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Merlangius
Merlangius
Merlangius
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Merlangius merlangus
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Gadiformes
Family: Gadidae
Genus: Merlangius
Garsault, 1764
Species:
M. merlangus
Binomial name
Merlangius merlangus
Synonyms
  • Gadus merlangus Linnaeus, 1758
  • Odontogadus merlangus (Linnaeus, 1758)
  • Merlangus vulgaris Fleming, 1828
  • Gadus euxinus Nordmann, 1840
  • Merlangus linnei Malm, 1877

Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as whiting or merling, is an important food fish in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean and the northern Mediterranean, western Baltic, and Black Sea. In Anglophonic countries outside the whiting's natural range, the name "whiting" has been applied to various other species of fish.

Description

[edit]

Merlangius merlangus has three dorsal fins with a total of 30 to 40 soft rays and two anal fins with 30 to 35 soft rays. The body is long and the head small and a chin barbel, if present, is very small. This fish can reach a maximum length of about 70 centimetres (27+1⁄2 inches). The colour may be yellowish-brown, greenish or dark blue, the flanks yellowish grey or white and the belly silvery. There is a distinctive black blotch near the base of each pectoral fin.[2]

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

Whiting are native to the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. Their range extends from the southeastern Barents Sea and Iceland to Scandinavia, the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, Portugal, the Black Sea, the Aegean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and parts of the Mediterranean Sea. They occur on sand, mud and gravel seabeds at depths down to about 100 metres (300 feet; 50 fathoms).[2]

In 2014, their conservation status was classified at vulnerable in the Baltic Sea.[3]

Human use

[edit]

Until the late 20th century, whiting was a cheap fish, regarded as food for the poor or for pets. Whiting can be damaged in the industrial trawling and gutting process, losing the sheen of its scales or damaging the delicate flesh; angling outside of spawning season is preferable to preserve these features.[4][5]

In France, fried whiting (merlan) is traditionally served with its tail in its mouth on a bed of fried parsley, called merlan en colère, or 'angry whiting'. French wigmakers were called merlan due to the flouring of whiting resembling the powdering of wigs.[5]

The other fish that have been given the name whiting are mostly also edible fish. Several species of the drum, or croaker, family (Sciaenidae) are also called whiting, among them the northern kingfish (Menticirrhus saxatilis).[citation needed]

Parasites

[edit]

Whiting and related other Gadidae species are plagued by parasites. These include the cod worm (Lernaeocera branchialis), a copepod crustacean that clings to the gills of the fish and metamorphoses into a plump, sinusoidal, wormlike body, with a coiled mass of egg strings at the rear.

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Merlangius

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Merlangius is a monotypic genus of marine ray-finned fishes belonging to the cod family Gadidae, within the order Gadiformes, and is represented solely by the species Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as the whiting or merling. This species, originally described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, features an elongate body with a small head, a pointed snout, and typically lacks a chin barbel, exhibiting a coloration that ranges from yellowish-brown or greenish on the back to silvery on the belly. Native to the Northeast , Merlangius merlangus inhabits benthopelagic zones at depths of 10 to 200 meters, most commonly between 30 and 100 meters, over substrates of mud, gravel, sand, or rock, and can tolerate brackish waters. Its distribution spans from the in the north to in the south, including the , , , , and , though it is rare in the northwestern Mediterranean, with a latitudinal range of approximately 72°N to 35°N and longitudinal range of 27°W to 42°E. The fish is oceanodromous, meaning it undertakes migrations within the , and juveniles often associate with for protection. Ecologically, Merlangius merlangus is an oviparous species that spawns in batches, reaching sexual maturity at around 28–30 cm in length, with a maximum reported length of 91.5 cm total length (TL), weight of 3.1 kg, and lifespan up to 20 years. Its diet consists primarily of benthic and pelagic invertebrates and small fishes, including shrimps, crabs, mollusks, polychaetes, cephalopods, and minor fish species. As a commercially significant species, it supports extensive fisheries across its range, where it is harvested for fresh, dried, salted, smoked, or frozen consumption, and is also targeted as a gamefish and occasionally kept in public aquaria; the IUCN assesses it as Least Concern due to its wide distribution and stable populations.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Classification

Merlangius is classified within the kingdom Animalia, Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Gadiformes, and family Gadidae. The genus Merlangius was established by François Alexandre Pierre de Garsault in 1764. Within the Gadidae family, it is positioned alongside related genera such as () and Melanogrammus (), reflecting shared gadiform characteristics like elongate bodies and gadoid fins. The is monotypic, containing only the single recognized Merlangius merlangus, which was originally described by in 1758 as Gadus merlangus. Historically, taxonomic revisions have separated it from the Gadus due to morphological distinctions, such as differences in barbel presence and fin ray counts, elevating Merlangius to its current status following reclassification by in 1817.

Etymology and synonyms

The genus name Merlangius derives from the French word "merlan," referring to the whiting fish, a common name reflecting its culinary and commercial significance in European waters. This etymological root underscores the species' longstanding recognition in vernacular nomenclature, with the genus itself first established by François Alexandre Pierre de Garsault in 1764. The species was originally described by in 1758 as Gadus merlangus in his , placing it initially within the cod genus . Over time, taxonomic revisions elevated it to the monotypic Merlangius, with the accepted binomial Merlangius merlangus reflecting its distinct morphological traits within the family. Historical synonyms include Gadus merlangus (Linnaeus, 1758), Odontogadus merlangus (Linnaeus, 1758), and Merlangus vulgaris (Fleming, 1828), all now considered junior synonyms under modern nomenclature. The form, previously recognized as the Merlangius merlangus euxinus (based on Gadus euxinus Nordmann, 1840), has been synonymized with the nominate due to insufficient genetic and morphological differentiation. In regional contexts, Merlangius merlangus is commonly known as whiting or merling in English-speaking areas, with "merlan" in French and equivalents like "Wittling" in German. It is occasionally confused with hakes (), but distinguished by its gadid affiliation and smaller size.

Physical description

Morphology

Merlangius merlangus possesses an elongated, body with a circular cross-section, adapted for streamlined in marine environments. The head is small and features a more or less straight dorsal profile, with a pointed and relatively large eyes positioned for enhanced visibility in low-light conditions. The mouth is terminal and slightly oblique, equipped with small, numerous, and sharp teeth arranged in both jaws to facilitate prey capture. A small chin barbel is present on the lower jaw, though it is often tiny or absent in adults. The is single and uninterrupted, running along the body and curving upward toward the head to detect vibrations. The fins exhibit a characteristic gadoid configuration, with three dorsal fins separated by small gaps: the first is short and spineless, while the total soft rays across all three number 30-40. Two anal fins are present, each spineless with a combined 30-35 soft rays, and the pelvic fins are thoracic in position, originating before the first . Pectoral fins are positioned low on the sides, contributing to maneuverability. The body is covered in scales, which are smooth-edged and elasmoid, providing flexibility without comb-like projections. Internally, M. merlangus follows the standard gadoid , featuring a that functions in control through gas regulation. This organ, typical of physoclistous fishes in the family, allows the species to maintain at various depths.

Size, growth, and coloration

Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as whiting, attains a maximum total length of 91.5 cm, though individuals commonly range from 23.5 to 70 cm in length, with a maximum reported weight of 3.1 kg. Growth in whiting is relatively rapid during early years; the species typically attains sexual maturity at 28-30 cm in length, and has a maximum lifespan of up to 20 years. Females exhibit slight sexual dimorphism by growing faster and reaching larger sizes than males at maturity. The coloration of whiting is variable, featuring a dorsal surface that is yellowish-brown, greenish, or dark , with flanks that are yellowish-grey to white and a silvery belly; a small dark blotch is often present at the base of the pectoral fin. Juveniles tend to display a paler, more silvery overall appearance compared to adults.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as whiting, is primarily distributed across the northeastern , ranging from the southeastern (approximately 72°N) southward to (around 35°N), with a longitudinal extent from about 27°W off to 42°E in the region. This range encompasses key areas such as the , , , , and , where the species is abundant. The distribution extends eastward into semi-enclosed basins including the , , , and adjacent coastal waters of the northern Mediterranean. Occurrences are rare in the northwestern Mediterranean, limited to occasional vagrants. Within this broad range, distinct subpopulations or have been identified, particularly in the and , where genetic and demographic differences suggest limited mixing between northern and southern groups separated by features like the . The Adriatic population exhibits unique traits, such as faster growth rates compared to Atlantic and other Mediterranean , indicating regional isolation. These subpopulations contribute to dynamics, influencing local management. Historically, M. merlangus has been native to the eastern North Atlantic without established transatlantic populations, though its range has shown responses to environmental changes. warming has influenced distribution patterns, with no pronounced latitudinal shifts observed but evidence of longitudinal adjustments in the due to rising temperatures.

Habitat preferences

Merlangius merlangus is a benthopelagic that inhabits depths ranging from 10 to 200 meters, though it is most commonly encountered between 30 and 100 meters, where it stays close to the seafloor. This distribution reflects its preference for temperate marine and brackish waters, with typical salinities of 30 to 35 parts per thousand in oceanic environments and lower levels in transitional zones like the . Water temperatures in its preferred habitats generally span 5 to 16°C, supporting its cold-temperate . The species associates with a variety of seabed substrates, including muddy, gravelly, sandy, and rocky bottoms, which provide suitable conditions for its demersal lifestyle. It shows a particular affinity for soft sediments, where it forages effectively on benthic prey, and is less common in areas of high hydrodynamic energy. Juveniles occupy shallower coastal nursery areas, typically at depths of 0 to 50 meters, which offer shelter and abundant resources for early growth, while adults shift to more offshore, deeper waters beyond the first year. This resilience, combined with its association with soft sediments, facilitates efficient and survival across its depth gradient without requiring strong currents for distribution.

Life history

Reproduction and development

Merlangius merlangus is oviparous and functions as a batch spawner, with females releasing multiple batches of pelagic eggs over the spawning period. Each female produces 100,000 to 500,000 eggs per season, depending on body size, which contributes to high reproductive potential in this gadoid species. Spawning typically occurs during winter and spring, from January to June in the and , in offshore waters at depths of 50 to 100 m, with southern populations exhibiting earlier peaks. This process is triggered by rising water temperatures above 3°C and favorable salinities around 25‰. is attained at approximately 28.2 cm total length (TL), usually between 1 and 2 years of age, with increasing proportionally with size to support population replenishment. Eggs, measuring 0.97 to 1.32 mm in , hatch after 10 to 20 days, releasing planktonic larvae that remain in the for 1 to 2 months. These larvae feed initially on nauplii and later on larger before settling to the at approximately 8 cm (5-9 cm depending on region), where they undergo into the juvenile form, developing a small chin barbel that later disappears at maturity. Variations exist among populations, with southern groups exhibiting earlier spawning peaks compared to northern ones, reflecting latitudinal differences in environmental cues.

Diet and feeding

Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as whiting, exhibits an opportunistic feeding strategy as a benthic forager, primarily targeting prey on or near the seafloor while occasionally venturing into the water column. Stomach content analyses reveal that its diet consists mainly of benthic invertebrates, including shrimps (such as ), crabs, polychaetes, and mollusks, alongside small fish, with cephalopods playing a minor role. Crustaceans and fish together account for at least 85% of the diet by weight across all size classes, though the exact composition varies by region and prey availability. Ontogenetic shifts in diet are pronounced, with juveniles (under 20 cm) predominantly consuming , small crustaceans like copepods and mysids, and polychaetes, reflecting their association with shallower, coastal habitats. As whiting mature, they become more piscivorous, incorporating greater proportions of small bony fishes such as gobies, clupeids (e.g., and ), and sandeels, while the reliance on diminishes. This transition supports their rapid growth, with energy intake from higher-trophic-level prey enabling faster somatic development in adults. Prey items are typically selected opportunistically, with sizes up to approximately one-third to half the predator's , as indicated by regressions of prey against predator size. Feeding activity peaks at night, aligning with diel patterns observed in stomach fullness, which facilitates foraging in low-light conditions over sandy or muddy substrates. Seasonal variations in diet are evident from stomach content studies; for instance, fish prey like clupeiforms become more prominent in winter due to increased abundances, while crustaceans dominate in other seasons depending on local dynamics. Overall, whiting occupies a mid-level trophic position, with an estimated trophic level of about 4.0–4.4, positioning it as an important predator in coastal food webs that links benthic and pelagic communities.

Behavior and ecology

Migration and social behavior

Merlangius merlangus exhibits oceanodromous migration patterns, with juveniles settling in coastal nursery areas such as estuaries and shallow bays before dispersing to offshore waters after approximately their first year of life. Adults display seasonal inshore-offshore movements, often shifting toward shallower coastal zones in winter for foraging on abundant prey like and moving offshore during spring for spawning aggregations. These migrations are influenced by environmental factors, including prey availability and water temperature gradients across the northeast Atlantic shelf. Whiting form loose schools, which facilitates efficient and reduces predation risk in open waters. Juveniles often associate with drifting , using the gelatinous structures as temporary shelters to evade predators while maintaining mobility in coastal currents. This schooling behavior lacks rigid hierarchies or territoriality, allowing flexible group dynamics that adapt to local conditions without defended ranges. Daily activity patterns in M. merlangus vary by habitat and life stage; pelagic individuals engage in nocturnal feeding, targeting sandeels and other mobile prey under cover of darkness, while demersal adults rest on the during the day and feed diurnally on benthic organisms. Seasonal behaviors align with tidal and current regimes, with fish responding to flood tides for enhanced prey dispersion and ebb tides for repositioning in nursery grounds. During spawning periods, loose aggregations form temporarily in offshore areas, driven by pheromonal cues rather than fixed social bonds. Sensory adaptations support these behaviors, with the system enabling precise coordination during schooling by detecting hydrodynamic signals from nearby individuals. Olfaction plays a key role in prey detection, allowing whiting to locate food sources like crustaceans from distances in turbid coastal environments.

Predators and parasites

Merlangius merlangus, commonly known as whiting, serves as prey for several larger marine predators across its range in the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean. Larger gadoid fishes, such as (Gadus morhua) and (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), frequently consume juvenile and smaller adult whiting, with young whiting comprising a notable portion of their diets in regions like the and . Anglerfish (Lophius piscatorius) also prey on juvenile whiting, contributing to higher mortality rates among smaller size classes. Seabirds, including species like the (Uria aalge), incorporate whiting into their diets, particularly during periods of abundance in coastal and shelf waters. Marine mammals, notably harbour seals (Phoca vitulina), consume significant quantities of whiting, with this gadoid representing up to 25% of their diet in some populations; harp seals (Pagophilus groenlandicus) have similarly been documented feeding heavily on whiting during strandings. Juveniles are particularly susceptible to predation, including by larger invertebrates in nursery habitats, though specific interactions remain less quantified for this species. Whiting are host to a variety of parasites, including ectoparasites and that affect their health and survival. The Lernaeocera branchialis, known as the cod worm, is a prominent ectoparasite attaching to the gills of whiting, where it induces respiratory distress by damaging gill tissues and impairing oxygen uptake. This infestation leads to significant reductions in host body weight (up to 20-30% loss) and liver lipid reserves (over 50% decrease), weakening the and increasing vulnerability to secondary infections. Endoparasites include nematodes such as Anisakis simplex, which encyst in the liver and viscera, eliciting inflammatory responses and potential tissue damage; trematodes like Cryptocotyle lingua form metacercariae in the skin, fins, and muscles, causing visible black spots and host encapsulation reactions. Parasite prevalence in whiting populations can reach up to 80% for L. branchialis in first-year classes, with overall rates for nematodes and trematodes varying from 20-50% across stocks, influencing growth rates and mortality. These parasites contribute to elevated host mortality, particularly in heavily infected individuals, and can alter by reducing condition and . Predation by larger fishes and mammals helps regulate whiting , maintaining balance within predator-prey networks that dampen recruitment variability and prevent overabundance. Host-parasite dynamics are exacerbated in dense schools, where transmission rates increase due to proximity, leading to higher infection intensities; regional variations are evident, with elevated parasite loads in enclosed basins like the compared to open Atlantic waters, attributed to differences in , , and intermediate host availability.

Conservation and management

Population status

Merlangius merlangus is classified as Least Concern on the , with the assessment conducted in 2013 and no significant changes reported through 2025, indicating overall stability across its North Atlantic core range. Regionally, populations exhibit variation; in the , the species is assessed as Vulnerable by HELCOM, a status that persists due to ongoing environmental pressures, while stocks in the are considered healthy and not overfished. In contrast, southern stocks are depleted, with spawning stock biomass below sustainable levels. Abundance metrics from ICES surveys highlight recruitment variability, with spawning stock biomass estimated at approximately 374,000 tonnes in 2024, reflecting a gradual increase from 346,000 tonnes in 2022. Historically, North Atlantic populations experienced declines in the and due to , followed by recovery in the linked to implemented quotas, resulting in stabilized or increasing trends in core areas by the 2020s. Monitoring occurs through annual ICES stock assessments, primarily utilizing virtual population analysis (VPA) models integrated with survey data to estimate and .

Threats and fisheries management

The primary threat to Merlangius merlangus populations is , particularly through targeted fisheries in the and , where historical exploitation has led to stock fluctuations. in demersal trawl fisheries exacerbates this pressure, as juvenile whiting are often captured incidentally before reaching maturity, contributing to recruitment overfishing in mixed-species fisheries. degradation from further compounds these risks by disturbing benthic ecosystems essential for spawning and nursery grounds, reducing overall stock resilience. poses an emerging threat, with ocean warming projected to shift suitable habitats northward, potentially disrupting distribution patterns and exacerbating vulnerability in southern ranges. Fisheries management for M. merlangus is guided by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), which provides annual advice based on the (MSY) approach and precautionary principles. For 2025, ICES recommended catches of no more than 188,148 tonnes in the (ICES divisions 7.b–c and 7.e–k) to align with MSY, reflecting updated assessments of stable biomass. The implements these through total allowable catches (TACs) and quotas under the , with 2025 TACs set via Council Regulation (EU) 2025/202 to prevent . A minimum conservation reference size (MCRS) of 27 cm total length applies across most EU waters, prohibiting landings of undersized fish to protect juveniles and support stock rebuilding. Conservation measures include the establishment of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the , such as those under the EU's multiannual management plans, which restrict to aid recovery and replenishment following declines in the 2000s. Post-2000s recovery plans, informed by ICES assessments, have incorporated gear selectivity devices like larger mesh sizes in trawls to reduce and promote sustainable yields. Sustainability efforts emphasize a precautionary approach, with ICES issuing zero-catch advice for depleted areas like the southern Celtic Seas if spawning stock falls below critical limits (Blim). While stocks in the remain stable and above MSY triggers, ongoing monitoring is essential to address potential climate-induced range shifts and ensure long-term viability.

Human uses

Commercial fisheries

Whiting (Merlangius merlangus) is primarily harvested using demersal fishing gear, including otter trawls, beam trawls, gillnets, and longlines, with otter trawls being the dominant method in major fishing grounds such as the and . It is frequently taken as in mixed gadoid fisheries targeting species like (Gadus morhua) and (Melanogrammus aeglefinus), particularly in bottom trawl operations. In the Mediterranean and , additional methods such as cast nets and small hook tools are used to a lesser extent. Annual catches of whiting in the 2020s vary by stock, with ICES advising limits of up to 198,609 tonnes for the North Sea and eastern English Channel stock (Subarea 4 and Division 7.d) in 2026 under maximum sustainable yield approaches. For the southern Celtic Seas and eastern English Channel (divisions 7.b–c and 7.e–k), ICES advises zero catch for 2025 and 2026 under MSY and precautionary considerations. Global FAO capture production data indicate totals of approximately 43,341 tonnes in 2020 and 45,545 tonnes in 2021 (as of latest detailed reporting), though these figures may underrepresent regional volumes due to reporting practices. Major producing countries include the United Kingdom, Denmark, France, and Norway, which account for the bulk of landings from Northeast Atlantic stocks. Whiting plays a significant role in the economic output of whitefish fleets in the and , with its value increasing as a target amid declines in stocks. Landings contribute to the broader groundfish sector, valued at €867 million across the in 2022, though specific whiting values are not isolated in available data. Fishing occurs year-round but peaks in winter, aligning with aggregation patterns in coastal areas. Some stocks, such as those in the demersal fisheries, hold (MSC) certification for sustainable practices. Global trade in whiting focuses on fresh and chilled products exported primarily to EU markets, where it has transitioned from a historically inexpensive fish to a more premium whitefish option. Management quotas influence catch volumes across stocks, as detailed in broader fisheries frameworks.

Culinary and other applications

Whiting (Merlangius merlangus) is prized in culinary preparations for its mild, delicate flavor and firm, white flesh, which holds up well during cooking without becoming mushy. It is commonly fried, baked, broiled, steamed, or smoked, and its flaky texture makes it suitable for incorporation into chowders, fish cakes, or mousses. In the United Kingdom, whiting has long been a traditional choice for fish and chips due to its affordability and subtle taste. Nutritionally, whiting offers a high-protein profile with approximately 18-19 grams of protein per 100 grams, low fat content of about 1 gram per 100 grams, and around 1 gram of omega-3 fatty acids per 100 grams, contributing to its heart-healthy benefits such as reduced triglycerides and blood pressure. The fish provides 80-90 kilocalories per 100 grams, making it a lean option rich in , , and other micronutrients that support and overall wellness. Historically, whiting served as an inexpensive staple in European diets, particularly in coastal regions where it was abundantly caught and used in everyday meals like stews and fried dishes. Over time, its role has evolved from a basic affordable to a more valued ingredient in sustainable cooking, reflecting shifts toward eco-friendly sourcing. Beyond food, whiting is occasionally used as bait for larger predatory fish, such as sharks, due to its small size and availability in fisheries. Aquaculture efforts remain experimental and limited, with research focusing on broodstock spawning and larviculture to assess viability for commercial farming. Production of leather from whiting skin is rare and not commercially significant, though general fish skin tanning techniques could apply in niche applications. Culturally, whiting holds significance in Mediterranean cuisines, where it features in traditional stews like , a dish originating from fishermen's use of mixed catches including this species.

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