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Elyon or El Elyon (Hebrew: אֵל עֶלְיוֹן‎ ʼĒl ʻElyōn), is an epithet that appears in the Hebrew Bible. ʾĒl ʿElyōn is usually rendered in English as "God Most High", and similarly in the Septuagint as ὁ Θεός ὁ ὕψιστος ("God the highest"). The title ʿElyōn is a common topic of scholarly debate, sometimes interpreted as equal to the Abrahamic God, and otherwise theorized as a reference to a separate deity of its own kind, potentially above that of Yahweh.

Outside of biblical context, the term also has mundane uses, such as "upper" (where the ending in both roots is a locative, not superlative or comparative), "top", or "uppermost", referring simply to the position of objects (e.g. applied to a basket in Genesis 40:17 or to a chamber in Ezekiel 42:5).

Hebrew Bible

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ʼĒl ʻElyōn

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The compound name ʼĒl ʻElyōn 'God Most High' occurs in Genesis 14:18–20 as the God whose priest was Melchizedek, king of Salem.[1] The form appears again almost immediately in verse 22, used by Abraham in an oath to the king of Sodom. In this verse the name of God also occurs in apposition to ʼĒl ʻElyōn in the Masoretic Text but is absent in the Samaritan version, in the Septuagint translation, and in Symmachus.[2] Its occurrence here was one foundation of a theory first espoused by Julius Wellhausen that ʼĒl ʻElyōn was an ancient god of Salem (Jerusalem), later equated with God.[citation needed] The only other occurrence of the compound expression is in Psalms 78:35: "And they remembered that God [ʼĒlōhīm] was their rock, and the high God [ʼĒl ʻElyōn] their redeemer." The name is repeated later in the chapter, but with a variation: verse fifty-six says ʼElohim ʻElyōn.

It has been suggested that the reference to "ʼĒl ʻElyōn, maker of heaven and earth" in Genesis 14:19 and 22 reflects a Canaanite background.[2] The phrasing in Genesis resembles a retelling of Canaanite religious traditions in Philo of Byblos's account of Phoenician history, in which ʻElyōn was the progenitor of Ouranos ("Sky") and Gaia ("Earth").[3]

ʽElyōn

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The name ʽElyōn (Most High) standing alone is found in many poetic passages, especially in the Psalms. It appears in Balaam's verse oracle in Numbers 24:16 as a separate name parallel to Ēl. It also appears in Moses' final song in Deuteronomy 32:8 (a much-discussed verse). A translation of the Masoretic text:

When the Most High (ʽElyōn) divided nations,
he separated the sons of man (Ādām);
he set the bounds of the masses
according to the number of the sons of Israel

Many Septuagint manuscripts have angelōn theou (angels of God) in place of "sons of Israel", while a few others have huiōn theou (sons of God). The Dead Sea Scrolls fragment 4QDeutj, however, reads bny ’lwhm, (sons of God, or sons of ’Elohim). The New Revised Standard Version translates this as "he fixed the boundaries ... according to the number of the gods."[4] However, the identification of ʽElyōn in the passage is disputed.

This passage appears to identify ʽElyōn with ’Elohim, but not necessarily with Yahweh. It can be read to mean that ʽElyōn separated mankind into 70 nations according to his 70 sons (the 70 sons of Ēl being mentioned in the Ugaritic texts), each of these sons to be the tutelary deity over one of the 70 nations, one of them being the God of Israel, Yahweh. Alternatively, it may mean that ʽElyōn, having given the other nations to his sons, now takes Israel for himself under the name of the Tetragrammaton. Both interpretations have support,[5] although viewing ʽElyōn as a higher deity than Yahweh may be against most monotheistic standards of modern Abrahamic dogmas.

Michael Heiser argues that separating El and Yahweh is 'internally inconsistent' within the Book of Deuteronomy (e.g. Deuteronomy 4:19–20, Deuteronomy 32:6–7). According to Heiser, it also raises the question on why the Deuteronomists would be so careless to introduce this error, especially a few verses later, and why they didn't quickly remove them as 'intolerant monotheists'.[6]

In Isaiah 14:13–14, ʽElyōn is used in a very mystical context in the passage providing the basis for later speculation on the fall of Satan where the rebellious prince of Babylon is pictured as boasting:

I shall be enthroned in the mount of the council in the farthest north [or farthest Zaphon]
I will ascend above the heights of the clouds;
I will be like the Most High.

In some cases, ʽElyōn is used in reference to Yahweh, such as in Psalm 97:9:

For you, Lord [YHWH],
are Most High [ʽelyōn] over all the earth;
you are raised high over all the gods.

Non-biblical use

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Outside of the Biblical texts, the epithet "Most High" occurs on several occasions.[7]

Sefire I Treaty

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Main article: Sefire steles

The most controversial of these uses outside the Bible is in the earliest of three Aramaic treaty inscriptions found at al-Safirah 16 miles (26 km) southeast of Aleppo.[8]

The "Sefire I" inscription (KAI 222.I.A.8–12; ANET p. 659), which dates to about 750 BCE, lists the major patron deities of each side, all of them in pairs coupled by "and", in each case a male god and the god's spouse when the names are known. Then, after a gap comes ’l wʽlyn

  • This possibly means "’Ēl and ʽElyōn", seemingly also two separate gods, followed by further pairs of deities.
  • It is possible also that these indicate two aspects of the same god.
  • It might be a single divine name. The Ugaritic texts contain divine names like Kothar waḪasis "Skillful-and-Clever", Mot waShar "Death-and-Prince" (or possibly "Death-and-Destruction'), Nikkal-and-Ib, which is in origin the name of the Sumerian goddess Ningal combined with an element of unknown meaning. Therefore, Ēl waʽElyōn might be a single name 'God-and-Highest' identical in meaning with Biblical ʼĒl ʽElyōn, even though this would be unique.

Frank Moore Cross (1973) accepts all three interpretations as possibilities.[9]

Sanchuniathon

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In Eusebius' account of Philo of Byblos (c. 64–141 CE) record of Sanchuniathon's euhemeristic account of the Phoenician deities, Elioun, whom he calls Hypsistos 'the highest' and who is therefore likely ʿElyōn,[10] is quite separate from his Elus/Cronus who is the supreme god Ēl. Sanchuniathon tells only:

In their time is born a certain Elioun called "the Most High," and a female named Beruth, and these dwelt in the neighbourhood of Byblos. And from them is born Epigeius or Autochthon, whom they afterwards called Sky; so that from him they named the element above us Sky because of the excellence of its beauty. And he has a sister born of the aforesaid parents, who was called Earth, and from her, he says, because of her beauty, they called the earth by the same name. And their father, the Most High, died in an encounter with wild beasts, and was deified, and his children offered to him libations and sacrifices.

According to Sanchuniathon it is from Sky and Earth that Ēl and various other deities are born, though ancient texts refer to Ēl as creator of heaven and earth. The Hittite theogony knows of a primal god named Alalu who fathered Sky (and possibly Earth) and who was overthrown by his son Sky, who was in turn overthrown by his son Kumarbi. A similar tradition seems to be at the basis of Sanchuniathon's account.[11]

As to Beruth who is here ʿElyōn's wife, a relationship with Hebrew bərīt 'covenant' or with the city of Beirut have both been suggested.[citation needed]

Hasmonean dynasty

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The Mishnah recounts that Hasmonean rulers used to identify themselves as "High Priest of El Elyon": "When the Hasmonean kingdom became strong and defeated the Greeks, they instituted that people should mention the name of Heaven even in their legal documents. And therefore they would write: In year such and such of Yoḥanan the High Priest of the God Most High."[12] Scholars have observed that the Hasmoneans used Melchizedek's example of monarch-priest to justify occupying both offices.[13][14][15]

See also

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References

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Elyon

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Elyon (Hebrew: עֶלְיוֹן, ʿElyōn) is an ancient Semitic term meaning "Most High" or "Highest," employed in the as a divine , most notably in the compound form El Elyon, denoting "God Most High" and emphasizing the supreme sovereignty of the God of Israel over heaven and earth. This title first appears in Genesis 14:18–20, where Melchizedek, the priest-king of Salem, blesses Abram (later Abraham) by El Elyon, describing God as the "possessor of heaven and earth" and to whom Abram attributes his victory in battle. The name recurs throughout the Old Testament, including in Psalms (e.g., Psalm 7:10, 57:2, 78:35) and Isaiah (e.g., Isaiah 14:14), appearing in total around 28 times, often to underscore God's exalted position above all other powers and beings. In , El Elyon highlights God's preeminence, majesty, and dominion, portraying the as the ultimate authority. It is invoked in contexts of , , and spiritual conflict, such as Lucifer's aspiration to ascend above the stars and be like the Most High (Isaiah 14:14). Scholarly analysis situates Elyon within ancient Near Eastern religious traditions, where "El" refers to a chief Canaanite god, and debates persist over whether El Elyon originally denoted a distinct high before merging with in Israelite , as suggested by texts like Deuteronomy 32:8–9 and Psalm 82 depicting a . These discussions draw on comparative studies of and biblical texts, illustrating the evolution of Israelite conceptions of from polytheistic influences toward exclusive .

Etymology and Meaning

Linguistic Origins

The term "Elyon" (עֶלְיוֹן, ʿelyôn) derives from the Proto-Semitic root *ʿly, signifying "to ascend" or "to be high/exalted," with cognates across including Ugaritic ʿlyn (meaning "higher" or "most high"), Akkadian elû (to ascend) and elēnu (upper), and ʿalā (to ascend or be high). In Hebrew, it stems directly from the verb ʿālâ (עָלָה), "to go up" or "ascend," functioning as a participial denoting elevation in both literal and figurative senses. In mundane Hebrew usage, ʿelyôn describes physical or spatial superiority, such as the "upper basket" in a dream narrative (Genesis 40:17) or the "upper gate" of the temple constructed during a king's (2 Kings 15:35). Morphologically, ʿelyôn represents a superlative form derived from ʿālâ, emphasizing the utmost height or preeminence, and occasionally linked in scholarly analysis to emphatic constructions with ʿelôhîm () to denote divine supremacy; it occurs 53 times in the , predominantly as a divine rather than a common adjective. The historical development of ʿelyôn suggests pre-Israelite Canaanite roots, where it likely originated as a for a high or supreme deity, as evidenced by its appearance in as ʿlyn or related forms denoting exalted status. This evolution reflects broader Semitic linguistic patterns associating elevation with authority, though in Hebrew it adapts primarily to monotheistic contexts without altering its core adjectival structure.

Theological Implications

In ancient Israelite , the term Elyon, often rendered as "Most High," symbolizes divine elevation and underscores God's absolute over creation, the nations, and subordinate , portraying the as transcendent and unrivaled in . This representation emphasizes Elyon's position as the supreme arbiter who exercises dominion beyond earthly realms, as exemplified in :18, where the psalmist declares that the Lord alone is "Most High over all the earth," affirming monotheistic exclusivity amid potential polytheistic influences. Early biblical texts exhibit henotheistic undertones with Elyon depicted as overseeing a of lesser gods, who are assigned portions of humanity, marking a transitional phase from broader Near Eastern toward strict . In Deuteronomy 32:8-9, Elyon divides the nations according to the number of divine sons, allotting specifically to , which illustrates the high god's role in establishing cosmic order while integrating Yahweh as the chosen patron of the covenant people. This evolution reflects a theological refinement where Elyon's overarching supremacy reinforces Yahweh's unique identity, culminating in full by the exilic and post-exilic periods. Elyon further connotes associations with divine justice and kingship, positioning as the ultimate who apportions inheritances among peoples and as the eternal sovereign patron of sacred spaces like . Deuteronomy 32:8-9 portrays this judicial function through Elyon's equitable division of nations, ensuring balanced governance under divine oversight, while Psalm 48:2 elevates as "the city of the ," symbolizing 's privileged status under Elyon's protective kingship and reinforcing themes of divine favor and stability. The enduring theological weight of Elyon extends into later Jewish , where it serves as an attribute of God's incomparability, invoked to evoke transcendence and universal lordship. In the , the central prayer recited thrice daily, worshippers address God as El Elyon ("God Most High"), drawing from Genesis 14:19-22 to affirm divine creatorship of heaven and earth, thereby perpetuating Elyon's symbolism of supremacy in communal worship and personal devotion.

Biblical Usage

El Elyon in Genesis

In Genesis 14:18-22, the compound name El Elyon appears prominently in the narrative of Abraham's encounter with following the battle of the Valley of Siddim. After Abraham defeats a of four eastern kings who had captured his nephew Lot during the conflict involving five rebellious kings of the Dead Sea region, including those of , the king of Sodom offers Abraham the spoils of war. At this juncture, , identified as the king of Salem and a priest of El Elyon, emerges to bless Abraham with and wine, invoking El Elyon as the "possessor of and " (qoneh shamayim va-ʾareṣ). This blessing attributes Abraham's victory to El Elyon, and Abraham responds by swearing an oath by the same deity, refusing the goods from the king of Sodom to avoid any claim on his possessions. The historical setting of this episode situates El Elyon within the Canaanite context of Salem, widely identified by scholars as an early reference to , linking the to pre-Israelite alliances in the patriarchal era. Melchizedek's dual role as priest-king underscores El Elyon's association with royal and cultic authority in the region, as Abraham tithes a tenth of the spoils to him, affirming a covenantal bond. The name El Elyon is used four times in the passage (verses 18, 19, 20, and 22), emphasizing its centrality to the interaction and portraying the as the supreme creator sovereign over cosmic domains. Textual variants in ancient translations highlight interpretive nuances, particularly in Abraham's oath. The renders El Elyon as ho theos ho hypsistos ("God the Most High"), maintaining the epithet's emphasis on exaltation while preserving the narrative's theological intent. This rendering influences later understandings, such as in the implications for Abraham's refusal of the king's goods, which some scholars link to avoiding entanglement with local pagan influences. In the , the oath explicitly ties El Elyon to the who delivered Abraham's enemies into his hand, reinforcing divine intervention in the battle's aftermath. Interpretively, this introduces El Elyon into the Abrahamic tradition as a name for the patriarchal , potentially reflecting a where local Canaanite high god concepts merge with emerging Israelite . Scholars note that the identification of El Elyon with occurs within the text itself, as Abraham's acceptance equates the deity with his own of deliverance, facilitating the integration of regional theologies into the covenant narrative. This episode thus serves as a theological bridge, portraying El Elyon as the universal creator who endorses Abraham's mission without supplanting the personal divine name.

Standalone Elyon in Other Texts

In oracles and prophetic texts, the term Elyon appears standalone in Balaam's fourth oracle in Numbers 24:16, where the non-Israelite seer describes himself as one who "hears the words of " and "knows the knowledge of the Most High (Elyon), who sees the vision of the Almighty, falling down with eyes uncovered." This usage portrays Elyon as the supreme source of transcendent knowledge and vision, accessible even to outsiders compelled by divine will. The term also appears in , emphasizing 's exalted and eternal nature. In :14, it describes Lucifer's (the king's of ) hubristic desire to "ascend above the heights of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High," highlighting the folly of challenging Elyon's supremacy. Similarly, Isaiah 57:15 portrays as the "One who is high and lifted up, who inhabits eternity," associating Elyon with divine holiness and mercy toward the contrite. A prominent instance occurs in Deuteronomy 32:8-9, part of the , which depicts Elyon apportioning the nations at their division: "When the Most High (Elyon) gave to the nations their , when he divided the sons of man, he fixed the borders of the peoples according to the number of the ()." Here, Elyon acts as the sovereign divider of humanity, assigning nations to divine beings while reserving portion as his own , emphasizing themes of universal oversight and Israel's special . Textual variants highlight interpretive challenges: the (MT) reads "sons of Israel," likely a later scribal alteration to eliminate polytheistic undertones, whereas the Dead Sea Scrolls (e.g., 4QDeut^j) and (LXX) preserve "sons of God" or "angels of God," aligning with ancient Near Eastern motifs of a . Scholarly consensus favors the "sons of God" reading as original, reflecting Elyon's role in establishing cosmic order before Yahweh's claim on . In the Psalms, Elyon frequently serves as a poetic title invoking divine supremacy, often in contexts of praise and contrast with earthly or lesser powers. For instance, Psalm 9:2 declares trust in the "Most High (Elyon)," while Psalm 97:9 proclaims, "For you, O LORD, are Most High (Elyon) over all the earth; you are exalted far above all gods," underscoring Elyon's universal rule transcending all creation. Similarly, Psalm 47:2 hails God as "the Most High (Elyon) over the earth, greatly exalted," and Psalm 92:1 calls for praise to the "Most High (Elyon)" who performs great things. These usages highlight Elyon's exalted status, with the heavens as his exclusive domain (as echoed in Psalm 115:16: "The heavens are the LORD's heavens, but the earth he has given to the children of man"). Psalm 82 exemplifies Elyon's judicial authority in a divine council setting: "God has taken his place in the ; in the midst of the gods he holds judgment... I said, 'You are gods, sons of the Most High (Elyon), all of you; nevertheless, like men you shall die.'" Elyon here presides over subordinate divine beings (), condemning their injustice and asserting sole sovereignty, a theme tied to the cosmic motif in Deuteronomy 32:9. No major textual variants disrupt this portrayal, though interpretations debate whether the elohim are literal deities or human judges; evidence from parallels and biblical parallels favors divine entities under Elyon's rule. Other , such as 73:11 (questioning if Elyon sees) and 83:18 (Elyon as the sole possessor of the earth), reinforce patterns of universal dominion and contrast with futile human or divine pretensions. Overall, these poetic applications frame Elyon as the incomparable sovereign, whose of and possession of the affirm Yahweh's preeminence.

Extrabiblical Attestations

In Ancient Near Eastern Inscriptions

One of the earliest extrabiblical attestations of a term akin to Elyon appears in Ugaritic texts from the late Bronze Age, dated to the 14th–13th century BCE, where ʿl (El) functions as the head of the pantheon in the Baal Cycle. This portrayal depicts El as the supreme, aged creator deity presiding over a divine council, granting authority to subordinate gods like Baal, and thus providing a conceptual parallel to the "Most High" motif later associated with Elyon in Israelite traditions. A more direct reference to ʿly (Elyon) occurs in the Sefire I Treaty, an Old Aramaic inscription from the mid-8th century BCE discovered near Aleppo (KAI 222.A.7–13). In this bilateral treaty between the kingdom of Arpad and its ally (possibly Bit-Adini), ʿly is invoked alongside other deities as a witness to the covenant, specifically in the phrase "in the presence of ʾl w ʿlyn" within a list that includes cosmic pairs like Heaven and Earth. Scholars debate whether this represents ʿly as a distinct deity separate from El or as a compound epithet "El the Most High," with the waw often interpreted as explicative; some argue for independence based on its listing among other gods, while others view it as an adjectival descriptor emphasizing supremacy. Such invocations in the Sefire treaties highlight Elyon's role as a supreme oath-deity, called upon to enforce diplomatic agreements through divine sanction, reflecting the broader ancient Near Eastern practice of assembling pantheons as guarantors in international relations. Possible allusions to Elyon-like terms also appear in fragmentary Phoenician stelae and Moabite texts from the Iron Age, such as potential epithets in Byblian inscriptions or the Mesha Stele (ca. 840 BCE), though these remain ambiguous due to damage and lack of explicit naming.

In Phoenician and Hellenistic Sources

In the Phoenician theological tradition preserved by and transmitted through of Byblos's Greek paraphrase in the early CE, Elyoun (also spelled Elioun) appears as a primordial titled the "Most High." Alongside his consort Berouth, Elyoun is said to have begotten two offspring named for their exceptional beauty: a son called Ouranos (identified with the sky or heaven) and a daughter Ge (the ). This cosmogonic role establishes Elyoun as the foundational progenitor of the cosmic order, distinct from later figures such as Elus (equated with the Greek ), who inherits and expands dominion after overthrowing Ouranos. These Phoenician accounts, drawing from ancient stelae and oral traditions, retained core Canaanite elements of a supreme high god as creator and begetter of elemental forces, motifs that parallel the biblical portrayal of El Elyon while adapting to Hellenistic interpretive frameworks. Philo's rendition, quoted extensively by in the Praeparatio Evangelica, underscores Elyoun's deification following his death in a mythical with , emphasizing a of the "Most High" independent of anthropomorphic cultic practices associated with Cronus-Elus. This transmission highlights how Phoenician lore served as a bridge between and Greco-Roman mythology, preserving the concept of a transcendent high amid cultural . In the Jewish Hellenistic context of the (2nd–1st centuries BCE), rulers assumed the role of , evoking the ancient authority linked to service of the Most High God through the tradition. Coins minted under Yoḥanan ( I, r. 134–104 BCE) bore inscriptions in Paleo-Hebrew such as "Yehonatan the and the Council of the Jews," positioning Hasmonean leaders as restorers of sacral kingship amid Seleucid oppression. Hellenistic further extended Elyon's influence through the widespread cult of Theos Hypsistos ("God Most High") across the Greco-Roman empire, from Asia Minor to the , where inscriptions on altars and dedications reflect monotheistic tendencies possibly shaped by communities. Epigraphic evidence, such as thiasoi (associations) in and Thessalonica, shows worshippers invoking Hypsistos without images, blending pagan, Jewish, and proto-Christian elements in a henotheistic framework that translated El Elyon into Greek as a universal supreme deity. Scholars identify Jewish influence in the cult's and ethical focus, distinguishing it from polytheistic norms while avoiding full . This adaptation illustrates how Phoenician and biblical conceptions of the "Most High" permeated broader Mediterranean religious landscapes, fostering hybrid expressions of devotion in the Hellenistic era.

Scholarly Perspectives

Canaanite Connections

In the pantheon discovered through the Ras Shamra texts, El functioned as the supreme deity, presiding over the divine assembly as father of the gods and creator of humanity, with s emphasizing his exalted status such as "Bull El" and "Compassionate One." Scholars like Frank Moore Cross have identified (meaning "Most High") as an early specifically denoting El's sovereignty in these Canaanite traditions, where El's role involved allocating cosmic domains and mediating among lesser deities. This portrayal aligns with broader West Semitic religious motifs, positioning El as a benevolent whose authority extended over the pantheon without direct conflict. The cult provides further evidence of Elyon's Canaanite roots, where proposed that Elyon originated as a pre-Israelite high tied to the Jebusite sanctuary at , later integrated into Israelite worship through after the city's conquest around 1000 BCE. This assimilation transformed local Canaanite practices, with Elyon's temple on symbolizing divine kingship and protection over the city. Archaeological and textual analyses support this view, highlighting how such cults blended high veneration with emerging monolatrous elements. Canaanite mythological motifs surrounding Elyon include the division of the and nations among subordinate gods under El's oversight, a concept echoed in descriptions of the where El apportions realms to deities like . This cosmological framework, rooted in Ras Shamra narratives of creation and territorial assignment, underscores Elyon's role as the ultimate arbiter of order and inheritance among the divine family. Archaeological evidence ties these traditions to physical cult sites in , such as the 8th-century BCE inscriptions at in the northern Sinai, which invoke El alongside other high gods in blessings and dedications, indicating syncretic worship practices that honored supreme deities through altars and spaces. These findings reveal a of shared religious expressions, where Elyon-like figures were venerated in communal shrines blending local and broader Near Eastern influences.

Debates on Divine Identity

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, scholars such as argued that El Elyon originated as a Canaanite high god whose cult was adopted by the early , with initially functioning as a subordinate tribal who gradually assimilated El's attributes during the monarchic period. This evolutionary model, rooted in the documentary hypothesis, posited a progression from to , where texts like Genesis 14:18-20 reflect an original distinction before later redaction equated the two figures. Counterarguments emerged prominently in the work of Michael Heiser, who proposed a framework in which Elyon is identical to , presiding over subordinate (divine beings) rather than representing a separate entity. Drawing on readings of Deuteronomy 32:8-9, which describe Elyon dividing nations among the "" and allotting to , Heiser contends this portrays as the head of the council, not a beneficiary, emphasizing textual unity with passages like Deuteronomy 32:6-7 that apply El's epithets directly to . Interpretations of Psalm 82 and further fuel these debates, with some scholars viewing Psalm 82's depiction of standing in the "council of El" as evidence of 's subordination to a higher Elyon, while others, like Heiser, argue the psalm's call for to judge the nations (v. 8) implies his presiding role. Similarly, :13-14's reference to aspiring "like the Most High" () has been linked to rebellion within a divine assembly, supporting monolatrous elements where other exist but lack 's authority. These texts underpin broader discussions on pre-exilic Israelite as monolatrous—exclusive worship of amid acknowledgment of other deities—contrasting with post-exilic that denied their reality. Recent 21st-century scholarship, such as Nissim Amzallag's 2023 analysis, emphasizes between and El Elyon through shared cultic practices like , viewing their convergence as a unified public without implying ongoing . Mark S. Smith's updated works similarly highlight this assimilation as a dynamic process in , where El's attributes enhanced Yahweh's profile among Levantine traditions by the , fostering a monotheistic trajectory.

References

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  6. https://referenceworks.brill.com/display/entries/DDDO/DDDO-Elyon.xml?language=en
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  8. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/yahweh-and-the-origins-of-ancient-israel/yhwh-and-el/FFFA84491BD4F3CD54F4B4F6B94F0E3B
  9. https://www.thetorah.com/article/the-sons-of-israel-or-god-deuteronomy-32-8
  10. https://ajr.edu/parashat-lekh-lekha-5779/
  11. https://www.twu.ca/sites/default/files/256182_pdf_246075_57af479c-6921-11e3-bfd1-ea582e1ba5b1_mcclellan_d.pdf
  12. http://www.scielo.org.za/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1010-99192018000100004
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  20. https://drmsh.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Heiser-Deuteronomy-32-8-and-the-sons-of-God.pdf
  21. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+97%3A9&version=ESV
  22. https://biblehub.com/psalms/97.htm
  23. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+82%3A1%2C6&version=ESV
  24. https://thedivinecouncil.com/Psalm_82_overview.pdf
  25. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm+73%3A11%3B+83%3A18&version=ESV
  26. https://www.academia.edu/98294099/The_Ugaritic_Baal_Cycle
  27. https://www.academia.edu/44458724/Baal_Son_of_Dagan_In_Search_of_Baal_s_Double_Paternity_JAOS_133_2013_651_657
  28. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110798432-004
  29. https://archive.org/details/aramaicinscripti0000fitz
  30. https://www.degruyterbrill.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110798432-004/html
  31. https://www.philipharland.com/Blog/2024/05/phoenician-perspectives-philo-of-byblos-second-century-ce/
  32. https://archive.org/details/p1evangelicaepra03euse/page/10/mode/2up
  33. https://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm
  34. https://phoenicia.org/theomythology.html
  35. https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/hasmonean-macabbean-coins
  36. https://www.academia.edu/1462334/The_Cult_of_Theos_Hypsistos_in_Roman_Thessalonica_in_English_
  37. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdfplus/10.1086/463276
  38. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1116&context=studiaantiqua
  39. https://media.sabda.org/alkitab-2/PDF%20Books/Working%20PDF/Cross%20Canaanite%20Myth%20and%20Hebrew%20Epic.pdf
  40. https://thedivinecouncil.com/DT32BibSac.pdf
  41. https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/10/3/211
  42. https://centerprode.com/ojas/ojas0801/coas.ojas.0801.02021b.pdf
  43. https://scholarlycommons.pacific.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1176&context=cop-facarticles
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