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A painting of HMS Anson as a razee

A razee or razée /rəˈziː/[1] is a sailing ship that has been cut down (razeed) to reduce the number of decks. The word is derived from the French vaisseau rasé, meaning a razed (in the sense of shaved down) ship.[2]

Seventeenth century

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Sovereign of the Seas, 1637, by J Payne

During the transition from galleons to more frigate-like warships (1600 – 1650) there was a general awareness that the reduction in topweight afforded by the removal of upperworks made ships better sailers; Rear Admiral Sir William Symonds noted after the launch of Sovereign of the Seas that she was "cut down" and made a safe and fast ship. In 1651 Sovereign of the Seas was again made more manoeuvrable by reducing the number of cannon. Ships were razeed not only by navies but also by pirates – Captain Charles Johnson's A General History of the Pyrates[3] describes George Lowther refitting Gambia Castle in 1721:

They one and all came into measures, knocked down the cabins, made the ship flush fore and aft, prepared black colours, new named her the Delivery, having about 50 hands and 16 guns.

This did not reduce the number of gun decks, but had the effect of making the razee ship much handier, since the forecastle and aftcastle no longer created windage, top weight was reduced, and the ship was made lighter overall.

Eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries

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Royal Navy

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See also: Rating system of the Royal Navy
Razee HMS Indefatigable (right) fights Virginie, 1796, by John Fairburn

In the Royal Navy, the razee operation was typically performed on a smaller two-deck ship of the line, resulting in a large frigate. The rationale for this apparent reduction in gun power was that the smaller ships-of-the-line could no longer be used safely in fleet actions as the overall size and armament of opposing ships increased. The resulting razeed ship was classed as a frigate; it was stronger than the usual run of purpose-built frigates.

In similar fashion, three-decked ships of the line were sometimes razeed, either to become flush-decked (with the quarterdeck and forecastle removed) or cut down to become two-deckers.

HMS Namur (1756) was a 90-gun second rate launched in 1756. She was razeed as a 74-gun third rate in 1805.

Three 64-gun ships were cut down (razeed) in 1794 into 44-gun frigates. The most successful was HMS Indefatigable which was commanded by Sir Edward Pellew.

Towards the close of the Napoleonic Wars, three elderly 74-gun ships were razeed into 58-gun fourth rates (not losing a complete deck, so remaining a two-decker, but having the quarterdeck removed). Two more followed immediately post-war, although the second never completed conversion.

Another eleven more-recent 74s were razeed in 1826-1845, in this case being fully reduced to 50-gun heavy frigates; three others were scheduled for similar conversion, but this was never completed.

French razée warships (Revolutionary War conversions)

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In the French navy, a number of 74-gun two-deckers were similarly razeed into 54-gun ships:

  • Diadème (renamed Brutus in September 1792 and razeed between December 1793 and May 1794)
  • Hercule of 1778 (razeed between February and June 1794, then renamed Hydre in May 1795)
  • Argonaute of 1781 (razeed between December 1793 and March 1794, then renamed Flibustier in June 1794)
  • Illustre of 1781 (razeed between August 1793 and February 1794, renamed Mucius Scevola in January 1794, name shortened to Scevola in February 1794)
  • Brave of 1781 (razeed between April 1793 and January 1794, without change of name)
  • Borée of 1785 (renamed Ça Ira in April 1794, then again Agricola in June 1794 and razeed between April and July 1794)
  • Agamemnon of 1812

United States razee warship

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Late nineteenth century

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USS Cumberland
Before conversion as a frigate...
...and after razeed to a sloop of war.

In the United States Navy, several of the final generation of sailing frigates launched in the 1840s were cut down to become large sloops-of-war. Advances in metallurgy and artillery in the 1850s allowed the casting of guns that fired substantially heavier shot than had previously been in use, as well as exploding shells. Thus, when the decision was made to rearm these frigates with heavier but fewer guns, the reduction in crew size allowed the ships to be razeed. Their sail plan and size made them superb sailers. Although these ships carried a heavier broadside as 20 gun sloops-of-war than they did as 40 gun frigates, they were rerated as nominally smaller sloops-of-war because they mounted fewer guns. Such ships include USS Macedonian and USS Cumberland.

References

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Razee

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from Grokipedia
A razée (also spelled razee) is a type of sailing warship, typically a ship of the line, that has been modified by cutting down its upper deck to reduce height, weight, and windage, thereby increasing speed and maneuverability while retaining substantial firepower on the remaining deck.[1] This conversion transformed larger, slower battleships into powerful frigate-like vessels suitable for independent cruising, scouting, and commerce protection or raiding.[2] The term derives from the French vaisseau rasé, meaning "razed ship," referring to the process of "razing" or removing the upper structure. Razeed ships emerged as a practical naval innovation during the Age of Sail, particularly from the mid-18th century onward, as navies sought to extend the utility of aging vessels amid evolving warfare demands. Both the French Navy and the Royal Navy employed the technique extensively during the French Revolutionary Wars (1792–1802) and Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), repurposing obsolete 64- or 74-gun ships of the line that were outclassed in line-of-battle formations but ideal for conversion into heavy frigates carrying 40–50 guns. The process involved structural reinforcements to maintain stability and strength after deck removal, allowing these ships to outsail standard frigates while overpowering them in combat. In the Royal Navy, razeing became a strategic response to threats like American heavy frigates during the War of 1812, where converted vessels were deployed to intercept and engage superior single-ship opponents, addressing shortages in fast cruisers. Notable British examples include HMS Indefatigable, originally a 64-gun third-rate launched in 1784 and razeed in 1794 to a 44-gun frigate, which served effectively under captains like Sir Edward Pellew in commerce raiding and convoy escort duties.[3] The French Navy also utilized razeés for similar roles, such as the 53-gun Brutus and Scaevola, which participated in Channel operations. These ships proved versatile in blockades, amphibious support, and fleet reconnaissance, though their hybrid nature sometimes limited them in full fleet actions due to reduced armor compared to unmodified ships of the line. The razée's legacy lies in its cost-effective adaptation to wartime needs, influencing naval architecture until the transition to steam and ironclads rendered sail-powered conversions obsolete by the mid-19th century. Despite occasional criticisms of structural vulnerabilities from hasty conversions, razeés enhanced operational flexibility for major powers, contributing to key victories in an era defined by global maritime conflict.

Definition and Etymology

Origin of the Term

The term "razee" originates from the French phrase vaisseau rasé, literally translating to "shaved" or "cut-down ship," where rasé is the past participle of the verb raser, meaning to raze, level, or shave down.[4][5] This etymology reflects the process of reducing a ship's height by removing upper decks, akin to trimming or scraping away excess structure to improve performance. The word entered English naval terminology in the late 18th century, with the earliest documented use appearing in 1794 in a diary entry by Robert Fulke Greville, referring to a modified warship.[6] The adoption of "razee" in English was directly influenced by French naval innovations during the Age of Sail, when such modifications became common to convert obsolete ships of the line into faster, more maneuverable vessels for cruising duties. Early English descriptions of deck reductions, though not always using the exact term "razee," drew from these French practices, with printed accounts in naval literature emerging by the early 19th century to standardize the terminology. Spelling variations persisted, including the French razée (with accents) and the anglicized "razee," which became the dominant form in British and American naval contexts. The concept also spread to other European languages, such as Dutch, where similar modifications were termed verlaagd oorlogsschip (lowered warship), adapting the idea of structural reduction without direct borrowing of the French phrase.[4][7]

Core Concept

A razee is a multi-deck sailing warship, typically a ship of the line, that has been modified by the removal of its upper deck or decks to create a lower-profile vessel with enhanced speed and maneuverability, effectively converting it into a powerful frigate-like ship while preserving much of its original armament.[8] This process, known as razeeing, allowed navies to repurpose aging or undergunned ships of the line that were no longer suitable for fleet actions in the line of battle, transforming them into versatile cruisers capable of independent operations such as commerce raiding and scouting.[9] Unlike purpose-built frigates, which were designed from the outset as single-deck vessels optimized for speed and endurance on long patrols, razeed ships retained the broader, more robust hull form of their original multi-deck construction, providing superior durability and structural strength in close-quarters combat.[8] This inherent sturdiness enabled razeed vessels to carry heavier guns on their main deck than standard frigates, offering greater firepower without the vulnerability of lighter framing, though at the cost of slightly reduced sailing qualities compared to dedicated frigates.[9] In terms of armament, razeed ships typically originated as 64- to 74-gun two-deckers and were reduced to 40- to 58-gun configurations, depending on the extent of the modifications and the navy's rating system; for instance, British examples often mounted 44 to 58 guns after razeeing, positioning them between standard frigates (usually 32-44 guns) and full ships of the line.[8][9] This adaptation proved particularly valuable during conflicts like the War of 1812, where razeed ships bridged the gap in naval capabilities against larger enemy frigates.[9]

Design and Construction

Razing Process

The razing process for converting a sailing ship into a razee entailed a meticulous sequence of structural alterations carried out primarily in royal dockyards by teams of skilled shipwrights. The initial phase focused on the removal of the upper deck planking, quarterdeck, forecastle, and poop deck to lower the vessel's profile and create a flush or spar deck configuration from the former upper gundeck. This demolition required careful disassembly to avoid compromising the underlying hull frames, often involving the extraction of deck beams, waterways, and associated fittings while preserving the lower deck for continued use as the primary armament platform.[10][11] Once the upper works were cleared, reinforcements were essential to restore and enhance hull integrity against the stresses of reduced height and altered weight distribution. Shipwrights installed additional transverse beams and diagonal knees—curved timber supports connecting the deck beams to the hull frames—using seasoned oak for its strength and resistance to warping. These oak-framed elements, secured with iron bolts and treenails, distributed loads more evenly and prevented hogging or sagging in the keel. In some cases, innovative systems like internal diagonal bracing were incorporated to further stiffen the structure. Following these modifications, the exposed lower hull was typically resheathed with copper plating fixed to the underwater planking, providing anti-fouling protection against shipworms and marine growth to maintain the ship's speed and seaworthiness.[12][10] Such conversions demanded specialized tools of the era, including heavy saws, adzes, and mauls for timber work, alongside scaffolding and cradles in the dry dock environment. The process was notably more economical than building a new frigate-equivalent vessel, as it repurposed an existing hull, though it still required substantial labor from expert shipwrights. Durations varied by dockyard resources and ship condition; for instance, the razing of HMS Majestic at Chatham Royal Dockyard, involving the removal of upper decks and addition of reinforcements and copper sheathing, spanned from late 1812 to its completion in March 1813, allowing the ship to sail by the 23rd of that month.[10][13]

Structural Modifications and Performance

The razing of a ship of the line to create a razee primarily involved removing the upper gun deck and associated superstructures, which significantly reduced the vessel's overall height and weight. This modification lowered the center of gravity, enhancing stability and making the ship a steadier gun platform in rough seas compared to its original multi-deck configuration. The reduction in height also decreased windage—the resistance presented to the wind by the upper works—allowing for better sailing qualities and increased speed. Razeed frigates typically achieved top speeds of up to 12-14 knots under favorable conditions, a notable improvement over the slower ships of the line from which they were derived, which often struggled to exceed 8-10 knots. This sleeker profile permitted the main deck to accommodate heavier broadside guns, such as 24-pounders or larger, providing greater firepower without excessively compromising the hull's balance. Conversions from 74-gun ships typically resulted in 44- to 50-gun razees. Despite these advantages, the structural alterations introduced trade-offs. Improper reinforcement during the razing could weaken the hull, increasing the risk of structural failure under strain, particularly if the original framing was not adequately supported. Crew accommodations were diminished due to the loss of upper deck space, limiting berthing and storage, as evidenced by the 19th-century USS Cumberland, where the crew complement dropped from 360 to 227 after conversion.[14] Additionally, the lowered freeboard reduced protection against boarding parties and made the ship more susceptible to swamping in heavy weather. In comparative terms, razeed ships often carried 20-30% more armament than purpose-built frigates of similar dimensions while preserving comparable sailing performance, blending the firepower of a second-rate with frigate-like agility. However, they generally offered less stability than dedicated frigates, with potential vulnerabilities in the unarmored ends of the hull if not addressed.

Historical Development

Seventeenth Century Origins

The earliest documented razee conversion occurred in the English Navy during the mid-seventeenth century, driven by the need to address design flaws in large warships that prioritized grandeur over practicality. Launched in 1637 as a 102-gun first-rate ship of the line, the Sovereign of the Seas suffered from excessive height due to its three full decks, which raised its center of gravity and compromised stability and speed in rough seas and close maneuvers. Between 1657 and 1660, the ship underwent a major refit at Chatham Dockyard, where the upper deck was removed to lower its profile, reducing the armament to 100 guns while preserving much of its firepower on the lower decks. This transformation made the vessel more seaworthy and responsive, allowing it to serve effectively in subsequent conflicts like the Anglo-Dutch Wars.[12] These modifications reflected broader innovations in English shipyards, where naval architects experimented with structural alterations to adapt battleships for versatile roles beyond line-of-battle formations. The razee process emerged as a response to tactical shifts emphasizing cruiser duties—such as scouting, convoy protection, and rapid engagements—where speed and handling outweighed maximum broadside weight. By the late seventeenth century, razee techniques had permeated beyond state navies into private hands, particularly among pirates adapting captured vessels for hit-and-run operations. A notable example, rooted in these naval practices, was the 1721 conversion of the Gambia Castle by English pirate George Lowther. Originally a 16-gun supply ship of the Royal African Company, it was refitted after a mutiny off the West African coast: the crew demolished the quarterdeck cabins, leveled the poop and forecastle to create a flush deck, and mounted additional carriage guns for better sailing performance. This razee enhanced the ship's speed and stability for Atlantic raiding, enabling Lowther's crew to evade patrols while maintaining offensive capability.[15]

Eighteenth Century Applications

During the eighteenth century, naval strategy evolved to address the limitations of older two-decker ships of the line, leading to the practice of razing them into faster, more versatile cruisers suitable for commerce raiding and scouting roles. This shift was particularly evident during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748), where obsolete vessels were modified to extend their service life and enhance operational flexibility in dispersed cruising operations against enemy trade. Key developments included British experiments with razing 60-gun ships into 50-gun fourth rates, which reduced top weight, improved sailing qualities, and allowed these vessels to operate independently without compromising too much firepower for cruiser duties. The French followed with initial trials in the 1750s, converting similar two-deckers into faster escorts to support convoy operations and counter British raiding in colonial waters. These modifications built briefly on seventeenth-century precedents but marked a broader adoption as navies sought cost-effective ways to bolster cruiser forces amid escalating global conflicts. Operationally, razeed ships significantly enhanced convoy protection and privateering efforts, proving their value in actions such as the interception and capture of merchant fleets in the Caribbean, where their speed enabled effective pursuit of raiders while maintaining sufficient armament to deter or engage smaller enemy squadrons. This tactical versatility contributed to the disruption of adversary supply lines and the safeguarding of vital trade routes, influencing naval deployments throughout the century's major wars.

Early Nineteenth Century Conversions

During the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815), the Royal Navy intensified razee conversions of aging 74-gun ships of the line into 50- to 58-gun frigates, marking the peak period for this adaptation to expand cruiser capabilities amid escalating demands for naval superiority. These modifications addressed shortages in fast, heavily armed vessels suitable for extended operations, with a significant wave of 22 conversions completed toward the war's end to support Britain's maritime strategy.[16] The strategic imperative arose from the French Navy's introduction of super-frigates, such as the 40-gun Pallas-class vessels launched from 1807, which outclassed standard British 38-gun frigates in armament and size, posing threats to trade routes and blockades. Razeed ships countered this by leveraging the sturdier construction of third-rate ships of the line, enabling them to carry heavier broadsides—often 24- or 32-pounders—while achieving frigate-like speeds of up to 12 knots for scouting, convoy protection, and commerce raiding duties essential to maintaining the Continental blockade.[16] In the post-war era from 1815 through the 1820s, the Royal Navy sustained this approach with a dedicated program converting elderly 74-gun third-rates into 50-gun large frigates, including 10 such vessels (e.g., Alfred, America, and Barham) completed between 1828 and 1832 for peacetime roles in colonial patrols and imperial enforcement. These adaptations extended the utility of obsolete warships, providing cost-effective cruisers for Britain's far-flung stations without the expense of new construction.[17]

Late Nineteenth Century Adaptations

As naval architecture transitioned from wooden sailing vessels to iron-hulled steamships in the mid-19th century, several frigates underwent razeing to convert them into sloops for extended service in training and auxiliary capacities during the 1840s to 1870s.[12] These modifications lowered the upper deck to improve stability and reduce windage, allowing the ships to accommodate heavier armaments such as Paixhans shell guns, which fired explosive projectiles to exploit vulnerabilities in wooden hulls.[12] The French Navy pioneered the adoption of Paixhans guns in 1841, with Britain, Russia, and the United States following suit by the mid-1840s to enhance broadside firepower on converted vessels.[12] A representative example is the United States Navy's conversion of the 50-gun frigate USS Cumberland into a 24-gun sloop-of-war, completed at the Boston Navy Yard by early 1857; this razee retained its original sail rigging while receiving updated guns compatible with emerging steam-era tactics. Similar adaptations in other navies, such as Britain's experimental lengthening and razeing of older hulls like HMS Penelope in 1843 to integrate steam machinery, underscored efforts to prolong the utility of wooden ships amid the shift to screw propulsion and auxiliary engines.[12] By the 1870s, these razeed sloops primarily supported non-combat roles, including coastal patrols and instruction in seamanship. The decline of razeed designs accelerated in the 1880s as armored ironclads, exemplified by HMS Warrior in 1860, rendered wooden vessels obsolete against rifled guns and explosive shells.[12] Paixhans guns, once revolutionary, proved inadequate against iron armor, as demonstrated in early ironclad engagements like the 1862 Battle of Hampton Roads.[12] Surviving razeed ships lingered in minor colonial duties, such as surveying and transport in remote stations, until most were scrapped by the 1890s.[12] Razeed vessels left a legacy in naval training, where converted frigates served as cadet ships to instill essential skills in sail handling and gunnery before steam fully supplanted sail in fleet operations by the late 19th century.[12] These platforms emphasized practical instruction in rigging and maneuvers, bridging traditional sailing expertise with modern naval requirements.[12]

Notable Examples by Navy

Royal Navy

The Royal Navy's adoption of razee conversions began prominently in 1794, when three 64-gun third-rate ships of the line—HMS Indefatigable, HMS Anson, and HMS Magnanime—were cut down to 44-gun fifth-rate frigates. This initiative, aimed at creating faster vessels for scouting and reconnaissance duties during the French Revolutionary Wars, involved removing the upper gun deck to improve speed and handling while retaining heavy armament on the main deck, primarily 24-pounder long guns. HMS Indefatigable, for instance, served effectively in this role under Captain Sir Edward Pellew from 1795, participating in convoy protection and privateer hunts in the Channel and Atlantic. These razeed frigates proved valuable for their combination of frigate agility and battleship firepower, influencing subsequent naval tactics for independent operations.[18] During the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy continued razee experiments with notable conversions, including the unusual case of HMS Namur. Launched in 1756 as a 90-gun second-rate ship, she was razeed in 1805 at Chatham Dockyard to a 74-gun third-rate, retaining a full two-deck configuration but with reduced height and weight for better seaworthiness in harbor and training roles; this retention of gun numbers distinguished her from typical razeings that significantly lowered armament. Toward the war's end, three elderly 74-gun third-rates—HMS Goliath, HMS Majestic, and HMS Saturn—were converted in 1813 to 58-gun fourth-rates by partial deck removal, including quarterdeck alterations, to serve as powerful cruisers without full frigate reduction. These ships bolstered fleet scouting and blockade enforcement, demonstrating the razee's versatility in extending the service life of obsolete vessels amid resource constraints.[18] In the post-Napoleonic era, a larger-scale razee program from 1826 to 1845 transformed eleven 74-gun third-rates into 50-gun fourth-rate heavy frigates, fully removing the upper deck to create large, sail-powered cruisers suited for extended patrols. Examples include HMS Barham (launched 1811, razeed 1826 at Plymouth) and HMS Dublin (launched 1812, razeed 1826 at Chatham), both equipped with 42-pounder main battery guns for superior firepower against smaller threats. These conversions addressed the need for robust ships in distant stations, particularly for anti-piracy operations in the Mediterranean against Barbary corsairs and in the Indian Ocean suppressing regional piracy; HMS Warspite, razeed in 1840, exemplified this role with patrols off Greece and North Africa from 1841 to 1845. The initiative enhanced the Navy's global presence during peacetime, providing cost-effective heavy escorts until steam propulsion rendered sail raze es obsolete by the 1850s.[19])

French Navy

During the French Revolutionary Wars, the French Navy converted seven 74-gun ships of the line into 54-gun razeed frigates between 1793 and 1795 as an urgent measure to counter British naval blockades and expand its cruiser force. Notable examples include the Diadème, renamed Brutus in September 1792 and razeed at Brest from December 1793 to May 1794, reducing it from three decks to a powerful frigate configuration while preserving much of its original structure.[20] Similarly, the Hercule, launched in 1778 at Rochefort, underwent razing from February to June 1794, emerging as a 54-gun vessel renamed Hydre in May 1795 to continue service.) These conversions were driven by the need for fast, heavily armed cruisers capable of evading blockaders and protecting commerce routes amid the Revolution's disruptions to shipbuilding.[21] The design of these French razeed frigates prioritized the retention of the heavy lower battery of 24-pounder long guns—typically 28 in number—on the main deck, enabling them to deliver broadsides comparable to standard battleships while achieving frigate-like speeds of up to 12 knots under favorable conditions. This configuration supported aggressive line-breaking tactics in the Atlantic, where the ships could exploit their speed to close with enemy lines of battle or disrupt blockading squadrons before disengaging. Upper deck modifications included lighter 8-pounder guns and carronades for close action, but the focus remained on the robust lower armament to maximize punching power against superior British forces.[21] Operationally, these razeed frigates saw deployment in distant theaters to alleviate pressure on metropolitan fleets, including expeditions to the Indian Ocean under squadrons like that of Rear-Admiral Pierre-André de Suffren's successors and actions in the Mediterranean against British and allied naval dominance. For instance, Brutus participated in convoy escorts and reconnaissance in the western Mediterranean in 1795, while others supported Sercey's Indian Ocean squadron in 1796–1797 for commerce protection. Their performance yielded mixed results, with successes in raiding operations offset by vulnerabilities from hasty reinforcements, incomplete crew training, and frequent damage in engagements, such as Hydre's role in defensive actions before its eventual decommissioning.[21]

United States Navy

The United States Navy employed razee conversions primarily in the mid-19th century to adapt aging sailing vessels for extended overseas deployments and to accommodate heavier ordnance, such as Dahlgren shell guns, while improving stability and speed for squadron service.[22] One early example was USS Independence, originally a 74-gun ship-of-the-line launched in 1814, which underwent razee conversion at the Boston Navy Yard in 1836. Cut down by one deck, it emerged as a powerful 54-gun frigate, becoming the fastest and most formidable in the fleet at the time, and served as flagship for the Pacific Squadron during the Mexican-American War, where it blockaded Mexican ports and supported amphibious operations.[22] A notable case linked to War of 1812 captures was USS Macedonian, rebuilt in 1836 from the keel of the captured British 38-gun frigate HMS Macedonian (taken by USS United States in 1812). In 1852, at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, it was razeed from a 36-gun frigate to a 20-gun sloop-of-war to enhance its suitability for long voyages, including Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition to Japan (1852–1854), where it carried diplomatic envoys and demonstrated American naval presence in the Pacific.[23] Similarly, USS Cumberland, a 50-gun frigate launched in 1842, was razeed at the Charlestown Navy Yard from 1855 to 1857 into a 24-gun sloop, allowing it to mount larger Dahlgren guns on its main deck for improved firepower in anti-piracy and squadron duties; it served as flagship of the Home Squadron before the Civil War.[24] During the American Civil War, razeed vessels played key roles in the Union blockade and coastal patrols, leveraging their reduced profiles for better handling in shallow waters and adaptability to heavier artillery. USS Cumberland, stationed with the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron, enforced the blockade off Virginia until March 8, 1862, when it was rammed and sunk by the Confederate ironclad CSS Virginia at Hampton Roads, marking the first combat loss of a U.S. Navy warship to an armored vessel.[24] USS Savannah, razeed in 1857 from a 24-gun frigate to a sloop mounting two 10-inch Dahlgren pivot guns and a 22-gun broadside, joined the Atlantic Blockading Squadron in 1861, capturing Confederate schooners like the E. J. Waterman and assisting in the seizure of blockade runners off Georgia. USS Macedonian, operating with the West Indies Squadron, patrolled the Gulf Coast to deter Confederate privateers, reinforced Pensacola in early 1861, and later hunted raiders like CSS Sumter along European waters, while also serving as a training vessel for midshipmen. These conversions underscored the Navy's pragmatic use of razeeing to extend the utility of wooden sailing ships amid the transition to steam power.[23]
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