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Key Information

The Templo Mayor (English: Main Temple) was the main temple of the Mexica people in their capital city of Tenōchtitlan, which is now Mexico City. Its architectural style belongs to the late Postclassic period of Mesoamerica. The temple was called Huēyi Teōcalli [we:ˈi teoːˈkali][1] in the Nahuatl language. It was dedicated simultaneously to Huitzilopochtli, god of war, and Tlaloc, god of rain and agriculture, each of which had a shrine at the top of the pyramid with separate staircases. The central spire was devoted to Quetzalcoatl in his form as the wind god, Ehecatl.[2] The temple devoted to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, measuring approximately 100 by 80 m (328 by 262 ft) at its base, dominated the Sacred Precinct.[3] Construction of the first temple began sometime after 1325, and it was rebuilt six times. The temple was almost totally destroyed by the Spanish in 1521, and the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built in its place.[4]

The Zócalo, or main plaza of Mexico City today, was developed to the southwest of Templo Mayor, which is located in the block between Seminario and Justo Sierra streets.[5] The site is part of the Historic Center of Mexico City, which was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1987. It received 801,942 visitors in 2017.[6]

Early history

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The first of seven temples built on the Templo Mayor site was built in 1325,[1] and the second temple existed by 1375.[7] In 1454, the largest known expansion of the temple took place under the guidance of Moctezuma I.[8]

The seventh temple was first mentioned by the conquistadors in 1519,[8] and the temple was last altered by the Aztecs in 1520.[7] The conquistadors then sacked and destroyed the building one year later in 1521.[4]

Discovery and excavation

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Disk depicting a dismembered Coyolxauhqui which was found during construction in 1978

After the destruction of Tenōchtitlan, the Templo Mayor, like most of the rest of the city, was disassembled to be used as construction materials to create the Spanish colonial city. The Temple's exact location was forgotten. By the 20th century, scholars had a good idea where to look for it based on archeological work completed at the end of the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries.[9] Leopoldo Batres did some excavation work at the end of the 19th century under the Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral because, at the time, researchers thought the cathedral had been built over the ruins of the temple, though it was later proven to be just southwest of the temple.[4]

In the first decades of the 20th century, Manuel Gamio found part of the southwest corner of the temple, and his findings were put on public display. However, the discovery did not generate great public interest in excavating further as the zone was an upper-class residential area.[5] In 1933, Emilio Cuevas found part of a staircase and beam. In 1948, Hugo Moedano and Elma Estrada Balmori excavated a platform containing serpent heads and offerings. In 1966, Eduardo Contreras and Jorge Angula excavated a chest containing offerings, which had first been explored by Gamio.[4]

The push to fully excavate the site did not come until late in the 20th century. On 21 February 1978, workers for Comisión Federal de Electricidad (CFE), the city's electricity provider, were digging at a place in the city then popularly known as the "island of the dogs" as the area was slightly elevated and stray dogs would gather there during times of flooding. Just over two meters down, the diggers struck a massive pre-Hispanic stone disk of over 3.25 meters (10.7 feet) in diameter, 30 centimeters (11.8 inches) thick, and weighing 8.5 metric tons (8.4 long tons; 9.4 short tons). The relief on the stone was later determined to be Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli's sister, and was dated to the end of the 15th century.[5]

From 1978 to 1982, specialists directed by archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma worked on the project to excavate the Temple.[5] Initial excavations found that many of the artifacts were in good enough condition to study.[10] Efforts coalesced into the Templo Mayor Project, which was authorized by presidential decree.[11]

To complete the excavation, 13 buildings in this area were demolished including 9 built in the 1930s and 4 dating from the 19th century that had preserved colonial elements. During excavations, more than 7,000 objects were found, mostly offerings including effigies; clay pots in the image of Tlaloc; skeletons of turtles, frogs, crocodiles, and fish; snail shells; coral; gold; alabaster; Mixtec figurines; ceramic urns from Veracruz; masks from what is now Guerrero state; copper rattles; and decorated skulls and knives of obsidian and flint. These artifacts are now housed in the Templo Mayor Museum.[5] This museum is the result of the work done since the early 1980s to rescue, preserve, and investigate Templo Mayor, its Sacred Precinct, and all objects associated with it while making these findings available to the public.[11]

Earlier versions

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Scale model of the Templo Mayor of Tenōchtitlan showing the various stages as it was enlarged over time.
The nested remains of successive phases of construction (1999)

The excavated site consists of two parts: 1) the temple itself, exposed and labeled to show its various stages of development, along with some other associated buildings, and 2) the museum, built to house the smaller and more fragile objects.[11]

The process of expanding an Aztec temple was typically completed by new structures being built over earlier ones, using the bulk of the former as a base for the latter. The Aztecs began construction of Templo Mayor sometime after 1325, and the temple was rebuilt six times. All seven stages of the Templo Mayor, except the first, have been excavated and assigned to the reigns of the emperors who were responsible for them.[12]

First Temple

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The first temple is only known through historical records because the high water table of the old lakebed prevents excavation.[12] According to these records, the first pyramid was built with earth and perishable wood, which may not have survived to the present time.[5][9][13]

Second Temple

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The second temple was built during the reigns of Acamapichtli, Huitzilihuitl and Chimalpopoca between 1375 and 1427. The upper part of this temple has been excavated, exposing two stone shrines covered in stucco on the north side. A chacmool was uncovered as well. On the south side, there is a sacrificial stone called a téchcatl and a sculpted face.[4][5][9]

Third Temple

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The third temple was built between 1427 and 1440 during the reign of Itzcoatl. A staircase with eight stone standard-bearers is from this stage bearing the glyph with the year Four-Reed (1431). These standard bearers act as "divine warriors" guarding the access to the upper shrines.[5][9]

Fourth Temple

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The fourth temple was constructed between 1440 and 1481 during the reigns of Moctezuma I and Axayacatl. This stage is considered to have the richest of the architectural decorations as well as sculptures. Most findings from the excavations date from this period. The great platform was decorated with serpents and braziers, some of which are in the form of monkeys and some in the form of Tlaloc. During this time, the stairway to the shrine of Tlaloc was defined by a pair of undulating serpents and the middle of this shrine was a small altar featuring a pair of sculpted frogs. The circular monolith of Coyolxauhqui also dates from this time.[5][9]

Fifth Temple

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The fifth temple (1481–1486) is dated to the short reign of Tizoc. During these five years, the platform was recovered in stucco and the ceremonial plaza was paved.[5]

Sixth Temple

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The sixth temple was built during the reign of Ahuizotl. He finished some of the updates made by Tizoc and added his own, as shown on the carvings of the "commemoration stone of the huei teocalli", depicting the two tlatoqueh celebrating the opening of the temple during the last day of the month Panquetzaliztli dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, day 7 acatl of the year 8 acatl (19 December 1487). The Sacred Precinct was walled off, and this wall was decorated with serpent heads. He built three shrines and the House of the Eagle Warriors.[5]

Seventh Temple

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Model of Templo Mayor. Mexico City Metro Zócalo station.

Very little remains of the Seventh Temple because of the demolitions undertaken to build the cathedral. Only a platform to the north and a section of paving in the courtyard on the south side can still be seen.[5] Most of what is known about this temple is based on the historical record. It was at the time the largest and most important active ceremonial center. Fray Bernardino de Sahagún reported that the Sacred Precinct had 78 buildings with Templo Mayor towering above them all.[13]

The pyramid was composed of four sloped terraces with a passage between each level, topped by a great platform. It had two stairways to access the two shrines on the top platform. Facing the structure, the left shrine was dedicated to the water god Tlaloc while the right shrine was dedicated to the god of the sun and war, Huitzilopochtli. The two temples were approximately 60 meters (200 feet) in height, including the pyramid,[14] and each had large braziers where the sacred fires continuously burned. The entrance to each temple had statues of robust and seated men which supported the standard-bearers and banners of handmade bark paper. Each stairway was defined by balustrades flanking the stairs, terminating in menacing serpent heads at the base. These stairways were used only by the priests and sacrificial people. The entire building was originally covered with stucco and polychrome paint.[5][9][15]

The deities were housed inside the temple, shielded from the outside by curtains. The figure of Huitzilopochtli was modeled from amaranth seeds held together with honey and human blood. Inside of him were bags containing jade, bones, and amulets to give life to the god. This figure was constructed annually, and it was richly dressed and fitted with a mask of gold for his festival held during the Aztec month of Panquetzaliztli. At the end of the festival, the image was broken apart and shared among the populace to be eaten.[9]

In his description of the city, Cortés records that he and the other Spaniards were impressed by the number and magnificence of the temples constructed in Tenōchtitlan, but that was tempered by this disdain for their beliefs and human sacrifice.[10] On 14 November 1519, Cortes seized the emperor Moctezuma II and ordered the destruction of all Aztec religious relics. Cortes ordered a Catholic cross placed on the Templo Mayor.[16] While Cortes left for Veracruz to confront Spaniards looking to arrest him, Pedro de Alvarado learned of a plan to attack the Spaniards and staged a preemptive attack on the Aztecs in the Sacred Precinct while they celebrated a religious festival. Unarmed and trapped within the walls of the Sacred Precinct, an estimated 8,000–10,000 Aztec nobles were killed. When word of the massacre spread throughout the city, the people turned on the Spaniards, killing seven, wounding many, and driving the rest back to their quarters. The Spaniards were trapped between two Aztec forces, and 68 were captured alive. Ten of these Spanish captives were immediately sacrificed at the Temple, and their severed heads were thrown back to the Spaniards. The others were sacrificed at the Great Temple that night, which could be seen from the Spanish camps. The sacrificed Spaniards were flayed, and their faces – with beards attached – were tanned and sent to allied towns, both to solicit assistance and to warn against betraying the Triple Alliance.[17]

After the fall of Tenōchtitlan in 1521, the lands controlled by the Aztecs became part of the Spanish empire. All the temples, including Templo Mayor, were sacked, taking all objects of gold and other precious materials.[4] Cortés, who had ordered the destruction of the existing capital, had a Mediterranean-style city built on the site. Essential elements of the old imperial center, including the Templo Mayor, were buried under similarly key features of the new city in what is now the historical downtown of the Mexico City.[10] The Templo Mayor and Sacred Precinct were demolished and a Spanish church, later the main cathedral, was built on the western half of the precinct.[4]

Orientation

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Fray Toribio de Motolinía, a Spanish friar who arrived to Mexico soon after the invasion, writes in his work Memoriales that the Aztec feast of Tlacaxipehualiztli "took place when the sun stood in the middle of [the Temple of] Huitzilopochtli, which was at the equinox".[18] This statement has become very famous, as it is the only textual reference known so far that explicitly relates a Mesoamerican temple with astronomical observations. The measurements in the Templo Mayor confirmed the veracity of this comment. The orientation of stage II, the earliest of the archaeologically attested construction phases, is different from that adopted by stage III and preserved in all subsequent stages. One of the sunset dates corresponding to the east–west axis of the late stages, including the last, is 4 April, which in the Julian calendar of the 16th century was equivalent to 25 March. In 1519, this was the last day of Tlacaxipehualiztli, that is, precisely the day of the feast of the month. Furthermore, 25 March, the Feast of the Annunciation, was in the Middle Ages commonly identified with the vernal equinox. Consequently, Motolinía did not refer to the astronomical equinox (the date of which would have hardly been known to a non-astronomer at that time), but rather only pointed out the correlation between the day of the Mexica festival, which in the last years before the invasion coincided with the solar phenomenon in the Templo Mayor, and the date in the Christian calendar that corresponded to the traditional day of spring equinox.[19]

Symbolism

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Altar of the toads as symbols of water

According to tradition, the Templo Mayor is located on the exact spot where the god Huitzilopochtli gave the Mexica people his sign that they had reached the promised land: an eagle on a nopal cactus with a snake in its mouth.[9]

The Templo Mayor was partially a symbolic representation of the Hill of Coatepec, where according to Mexica myth, Huitzilopochtli was born.[15] Huitzilopochtli emerged from his mother Coatlicue fully grown and fully armed to battle his sister Coyolxauhqui and her brothers the Centzon Huitznahua who intended to kill him and their mother. Huitzilopochtli was victorious, slaying and dismembering his sister. Her body was then thrown to the bottom of the hill. As the southern half of the Great Temple represented Coatepec (on the side dedicated to Huitzilopochtli), the great stone disk with Coyolxauhqui's dismembered body was found at the foot of this side of the temple. The northern half represented Tonacatepetl, the mountain home of Tlaloc.[12][20]

The sacred ballcourt and skull rack were located at the foot of the stairs of the twin temples, to mimic, like the stone disk, where Huitzilopochtli was said to have placed the goddess' severed head. These locations served as a place for the reenactment of the mythical conflict.[20]

The various levels of the Temple also represent the cosmology of the Aztec world. First of all, it is aligned with the cardinal directions with gates that connect to roads leading in these directions.[12][20] This indicates the place where the plane of the world that humans live in intersects the thirteen levels of the heavens, called Topan and the nine levels of the underworld, called Mictlan.[12]

Archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, in his essay "Symbolism of the Templo Mayor", posits that the orientation of the temple is indicative of the total vision that the Mexica had of the universe (cosmovision). He states that the "principal center, or navel, where the horizontal and vertical planes intersect, that is, the point from which the heavenly or upper plane and the plane of the Underworld begin and the four directions of the universe originate, is the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan."[21] Matos Moctezuma supports his supposition by claiming that the temple acts as an embodiment of a living myth where "all sacred power is concentrated and where all the levels intersect." Said myth is the birth and struggle between Huitzilopochtli and Coyolxauhqui.

Sacred Precinct and surrounding buildings

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Situation of the Templo Mayor (upper centre) in the central district of Tenōchtitlan

The Sacred Precinct of the Templo Mayor was surrounded by a wall called the "coatepantli" (serpent wall). Among the most important buildings were the ballcourt, the Calmecac (area for priests), and the temples dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, Tezcatlipoca and the sun.[22] The Templo Mayor itself delineated the eastern side of the Sacred Precinct.[4]

View of ruins of the "Eagle" building of the Templo Mayor complex. The roof is there to protect the remains of paintings that are inside.
View of Eagle building and building A in the Templo Mayor complex. The ruins of the Great Temple are in the background.
Inside the protected area of the Eagle Building of the Templo Mayor complex in Mexico City. Remnants of the original paint can still be seen.
Close up of bas reliefs of eagle warriors in the Eagle building of the Templo Mayor complex. Some of the original paint can still be seen.

On the sides of the Templo Mayor, archeologists have excavated a number of palatial rooms and conjoining structures. One of the best preserved and most important is the Palace (or House) of the Eagle Warriors. This area dates back to the fourth stage of the temple, around 1469. It was excavated in 1981 and 1982 by José Francisco Hinojosa. It is a large L-shaped room with staircases decorated with sculptures of eagle heads. To enter this main room, one had to pass through an entrance guarded by two large sculpted representations of these warriors. The Eagle Warriors were a privileged class who were dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli, and dressed to look like eagles. Adjoining this palace is the temple for these warriors—also known as the Red Temple. This temple shows clear Teotihuacan influence in its paintings (mostly in red) and the design of its altar. Almost all the interior walls of the House of the Eagles are decorated with beautiful paintings and contain long benches, which are also painted. These benches are composed of two panels. The upper one is a frieze with undulating serpents in bas-relief. The lower panel shows processions of armed warriors converging on a zacatapayolli, a grass ball into which the Mexica stuck bloody lancets during the ritual of autosacrifice. This palace specifically imitates much of the style of the Burnt Palace, located in the ruins of Tula.[23] A number of important artifacts have been found in this area, the most important of which are two nearly identical large ceramic sculptures of Mictlantecuhtl, the god of death. Despite being found in fragile pieces, they were both reconstructed and are on display at the on-site museum.[24][25][26]

Another conjoining area was dedicated to the Ocelot Warriors. Their temple, dedicated to the god Tezcatlipoca, lies under the current Museo de la Secretaría de Hacienda y Crédito Público to the south of the Templo Mayor.[3][4]

The Calmecac was a residence hall for priests and a school for future priests, administrators and politicians, where they studied theology, literature, history and astronomy. Its exact location is on one side of what is now Donceles Street. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl was located to the west of the Templo Mayor. It is said that during the equinox, the sun rose between the shrines dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc and shone directly on this temple. Due to the god's serpentine nature, the temple had a circular base instead of a rectangular one.[3]

The ball field, called the tlachtli or teutlachtli, was similar to many sacred ball fields in Mesoamerica. Games were played barefoot, and players used their hips to move a heavy ball to stone rings. The field was located west of the Templo Mayor, near the twin staircases and oriented east–west. Next to this ball field was the "huey tzompanti" where the skulls of sacrifice victims were kept after being covered in stucco and decorated.[3]

The Temple of the Sun was located west of the Templo Mayor also and its remains lie under the Metropolitan Cathedral. The project to shore up the cathedral at the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st brought to light a number of artifacts.[3]

Offerings

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Stone offering box and contents found at the Templo Mayor.

Most of the objects found in the Templo Mayor were offerings. Although many are of Mexica design, there are also abundant items from other peoples, brought in as tribute or through trade. Sculptures, flint knives, vessels, beads and other sumptuary ornaments—as well as minerals, plants and animals of all types, and the remains of human sacrifice—were among the items deposited in offerings. All of these fulfilled a specific function within the offering, depending on the symbolism of each object. In excavations at the Templo Mayor, different types of offerings have been found and have been grouped by researchers in terms of Time (the period in which the offering was deposited); Space (the location of the offering within the structure); Container (type and dimensions of the receptacle containing the objects); internal distribution (placement of objects within the offering) and value of the items. The offerings were usually contained in cavities, in stone urns, and in boxes made of slabs. These are found under floors; in platforms, architectural bodies, stairways and in temples. These offerings were placed accompanied by complex rituals following set temporal, spatial and symbolic patterns, depending on the intention of the offering.[27]

The oldest Mexica objects, located in the second temple, are two urns which contain the remains of incinerated bones; one of the urns was made of obsidian and the other of alabaster. A small silver mask and a gold bell were found inside one urn, and second gold bell and two green stone beads were placed in the other.[27]

Images of the gods Huehueteotl-Xiuhtecuhtli, together with Tlaloc, presided over most of the offerings found in the Templo Mayor. Representing fire and water respectively, this pair of deities probably symbolized the concept of "burning water," a metaphor for warfare.[27]

Another theme exhibited in this hall is autosacrifice, a ritual that was conducted in private as a personal act of communication with the gods. Widespread throughout the entire population, this practice was performed by perforating certain fleshy parts of the body—such as the earlobes, lips, tongue, chest, calves, et cetera—with obsidian blades, agave needles or bone perforators. Once the implement was covered with blood, it was inserted in straw balls called Zacatapayoli. The entirety was probably placed in ceremonial boxes—tepetlacalli—as an offering to the gods. Objects associated with human sacrifice are the "face blades" or knives decorated with eyes and teeth, as well as skull masks. Other ceremonial items include musical instruments, jewelry, and braziers for the burning of copal.[27]

Museum

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Wall display of stone masks found at the Templo Mayor site on display at the Templo Mayor museum.
Flint blades on display at the museum of the Templo Mayor in Mexico City.

The museum of the Templo Mayor was built in 1987 to house the Templo Mayor Project and its finds—a project which continues work to this day. In 1991, the Urban Archeology Program was incorporated as part of the Templo Mayor Project whose mission is to excavate the oldest area of the city, around the main plaza.[4] The museum building was built by architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, who envisioned a discreet structure that would blend in with the colonial surroundings. The museum has four floors, three of which are for permanent exhibitions and the fourth houses offices for the director, museum administration and research staff. Other departments are located in the basement, where there is also an auditorium.[28]

The museum has eight main exhibition halls, each dedicated to a different theme. Room 1 is dedicated to the goddesses Coatlicue and Coyolxauhqui, mother and sister to Huitzlipochtli, respectively. Here are displayed the first finds associated with the temple, from the first tentative finds in the 19th century to the discovery of the huge stone disk of Coyolxauhqui, which initiated the Templo Mayor Project.

The Nobel Peace Prize Medal awarded to Rigoberta Menchú is safeguarded in the Museo del Templo Mayor in Mexico City.

Room 2 is dedicated to the concepts of ritual and sacrifice in Tenōchtitlan. This room contains urns where dignitaries where interred, funerary offerings, as well as objects associated with self and human sacrifice—such as musical instruments, knives and skulls.

Room 3 demonstrates the economics of the Aztec empire in the form of tribute and trade, with examples of finished products and raw materials from many parts of Mesoamerica. Room 4 is dedicated to the god Huitzilopochtli. His shrine at the temple was the most important and largest. This room contains various images of him as well as offerings. Also located here are the two large ceramic statues of the god Mictlantecuhtli which were found in the House of the Eagle Warriors who were dedicated to Huitzilopochtli.

Room 5 is dedicated to Tlaloc, the other principal deity of the Aztecs and one of the oldest in Mesoamerica. This room contains various images of the god usually worked in green or volcanic stone or in ceramic. The most prized work is a large pot with the god's face in high relief that still preserves much of the original blue paint. Room 6 is dedicated to the flora and fauna of Mesoamerica at this time, as most contained divine aspects for the Aztecs. Also many of the offerings found at the Templo Mayor were or were made from various plants and animals. Related to Room 6, Room 7 contains exhibits of the agricultural technology of the time, especially in the growing of corn and the construction of chinampas, the so-called "floating gardens". The last room is Room 8, which is dedicated to the archeology and history of the site.[4]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Templo Mayor

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
The Templo Mayor, or Great Temple, was the principal religious and political center of the (Aztec) capital , functioning as the that connected the earthly realm to the divine and cosmic orders in Mesoamerican cosmology. Built in seven successive phases starting around 1325 CE and expanding through the , it was a massive twin dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, the sun, and the patron deity, and Tlaloc, the god of rain, fertility, and , symbolizing the duality of tribute-based warfare and agricultural sustenance that defined Aztec imperial ideology. At its base lay the monumental Coyolxauhqui stone relief, depicting the dismembered moon goddess Coyolxauhqui from the myth of Huitzilopochtli's birth and victory, underscoring themes of cosmic battle and renewal. Surrounding the pyramid were key structures integral to Mexica ritual life, including the Tzompantli (a skull rack displaying sacrificial victims' heads), the Casa de las Águilas (eagle warriors' house for elite military training), the Templo de Ehécatl (dedicated to the wind god), a ball court for the ritual , and the Calmecac (a school for nobles emphasizing religious and martial education). The temple complex hosted elaborate ceremonies, particularly the annual renewal of the world through human sacrifices—such as heart extractions for Huitzilopochtli and child offerings for Tlaloc—intended to sustain the gods and ensure cosmic stability, with over 7,000 artifacts recovered from more than 100 dedicatory caches reflecting motifs of water, mountains, the , and . These rituals legitimized the ruling elite's power and integrated peripheral tribute from conquered regions into the empire's sociopolitical fabric. Following the Spanish conquest led by in 1521 CE, the Templo Mayor was systematically dismantled, its stones repurposed to build the atop the site, effectively burying the Aztec sacred center under colonial infrastructure. Rediscovered accidentally in 1978 during electrical works when workers unearthed the Coyolxauhqui monolith, the site initiated one of 's largest archaeological projects under the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH), revealing layered constructions and thousands of offerings that illuminate worldview and imperial dynamics. Today, the ruins form the Zona Arqueológica Templo Mayor, adjacent to the cathedral in Mexico City's historic center, while the adjacent Templo Mayor Museum, opened in 1987, houses key artifacts like sculptures, jewelry, and ceremonial objects, offering insights into pre-Columbian artistry and religion.

Historical Background

Early History

The , a Nahua-speaking people also known as , originated from the mythical homeland of in and began their migration southward around 1250 CE, arriving in the Valley of Mexico by the early after a journey marked by nomadic settlements and conflicts with local groups. Guided by their patron deity Huitzilopochtli, a god of war and the sun, the Mexica sought a prophesied sign to establish a permanent home, wandering through various regions including , the "Place of Seven Caves." In 1325 CE, the founded the city of on a marshy island in , interpreting the vision of an eagle perched on a nopal cactus devouring a serpent as the divine fulfillment of Huitzilopochtli's oracle, which promised prosperity at that location. This site, initially challenging due to its swampy terrain, was selected for its strategic defensibility and symbolic alignment with Mesoamerican cosmology, where water and land intersections represented creation and renewal. Early Mexica religious practices, centered on Huitzilopochtli's cult, emphasized warfare, solar cycles, and sacrificial rituals to ensure cosmic order, influencing the conceptual design of a central temple as a sacred . Politically, the initially formed alliances and paid tribute to dominant powers like Culhuacan and the of , serving as mercenaries while subjugated under these rulers from the mid-14th century. By 1428 CE, under the leadership of , the achieved independence through a pivotal alliance with Texcoco and , defeating in a war that marked the rise of the Triple Alliance and Tenochtitlan's sovereignty. This victory solidified Huitzilopochtli's role as a symbol of prowess, prompting the decision to construct a grand central temple dedicated dually to him and Tlaloc, the rain and agriculture deity, on the island's core to embody the 's dual imperatives of conquest and sustenance. From 1325 to circa 1375 CE, Tenochtitlan's basic infrastructure emerged, including chinampas—artificial islands for intensive agriculture that supported growing populations—and initial causeways linking the island to the mainland, transforming the marshy site into a viable urban center. These developments, alongside rudimentary temples and communal structures, laid the groundwork for the city's expansion, reflecting the Mexica's adaptive engineering rooted in their migratory experiences and religious imperatives.

Discovery and Excavation

Following the Spanish conquest of in 1521, and his forces systematically dismantled the Templo Mayor as part of efforts to eradicate Aztec religious practices and repurpose materials for colonial construction. Stones from the temple were reused in building the , whose construction began in 1573 atop the site's ruins, symbolizing the overlay of Christian architecture on indigenous foundations. This destruction buried much of the temple beneath layers of rubble and urban development, obscuring its location for centuries. In the 19th century, historical accounts drawing from earlier chroniclers like referenced the temple's existence and grandeur, but these inspired only sporadic and unsystematic probes rather than targeted searches. Mexican archaeologists such as Leopoldo Batres conducted minor excavations near the cathedral in the late 1800s, unearthing fragments of Aztec sculptures that hinted at the buried structure, yet the site's precise extent remained unknown amid growing urban expansion. The modern rediscovery occurred on February 21, 1978, when workers from Mexico's Compañía de Luz y Fuerza, excavating at the corner of and streets near the , unearthed the monumental Coyolxauhqui Stone, a massive disk depicting the dismembered moon goddess. This accidental find, located just meters from the cathedral, prompted the National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) to launch the Proyecto Templo Mayor under archaeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma, initiating systematic excavations from March 1978 through 1982. The project employed stratigraphic methods to carefully peel back layered deposits of fill, rubble, and construction phases, revealing the temple's successive builds and allowing identification of its ritual core despite the site's deep burial. Early excavations yielded significant artifacts, including the Coyolxauhqui Stone itself—measuring over 3 meters in diameter and weighing 10 tons—as well as altar stones and initial ritual offerings like ceramic vessels and jade items, confirming the temple's role as a center of worship. However, the work faced substantial challenges from Mexico City's dense urban fabric, where ongoing traffic, buildings, and utilities constrained digging to a limited area, and the high —reaching just 5-10 meters below street level—caused frequent flooding and required constant pumping to prevent collapse of excavation walls. The discoveries carried profound political and cultural weight, temporarily halting nearby urban projects like electrical and metro extensions to prioritize preservation, which sparked nationwide in Aztec heritage and elevated indigenous in Mexico's national narrative. Post-1982, under Leonardo Luján's direction starting in 1991, the project evolved into ongoing research integrating the site with city development, including the 1987 opening of the Templo Mayor Museum and efforts like seismic reinforcements and the site's full reopening in November 2024 to balance tourism, conservation, and urban growth. In 2025, excavations continued to yield new insights, such as analyses of 788 artifacts revealing extensive trade networks from enemy territories and the discovery of a with bells and marine elements; these findings coincided with the 700th anniversary of Tenochtitlan's founding, marked by exhibitions and 3D projections at the .

Construction Phases

First Temple

The construction of the first temple of the Templo Mayor began around 1325 CE, coinciding with the founding of under the leadership of , the leader who guided the migration and settlement on the island in . This initial structure was built on a modest earthen platform using readily available local materials, including (sun-dried mud bricks) for the walls, soil and clay from the lakebed for fill, wood for structural support, and stone for basic foundations, with thatched roofs covering the shrines. The temple marked the 's transition from a nomadic existence to a settled urban society, serving as a foundational symbol of their religious and political identity in the new city. The design followed the basic twin-pyramid form characteristic of Mesoamerican sacred architecture, consisting of a single platform with two shrines at the summit accessed by stairways on the south and north sides. The southern stairway led to the shrine dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, the patron god of war and the sun, while the northern one ascended to the shrine for Tlaloc, the deity of rain and fertility, reflecting the core cosmological duality of fire/war and water/agriculture central to worldview. This layout embodied the act of claiming the island as the sacred center of the world, aligning with the mythic prophecy of an eagle perched on a devouring a serpent. Archaeological evidence from the deepest excavation layers reveals a rudimentary complex with simple altars but no major sculptures, underscoring the temple's modest origins and limited resources at the time. Early rituals included foundational sacrifices, likely of captives or animals, to consecrate the site and ensure divine favor for the burgeoning , tying directly to the 's efforts to legitimize their presence. The integrated closely with the surrounding lacustrine environment, drawing materials via canoe from nearby chinampas (artificial islands used for agriculture) and the lake, which not only facilitated construction but also symbolized the temple's harmony with the watery realm governed by Tlaloc. This first temple endured until approximately 1375 CE, providing stability during the initial decades of Mexica settlement before subsequent enlargements.

Second Temple

The Second Temple phase of the Templo Mayor, initiated around 1375 CE during the reign of , the first of , marked the initial major expansion of the original structure, involving the addition of stone facades over the earlier core to enhance permanence and scale. This rebuilding reflected the growing consolidation of political authority, predating the Triple Alliance's formation in 1428 CE but serving to legitimize rulership through increasingly monumental . The phase introduced more clearly defined twin shrines atop the , dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, with early decorations featuring serpent motifs evocative of the Coatepec myth central to cosmology. Archaeological layers from this period reveal basic dedicatory offerings, including pottery, animal remains, artifacts such as beads, and occasional greenstone items, with no confirmed evidence of human sacrifices. Construction materials shifted toward greater use of local volcanic resources, incorporating tezontle stone as aggregate in lime plasters for facades and coatings, sourced from nearby regions and mixed with limestone from areas like Tula. This adaptation supported the structure's enlargement and laid the foundation for subsequent monumental phases.

Third Temple

The third temple phase of the Templo Mayor, corresponding to construction stage III, took place between 1427 and 1440 CE during the reign of , marking a significant expansion that elevated the structure to an estimated height of 25–30 meters. This phase incorporated stylistic elements inspired by the capital of Tollan (Tula), reflecting alliances with Texcoco, whose rulers claimed descent from heritage and contributed to the Mexica's architectural and cultural emulation to legitimize their rising power. Architectural enhancements included more elaborate stairways flanked by balustrades, with the southern featuring eight monumental sculptures known as standard-bearers, representing divine warriors or deities such as the Centzon Huitznahua—the four hundred stars slain by Huitzilopochtli. These carvings provide the earliest substantial evidence of large-scale stone sculptures depicting deities integrated into the temple's facade, signaling a shift toward more monumental and symbolic artistry. The platform was enlarged to accommodate broader ceremonial spaces, with early adaptations like undulating serpent motifs that foreshadowed the full coatepantli (serpent wall) of later phases. Offerings deposited during this construction layer show an increase in diverse animal remains, such as eagles, jaguars, and marine species, alongside artifacts and other prestige goods, indicative of the expanding economy fueled by conquests. This phase coincided with the formation of the Triple Alliance in 1428 CE between , Texcoco, and , through which used the temple's reconstruction to symbolize imperial dominance and coerce from subjugated cities across the Basin of Mexico. These developments laid the groundwork for even more elaborate designs in subsequent temple phases.

Fourth Temple

The fourth temple phase of the Templo Mayor represented a major renovation initiated around 1440 CE during the reign of Motecuhzoma I (r. 1440–1469 CE), marking a period of artistic maturation and intensified practices as the consolidated their imperial power. This rebuilding elevated the structure to approximately 35 meters in height, incorporating more elaborate sculptural elements that reflected growing sophistication in stonework. A key innovation was the introduction of sculpted friezes adorned with glyphs, which emphasized temporal and cycles central to cosmology. The dual shrines atop the pyramid were more formally distinguished in this phase, with the southern shrine dedicated to Huitzilopochtli painted in red (or ochre) tones to evoke fire and war, and the northern shrine to Tlaloc coated in blue to symbolize water and fertility. This color scheme underscored the binary opposition of the deities, enhancing the temple's role as a nexus of complementary forces. Archaeological excavations have uncovered significant artifacts from this period, including Chacmool sculptures—reclining figures associated with offerings—and early iterations of skull racks (tzompantli) in the vicinity, which served to display sacrificial remains and affirm the temple's function as a site of human sacrifice. This construction phase coincided with profound religious reforms under Motecuhzoma I, who ordered the burning of older pictographic codices to erase competing historical narratives and codify a new imperial that centered the Templo Mayor as the of identity. These reforms, aimed at unifying the elite and legitimizing Aztec dominance, tied the temple's expansion to a revised origin emphasizing Huitzilopochtli's foundational role. Structurally, the fourth temple adopted architecture, borrowed from influences, featuring sloping talud bases supporting rectangular tablero panels to stabilize the pyramid's steep profile against seismic activity and heavy layering.

Fifth Temple

The fifth temple phase of the Templo Mayor, constructed during the reign of (1469–1481 CE), represented a significant rebuilding effort circa 1470 CE, with the pyramid's height approaching 40 meters and featuring expanded platforms to facilitate military processions and large-scale ceremonies. This phase continued the dual dedication to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, but emphasized militaristic elements amid the Mexica's expanding empire. The structure incorporated decorative motifs captured or inspired from conquered and Tarascan regions, such as warrior iconography and regional stylistic elements, underscoring the temple's role as a of imperial dominance and martial prowess. Offerings from this phase mark the first major caches of human remains discovered at the site, consisting of skeletal elements from sacrificial victims likely obtained through Flower Wars—ritual conflicts designed to secure captives for dedication to the gods. These deposits, including skulls and dismembered bodies interred within the temple's foundations, reflected the intensifying scale of tied to wartime successes and religious imperatives. The temple's dedication occurred during a period of conquests, including campaigns into western , alongside environmental challenges such as droughts that tested the empire's resilience, symbolizing the Mexica's determination through architectural grandeur. Construction incorporated reinforcements at the base to counter from the surrounding lakebed, with early archaeological revealing internal chambers possibly used for storage or .

Sixth Temple

The sixth temple phase of the Templo Mayor represented a massive expansion initiated around 1481 CE under (r. 1481–1486 CE) and completed under Ahuizotl (r. 1486–1502 CE), as the reached its territorial zenith through extensive conquests that provided labor and resources for the project. This rebuilding elevated the structure to over 45 meters in height, transforming it into an imposing architectural monument that dominated the sacred precinct of . The southern stairway, dedicated to Huitzilopochtli, featured approximately 114 steps, facilitating grand processions and rituals while emphasizing the temple's role as a symbolic ascent to the divine. Iconic architectural elements defined this phase, including large serpent heads carved in that adorned the enclosing wall of the sacred precinct, evoking the temple's identification as a sacred . Ahuizotl also constructed the House of the Eagle Warriors, featuring eagle sculptures that honored elite military orders integral to imperial expansion. Concurrently, a vast expansion of the —a rack for displaying sacrificial victims—occurred, with the Huei structure dating to this construction phase and underscoring the scale of ritual practices. The temple's inauguration in 1487 CE marked a pivotal ceremonial event, linked to the kindling of a new fire and the sacrifice of war captives from recently subjugated regions. Colonial-era accounts provide varying estimates of victims, ranging from 4,000 as noted in the to 80,400 reported by , though these figures are widely debated due to potential exaggeration in post-conquest narratives. Construction incorporated imported materials such as greenstone for intricate carvings and vibrant feathers for adorning the twin shrines at the summit, reflecting the empire's access to from distant provinces. adaptations, including the use of flexible cores and layered platforms on the lakebed foundation, enhanced resistance to frequent earthquakes in the Valley of . Archaeological excavations of the sixth layer have uncovered a wealth of elite offerings, including artifacts and mosaics that highlight the phase's opulence and significance. These deposits, such as the turquoise mosaic disk from Offering 99 depicting figures, demonstrate the use of precious materials in dedicatory caches. This phase laid the groundwork for the subsequent and final enlargement under .

Seventh Temple

The seventh phase of the Templo Mayor's construction began around 1502 CE during the reign of , coinciding with the in the year 2 Reed (1507 CE), a ritual renewal marking the end of a 52-year cycle. This final rebuilding was intended to elevate the structure to over 60 meters in height, surpassing previous phases, but it remained incomplete at around 50 meters when the Spanish conquest interrupted work in 1521. The project reflected the empire's peak ambition, building upon the cumulative base of earlier temples while incorporating advanced architectural elements, such as double shrines with inner sanctums dedicated to Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc. Unique to this phase were stone reliefs commemorating the , including inscriptions on the de la Guerra Sagrada—a miniature pyramid added by —featuring dates like 2 Reed (1507 CE) alongside references to the temple's founding in 1325 CE. Construction proceeded rapidly amid growing threats from the arriving Spanish forces, which interpreted through omens and prophecies foretelling upheaval and the potential end of the Fifth Sun era. These efforts underscored the ruler's role in maintaining cosmic order, as the temple served as the empire's ritual center during a time of imperial expansion and foreboding signs. Offerings interred during this phase highlighted the Aztec Empire's vast reach, including diverse artifacts acquired through long-distance trade networks spanning and beyond. Geochemical analysis of tools from the site reveals sources from distant regions, such as the Sierra de in central (nearly 90% of artifacts) and exotic imports indicating connections to areas as far as modern-day and potentially further via systems, as confirmed by a 2025 study. Examples include shells, beads, and sculptures from coastal and highland polities, symbolizing alliances and conquests under Moctezuma II's rule. Following the fall of , the seventh temple underwent partial dismantling in 1521, with Spanish forces razing the upper levels to suppress while leaving the core structure buried intact beneath what became Mexico City's metropolitan cathedral. This incomplete state preserved much of the phase's lower elements, later revealed through 20th-century excavations, providing key insights into the Mexica's final architectural and ritual expressions.

Architectural Features

Orientation and Layout

The Templo Mayor was aligned along a principal axis oriented approximately 7° east of , a deviation that integrated the structure with key landscape features such as nearby mountains and adjusted for solar visibility between its twin shrines. The northern side, dedicated to the rain god Tlaloc, featured the higher shrine, while the southern side housed the shrine to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun; this cardinal orientation emphasized the deities' complementary roles in cosmology. The temple's layout consisted of layered, concentric enclosures forming a stepped , with dual stairways converging at the twin summits atop a massive base platform. Over its seven construction phases, the base expanded progressively from smaller dimensions in the earliest phases to approximately 100 by 80 meters in the final stage, accommodating the growing scale of the empire. The temple's expansions were sometimes necessitated by flooding in the lacustrine environment of . Builders used layered earth and stone fills for stability. Broad causeways extended from the base, linking the structure to the surrounding urban grid. At the heart of the Sacred Precinct—a walled complex roughly 365 meters on each side—the Templo Mayor served as the focal point of Tenochtitlan's , with major avenues radiating outward to connect the city's four quadrants and link to the mainland via elevated causeways. This integration facilitated processions, trade, and administrative control, positioning the temple as both a religious and a symbol of imperial centrality.

Symbolism

The Templo Mayor was dedicated to two primary deities, Huitzilopochtli on the southern side and Tlaloc on the northern side, embodying the Aztec principle of duality that balanced opposing cosmic forces. Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun, was associated with red and white colors, symbolizing fire, conquest, and the , while Tlaloc, the god of and , linked to blue and green, represented water, agriculture, and the wet season. The was constructed primarily of stone, , and earth fill, coated in and vividly painted in reds, blues, and greens to enhance its symbolic colors. This pairing reflected the concept of atl tlachinolli, or "burnt water," which merged destructive fire and nurturing water to signify warfare as a means of societal renewal and prosperity. Positioned at the heart of , the temple served as the , the central point connecting the , earthly realm, and heavens in Aztec cosmology, often described as the "navel of the universe." This role drew from the Mexica migration legend, where the site was identified by the vision of an eagle perched on a nopal devouring a serpent, fulfilling a divine and marking the sacred foundation of their . The structure's layout reinforced this centrality, with four quadrants radiating outward to mirror the ordered . Prominent motifs on the temple's facades and sculptures underscored themes of renewal and cyclical existence. Serpents, evoking the mythic Coatepetl or "Serpent Mountain," flanked the staircases and platforms, with ochre-feathered variants on the south symbolizing celestial rebirth and blue-jade ones on the north denoting earthly fertility and water's life-giving power. Skulls and skeletal imagery, seen in nearby structures and offerings, represented the inescapable cycles of death and regeneration, tying into the Coyolxauhqui myth where Huitzilopochtli's dismemberment of his sister illustrated cosmic triumph over chaos. glyphs incorporated into the architecture connected the temple to the 52-year xiuhmolpilli cycle, symbolizing the periodic renewal of the world through ritual reconstruction to avert apocalyptic end. The temple's design integrated gender duality, with Huitzilopochtli embodying masculine attributes of aggression and solar vitality in the southern shrine, contrasted by Tlaloc's more fluid, sometimes androgynous aspects of nourishment and storm in the north, reflecting broader Aztec views of complementary male-female polarities in creation. Later construction phases incorporated influences from Quetzalcoatl, the deity of wind and knowledge, evident in adjacent structures like the Temple of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, which enhanced the site's role in wind-mediated cosmic transitions. Post-2010 ethnohistorical research has illuminated the Templo Mayor's ties to broader Mesoamerican sacred geography, revealing precedents in 's pyramidal complexes that modeled as portals between realms, influencing the Aztec temple's vertical symbolism and imperial ideology. These studies emphasize how the Templo Mayor adapted Teotihuacan motifs, such as dual deity shrines and serpentine iconography, to assert centrality in a shared cosmological landscape.

Sacred Precinct

Surrounding Structures

The Sacred Precinct of , a vast walled enclosure that served as the heart of the capital, housed a diverse array of buildings and features surrounding the central Templo Mayor, functioning as a comprehensive hub for religious, educational, and ceremonial activities. This complex evolved through successive construction phases from the city's founding in 1325 CE, expanding from an initial modest area to encompass approximately 12 hectares by the time of the seventh temple phase in the early , incorporating up to 78 structures of varying sizes and purposes. The precinct's layout reflected the worldview, with the Templo Mayor at its core, symbolizing the , while peripheral elements supported priestly training, games, and devotion to secondary deities. Adjacent to the Templo Mayor were the calmecac and telpochcalli, two types of educational institutions that prepared youth for societal roles within the religious and military spheres. The , dedicated to elite noble sons, emphasized rigorous training in priesthood, administration, and , often located near temples like that of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl to integrate learning with divine . In contrast, the telpochcalli served youth, focusing on practical skills such as warfare, , and communal labor, fostering discipline through communal living and oversight by priests. These schools underscored the precinct's role in perpetuating social hierarchy and spiritual devotion, with archaeological evidence indicating their placement along the enclosure's edges to facilitate oversight of the central rituals. To the east of the Templo Mayor stood the tlachtli, or ballcourt, a key venue for the that enacted cosmic struggles between forces of light and darkness. This I-shaped structure, measuring roughly 50 meters in length, featured sloped walls of stone and where players propelled a using hips and elbows, symbolizing , warfare, and divine favor; victors or losers often faced ritual sacrifice, tying the games to the precinct's sacrificial ethos. The precinct also included several subsidiary temples dedicated to important deities, enhancing the central Templo Mayor's prominence. The round temple of Ehecatl-Quetzalcoatl, devoted to the wind and god, rose as a truncated cone with 60 steps and a snake-mouth entrance, its foundations later identified beneath the Hotel Catedral; this structure balanced the duality of the main temple by honoring creation and breath. Nearby, the pyramid temple to , the smoking mirror god of fate and sorcery, featured 80 steps and was situated under the Palace of the Archbishopric, serving as a to Huitzilopochtli's . The temple to , god of fire and time, occupied another position within the enclosure, its rituals involving renewal and calendrical cycles. Additionally, houses for eagle warriors—elite military orders—such as the House of Eagles, provided spaces for these revered fighters to conduct ceremonies, including the tlatoani's (ruler's) ritual investiture, often in neo-Toltec architectural styles evoking ancestral grandeur. Enclosing the entire precinct were robust walls, prominently the coatepantli, or "serpent wall," a low platform adorned with over 200 sculpted serpent heads in , symbolizing the boundary between the sacred and profane realms. These serpentine motifs, often painted and intertwined with skeletal elements in related sites, evoked the earth's fertile yet perilous , guarding . Along the walls and near altars, eagle-shaped jars or vessels collected sacrificial blood, channeling it toward offerings for deities like Huitzilopochtli, with their form representing and prowess. Through these expansions and additions across phases, the precinct transformed into a dynamic landscape, integrating , , and polytheistic around the Templo Mayor's unifying presence.

Rituals and Offerings

The rituals performed at the Templo Mayor were integral to religious life, encompassing a range of annual that honored deities such as and Huitzilopochtli through elaborate ceremonies involving processions, dances, and sacrifices. The of Tlacaxipehualiztli, dedicated to and marking the renewal of the earth, featured gladiatorial combats where captives were tied to stone slabs and fought warriors, followed by their and the distribution of skins to priests and participants as symbols of agricultural rebirth. Similarly, Panquetzaliztli celebrated Huitzilopochtli with vibrant dances, the raising of banners, and the ritual bathing of captives who impersonated the god, culminating in mass sacrifices of war prisoners to ensure cosmic order and military prowess. These cycles structured the , linking human actions to divine maintenance of the world. Offerings at the Templo Mayor were diverse and meticulously deposited in over 100 caches, totaling more than 7,000 objects across phases, including beads, incense, and marine shells symbolizing from the empire's periphery. Human elements dominated, with layered burials revealing child sacrifices to Tlaloc, such as groups of infants interred during droughts to invoke rain, their remains accompanied by pottery and to facilitate passage to the . Hearts extracted from victims were placed in cuauhxicalli stones, while skulls were often defleshed and modified into masks or unmodified deposits, reflecting ritual transformation. The mechanics of human sacrifice emphasized theatrical ascent and display, with victims—typically war captives—forcing them up the temple's steep stairs before priests performed decapitation and heart removal at the summit using blades, the blood anointing the shrines to nourish the gods. Skulls were then affixed to racks adjacent to the temple, where archaeological evidence from the Hueyi indicates at least 655 skulls, with historical accounts estimating over 20,000 displayed to affirm imperial power. Non-human offerings complemented these practices, incorporating animals like eagles and jaguars—symbolizing solar and earthly forces—buried alive or sacrificed alongside imported goods such as and feathers to represent the empire's vast reach. Floral elements and burned during ceremonies purified spaces and invoked fertility. Recent isotopic analyses of victim remains from Templo Mayor offerings have revealed diverse geographic origins, with many subadults and adults hailing from beyond the Basin of Mexico, underscoring the site's role in integrating imperial conquests through ritual. Studies of the tzompantli, including a 2023 analysis showing 38% female and 2% child skulls and preliminary 2025 results indicating 37.4% female skulls, challenge assumptions of exclusively male warrior victims and point to broader ritual inclusivity.

Modern Preservation

Archaeological Findings

The archaeological excavations at Templo Mayor have yielded a wealth of iconic artifacts that illuminate religious and cosmological beliefs. Among the most prominent is the Coyolxauhqui , a massive disk approximately 3.25 meters in diameter depicting the dismembered body of the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui, symbolizing her defeat by her brother Huitzilopochtli at the base of the temple's stairs. Sculptures of , the enigmatic god of night and sorcery, including ceramic and stone figures often adorned with smoking mirrors, have also been recovered from temple deposits, reflecting his role in divination and warfare rituals. Tlaloc vessels, ceramic containers featuring the rain god's goggle-eyed visage and fangs, were commonly interred in offerings associated with the temple's northern shrine, underscoring the duality of water as both nourishing and destructive. Beyond these standout pieces, broader discoveries include over 200 ritual offering caches containing diverse materials such as , , and marine shells, deposited across the temple's seven construction phases to consecrate each rebuilding. Fragments of murals, depicting motifs and deities in vibrant reds and blues, have been identified on temple walls, providing glimpses into artistic techniques and . Botanical remains from these offerings, including incense, cacao beans, and chili peppers, reveal ritual diets enriched with symbolic plants that facilitated spiritual communion and offerings to deities. Scientific analyses have enhanced interpretations of these findings. Radiocarbon dating of organic materials from the temple's layers has confirmed the sequential phases spanning from circa 1325 to 1521 CE, aligning with rulers' reigns and environmental events like floods. Stable isotope analysis (carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen) on human remains from sacrificial contexts indicates that many victims originated from distant regions outside the Basin of , such as the Gulf Coast or , suggesting coerced migrations or tribute systems feeding imperial rituals. Recent excavations from 2022 to 2025 have uncovered deeper sub-layers revealing Olmec influences. An example of such veneration is a greenstone mask from the Olmec period (circa 900 BCE), discovered during the initial 1978–1982 excavations and reverently buried in a late offering. In 2022, over 2,500 (specifically 2,550) wooden artifacts—such as atlatls, , and anthropomorphic figures—were recovered from waterlogged contexts, preserved due to anaerobic conditions. The 2023 discovery of a stone chest (tepetlacalli) containing 15 Mezcala-style anthropomorphic figurines, along with coral and shell beads, further expanded understanding of tribute networks. Digital 3D modeling efforts, including scans and , have enabled virtual reconstructions of the temple's layered , aiding in non-invasive study of inaccessible areas. In 2025, excavations revealed a stone containing bones adorned with bells, sea stars, and other items, providing insights into animal sacrifices. Additionally, a May 2025 study analyzed 788 artifacts from the site, uncovering vast trade networks sourcing materials from distant regions like and Ucareo. Preservation challenges persist due to City's urban environment, where soil acidity from industrial and accelerates stone deterioration, causing flaking and on and elements exposed since the initial 1978–1982 excavations. Ethical debates surround the of looted items, with over 4,000 pre-Columbian artifacts, including Aztec-era items, returned to from the in May 2025 through international cooperation.

Templo Mayor Museum

The Templo Mayor Museum, inaugurated on , 1987, adjacent to the in Mexico City's Historic Center, serves as the primary repository for artifacts unearthed from the Mexica Main Temple. Designed by renowned Mexican architect Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, the museum building harmoniously integrates with the surrounding open-air ruins, allowing visitors to contextualize exhibits within the physical remnants of the ancient structure. Managed by Mexico's National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH), it spans multiple galleries that trace the temple's evolution across its seven construction phases, emphasizing the site's role as the religious and political heart of . The museum's core collections encompass over 7,000 artifacts recovered during excavations between 1978 and 1982, with ongoing discoveries adding to the holdings. These include sculptures, ceremonial offerings, and utilitarian objects such as tools, ceramic vessels, and jewelry made from , , and shell. Prominent displays feature a full-scale replica of the Coyolxauhqui Stone monolith—commemorating the dismembered moon goddess—and intricate masks representing deities like Quetzalcoatl. Exhibits are thematically organized by the temple's successive layers, juxtaposing items from early phases (such as simple clay figurines) with later imperial-era treasures (like elaborate feathered headdresses and anthropomorphic sculptures), illustrating the Mexica's artistic and ritual development. Educational programs at the engage visitors through interactive exhibits that recreate aspects of daily Aztec life, including scale models of Tenochtitlan's urban layout and hands-on displays of and techniques. A tour, accessible via guided experiences, immerses participants in a reconstructed 3D environment of the sacred precinct, highlighting architectural details and spaces. Complementing these are annual lectures in the on-site , often featuring INAH archaeologists presenting new findings, as well as workshops and summer courses for schools that explore cosmology and iconography. In its research capacity, the houses INAH conservation laboratories equipped for analyzing and preserving delicate materials like wood, textiles, and organic remains from deposits. These facilities support interdisciplinary studies, including collaborations with international teams on the ecological and aspects of offerings—such as 2024 analyses of faunal remains revealing imported species from across . Such efforts contribute to broader understandings of trade networks and environmental interactions. The museum and archaeological zone together draw approximately 500,000 visitors annually as of 2024, making it one of Mexico City's most popular cultural sites and underscoring public interest in pre-Hispanic heritage. Accessibility features include wheelchair ramps, elevators, and audio guides in multiple languages, ensuring broad participation. While praised for its immersive approach, the exhibits' candid portrayals of —depicted through stone reliefs and skeletal remains—have sparked occasional debates on their intensity and educational framing.

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