historical uses in art and daily life, typically spanning five days in October with events like paper-making sessions and lantern displays in Jeonju's historic districts.[152] The Namwon Chunhyang Festival, centered in Namwon, North Jeolla, reenacts stories from the pansori repertoire, including theatrical performances and cultural parades, commemorating the legendary tale of Chunhyang set in the region during the Joseon era.[147] Tangible heritage sites underscore Jeolla's prehistoric and architectural legacy. The Gochang Dolmen Sites in North Jeolla Province, inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 alongside Hwasun in South Jeolla Province, feature over 400 megalithic tombs from the Bronze Age, representing the world's highest density of dolmens with diverse forms like table-style and capstone varieties used for burials around 1000 BCE.[10] Jeonju Hanok Village preserves over 800 traditional wooden houses from the Joseon Dynasty (1392–1910), clustered around sites like Gyeonggijeon Shrine, exemplifying ondol underfloor heating and curved roof designs adapted to the region's climate.[153] Contemporary events link historical figures to regional identity. The 2025 Kim Dae-jung Peace Conference, hosted in Yeongam and Mokpo in South Jeolla Province from September 24–26, featured academic sessions and roundtables on peace initiatives, honoring the legacy of Kim Dae-jung, a native of nearby Haenam County and former president known for his democratic activism rooted in Jeolla's historical context.[154]Politics and Regional Dynamics
Political Affiliations and Electoral Patterns
Jeolla Province has consistently served as a stronghold for the Democratic Party of Korea and its liberal predecessors in presidential elections since democratization in 1987, with vote shares for Democratic candidates frequently exceeding 80% in the region compared to national averages hovering around 40-50%. For instance, across presidential elections from 1992 to 2017, voters in Jeolla demonstrated homogeneous support for Democratic candidates, largely independent of individual ideological or generational differences, reflecting a pattern of entrenched regional loyalty.[155] This dominance stems from a historical pattern of opposition to conservative administrations, particularly those associated with Park Chung-hee and Chun Doo-hwan, whose policies exacerbated regional disparities and perceived neglect of Jeolla in favor of development in other areas.[45] Electoral outcomes in Jeolla exhibit an inverse relationship to those in the Gyeongsang region (Yeongnam), where conservative parties like the People Power Party maintain strongholds with vote shares often mirroring Jeolla's liberal margins but in opposition. In recent polls ahead of the 2025 presidential election, Democratic candidate Lee Jae-myung garnered approximately 80% support in Jeolla, including Gwangju, while the conservative rival received around 4%, underscoring the persistence of this divide post-1987.[45] This regional polarization influences national results, as Jeolla's near-unanimous backing has proven pivotal in tipping close races toward Democratic victories, enabling administrations to pursue policies favoring inter-Korean engagement, such as dialogue initiatives under Kim Dae-jung (1998-2003) and Moon Jae-in (2017-2022).[155] The causal factors underlying these patterns include voter perceptions of conservative regimes' favoritism toward Gyeongsang, fostering a reflexive anti-conservative stance in Jeolla that prioritizes Democratic alignment over policy specifics in electoral choices. While national trends show ideological and generational variances affecting conservative support in Gyeongsang, Jeolla's uniformity suggests regional identity overrides such variables, sustaining high Democratic turnout and margins even in off-year legislative contests.[155] This dynamic has shaped broader political strategies, with Democratic nominees often courting Jeolla as a reliable base while conservatives face structural barriers there.[45]Regionalism, Historical Grievances, and Controversies
The roots of regionalism between Honam (Jeolla Province) and Yeongnam (Gyeongsang Provinces) trace to ancient rivalries during the Three Kingdoms period (c. 57 BCE–668 CE), with Baekje dominating the southwestern Jeolla area and Silla controlling the southeastern Gyeongsang region, fostering enduring cultural and identity-based animosities that persisted into later dynasties like Joseon, where clan-based factions often aligned regionally despite ideological pretenses.[156] These divides were exacerbated in the 20th century by authoritarian regimes; Park Chung-hee (from Gyeongsang, president 1963–1979) prioritized industrial development in his home region, such as establishing POSCO steelworks in Pohang on December 1, 1968, while allocating fewer resources to Jeolla, leading to perceptions of systematic neglect.[157] Similarly, Chun Doo-hwan (also from Gyeongsang, president 1980–1988) authorized the violent suppression of the Gwangju Democratization Movement from May 18–27, 1980, resulting in an estimated 200–600 civilian deaths by paratroopers, which crystallized Jeolla's resentment and entrenched anti-dictatorship opposition, as documented in post-event analyses linking the massacre to heightened regional solidarity against perceived Gyeongsang favoritism.[158] Empirical spatial econometric studies of elections, such as the 2017 presidential vote across 229 regions, confirm that these historical grievances manifest in bloc voting, where regional loyalty overrides policy merit, hindering national resource allocation based on economic efficiency.[159] ![Jeolla Province in Late Joseon]float-right Pork-barrel politics has reinforced the divide through presidential favoritism; conservative leaders from Gyeongsang directed disproportionate infrastructure spending to Yeongnam, with data from 1960s–1980s showing over 60% of major industrial projects concentrated there, while liberal presidents like Kim Dae-jung (from Jeonju in Jeolla, 1998–2003) countered with Jeolla-centric initiatives, critics arguing this perpetuated clientelism over merit.[160] A prime controversy is the Saemangeum Seawall project, initiated April 27, 1991, in North Jeolla to reclaim 400 km² of tidal flats for agriculture and urban development, touted for creating 28,344 hectares of farmland and boosting GDP by an estimated 1.5% annually through related industries, yet opposed for destroying a UNESCO-recognized Ramsar wetland habitat for migratory birds, with a 2025 Seoul court ruling halting the associated airport on September 12 due to unaddressed bird-strike risks and ecological damage exceeding mitigation plans.[161][162] Proponents, including local Jeolla officials, view it as compensatory development against historical marginalization, while detractors from environmental groups and national economic analysts decry it as regionally obstructive pork, delaying broader tidal power or eco-tourism benefits and exemplifying how Jeolla's consistent opposition voting—over 90% for Democratic Party candidates in 2022 and 2024 elections—can prioritize local grievances over unified national progress.[163] Conversely, evidence of Gyeongsang bias includes Chun's regime channeling 70% of central grants to Yeongnam during 1980–1987, fostering corruption allegations in both regions via vote-buying schemes.[157] Academic analyses, including decomposition models of voting data, reveal persistent but declining regional animus: while Honam-Yeongnam polarization explained 40–50% of vote variance in 1990s elections, it fell to under 30% by 2016, attributed to urbanization and intergenerational shifts, yet still impedes merit-based policies by enabling partisan logjams, as seen in Jeolla lawmakers' resistance to non-local mega-projects.[164][165] In the 2024 National Assembly elections on April 10, Jeolla delivered near-unanimous Democratic Party seats amid national polarization, prompting cross-party calls—such as from President Yoon Suk-yeol's administration before its December 2024 crisis—to transcend divides through electoral reforms like larger districts to dilute bloc effects, though skeptics note entrenched grievances sustain mutual distrust, with surveys showing 25–30% of Koreans still endorsing regional stereotypes.[166][167] Balanced critiques highlight that while Jeolla's opposition role has advanced democratization post-1987, it risks national disunity by vetoing conservative-led unification or defense policies, just as Gyeongsang's conservatism has been accused of authoritarian nostalgia; causal evidence from pork distribution models underscores how both fuel inefficiency, with regional GDP gaps persisting despite equalization efforts.[160]References
- https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Mokpo