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Key Information

PeopleMixtec
ñuù savi, nayívi savi,
ñuù davi, nayivi davi
LanguageMixtec
sa'an davi, da'an davi, tu'un savi,..
CountryMixteca
Ñuu Savi, Ñuu Djau, Ñuu Davi,..
Turquoise mosaic mask. Mixtec-Aztec, 1400–1521 AD

The Mixtecs (/ˈmɪstɛks, ˈmɪʃ-/ MIS-teks, MISH-)[3] or Mixtecos (Spanish pronunciation: [misˈtekos] – from Nahuatl mixtēcatl [miʃteːkatɬ]; Mixtec: ñuudzahui 'people of Dzahui') are Indigenous Mesoamerican peoples of Mexico inhabiting the region known as La Mixteca of Oaxaca and Puebla as well as La Montaña Region and Costa Chica Regions of the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec culture was the main Mixtec civilization, which lasted from around 1500 BCE until being conquered by the Spanish in 1523.

The Mixtec region is generally divided into three subregions based on geography: the Mixteca Alta (Upper Mixtec or Ñuu Savi Sukun), the Mixteca Baja (Lower Mixtec or Ñuu I'ni), and the Mixteca Costa (Coastal Mixtec or Ñuu Andivi). The Alta is drier with higher elevations, while the Baja is lower in elevation, hot but dry, and the Costa is also low in elevation but much more humid and tropical. The Alta has seen the most study by archaeologists, with evidence for human settlement going back to the Archaic and Early Formative periods.[4] The first urbanized sites emerged here. Long considered to be part of the larger Mixteca region, groups living in the Baja were probably more culturally related to neighboring peoples in Eastern Guerrero than they were to the Mixtecs of the Alta.[5] They even had their own hieroglyphic writing system called ñuiñe.[6] The Costa only came under control of the Mixtecs during the military campaigns of the Mixtec cultural hero Eight Deer Jaguar Claw. Originally from Tilantongo in the Alta, Eight Deer and his armies conquered several major and minor kingdoms on their way to the coast, establishing the capital of Tututepec in the Lower Río Verde valley. Previously, the Costa had been primarily occupied by the Chatinos.

In the pre-Columbian era, some Mixtec kingdoms competed and allied with each other and with Zapotec kingdoms in the Central Valleys. Like the rest of the Indigenous peoples of Mexico, the Mixtecs were conquered by the Spanish invaders and their Indigenous allies in the 16th century. Pre-Columbian Mixtecs numbered around 1.5 million.[7] Today there are approximately 800,000 Mixtec people in Mexico, and there are also large populations in the United States. The Mixtec languages form a major branch of the Oto-Manguean language family.

Nomenclature and etymology

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The term Mixtec (Mixteco in Spanish) comes from the Nahuatl word mixtecah [miʃˈtekaʔ], "cloud people". There are many names that the Mixtecs have for naming themselves: ñuù savi, nayívi savi, ñuù davi, nayivi davi.[pronunciation?] etc. All these denominations can be translated as 'the land of the rain'.[8] The historic homeland of Mixtec people is La Mixteca, called in Mixtec language Ñuu Savi,[pronunciation?] Ñuu Djau,[pronunciation?] Ñuu Davi,[pronunciation?] etc., depending on the local variant. They call their language sa'an davi,[pronunciation?] da'an davi[pronunciation?] or tu'un savi.[pronunciation?]

Overview

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Plate 37 of the Codex Vindobonensis. The central scene supposedly depicts the origin of the Mixtecs as a people whose ancestors sprang from a tree.

In pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec were one of the major civilizations of Mesoamerica. Important ancient centers of the Mixtec include the ancient capital of Tilantongo, as well as the sites of Achiutla, Cuilapan, Huajuapan, Mitla, Tlaxiaco, Tututepec, Juxtlahuaca, and Yucuñudahui. The Mixtecs also made major constructions at the ancient city of Monte Albán (which had originated as a Zapotec city before the Mixtecs gained control of it). The work of Mixtec artisans who produced work in stone, wood, and metal was well regarded throughout ancient Mesoamerica.

According to West, "the Mixtec of Oaxaca...were the foremost goldsmiths of Mesoamerica," which included the "lost-wax casting of gold and its alloys."[9]

At the height of the Aztec Empire, many Indigenous people in Oaxaca, including the Mixtecs and Zapotecs, would suffer under at the hands of the Aztecs.[10] In the 1450s, Mixtecs would be weakened after the Aztec armies crossed the mountains into the Valley of Oaxaca with the intention of extending their hegemony.[10] Aztec forces triumphed over the Mixtecs in 1458.[10] In 1486, the Aztecs established a fort on the hill of Huaxyácac (now called El Fortín), overlooking the present city of Oaxaca, which allowed the Aztecs to enforce tribute collection from the Mixtecs and Zapotecs.[10] However, not all Mixtec towns became vassals. The Mixtecs put up some resistance to Spanish forces led by Pedro de Alvarado.[11] However, they would be subdued by the Spanish and their central Mexican allies led by Francisco de Orozco in 1521.[10] Upon Orozco's arrival to the Valley of Oaxaca on November 25, 1521, the Mixtecs would be peacefully submit to Spanish rule, though some resistance would continue in Antequera before ending by the end of 1521.[10]

Mixtecs have migrated to various parts of both Mexico and the United States. In recent years a large exodus of Indigenous peoples from Oaxaca, such as the Zapotec and Triqui, has seen them emerge as one of the most numerous groups of Amerindians in the United States. As of 2011, an estimated 150,000 Mixteco people were living in California, and 25,000 to 30,000 in New York City.[12] Large Mixtec communities exist in the border cities of Tijuana, Baja California, San Diego, California and Tucson, Arizona. Mixtec communities are generally described as transnational or trans-border because of their ability to maintain and reaffirm social ties between their native homelands and diasporic communities. (See: Mixtec transnational migration.)

Mixtecs in the colonial era

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Mixtec funerary mask; Grave No. 7, Monte Alban; Museum of Cultures of Oaxaca.
The stucco reliefs in the Tomb 1 of Zaachila (The Valley, Oaxaca) reveal a remarkable influence from Mixtec art. The tomb likely belongs to a person whose name is registered in the Nuttall Codex. Tomb 1 of Zaachila, Central Valleys of Oaxaca, Late Postclassic.

There is considerable documentation in the Mixtec (Ñudzahui) native language for the colonial era, which has been studied as part of the New Philology. Mixtec documentation indicates parallels between many Indigenous social and political structures with those in the Nahua areas, but published research on the Mixtecs does not primarily focus on economic matters. There is considerable Mixtec documentation for land issues, but sparse for market activity, perhaps because Indigenous cabildos did not regulate commerce or mediate economic disputes except for land.[13] Long-distance trade existed in the prehispanic era and continued in Indigenous hands in the early colonial. In the second half of the colonial period, there were bilingual Mixtec merchants, dealing in both Spanish and Indigenous goods, who operated regionally. However, in the Mixteca “by the eighteenth century, commerce was dominated by Spaniards in all but the most local venues of exchange, involving the sale of agricultural commodities and Indigenous crafts or the resale of imported goods.”.[14]

Despite the development of a local exchange economy, many Spaniards with economic interests in Oaxaca, including “[s]ome of the Mixteca priests, merchants, and landowners maintained permanent residence in Puebla, and labor for the obrajes (textile workshops) of the city of Puebla in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was sometimes recruited from peasant villages in the Mixteca."[15] There is evidence of community litigation against Mixtec caciques who leased land to Spaniards and the growth of individually contracted wage labor. Mixtec documentation from the late eighteenth century indicates that "most caciques were simply well-to-do investors in Spanish-style enterprises"; some married non-Indians; and in the late colonial era had little claim to hereditary authority.[16]

Geography

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Codex Zouche-Nuttall Mixtec British Museum.
Map showing the historic Mixtec area. Pre-Classic archeological sites are marked with a triangle, Classic sites with a round dot, and Post-classic sites with a square.

The Mixtec area, both historically and currently, corresponds roughly to the western half of the state of Oaxaca, with some Mixtec communities extending into the neighboring state of Puebla to the north-west and also the state of Guerrero. The Mixtec people and their homelands are often subdivided into three geographic areas: The Mixteca Alta or Highland Mixtec living in the mountains in, around, and to the west of the Valley of Oaxaca; the Mixteca Baja or Lowland Mixtec living to the north and west of these highlands, and the Mixteca de la Costa or Coastal Mixtec living in the southern plains and the coast of the Pacific Ocean. For most of Mixtec history, the Mixteca Alta was the dominant political force, with the capitals of the Mixtec nation located in the central highlands. The valley of Oaxaca itself was often a disputed border region, sometimes dominated by the Mixtec and sometimes by their neighbors to the east, the Zapotec.

An ancient Coixtlahuaca Basin cave site known as the Colossal Natural Bridge is an important sacred place for the Mixtec.

Mixtec rulers

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Notes:
  • The names of the rulers are composed by the day of the birth + nickname;
  • For the sake of a simpler list, minor settlements will be joined with major ones if there are family connections between their rulers;
  • Some Zapotec/Toltec kingdoms are included here, because of the many marital connections between the Mixtec and Zapotec royal lineages;
  • The dynasty never breaks while a member of the family rules: the line goes through women if they ruled as queen regnants. However, if a son inherits the different kingdoms of the two reigning parents, the paternal line will be favoured.
  • A family tree of some of the rulers is available in this link.

In Mixteca Costa

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Acatepec, Yucu Yoo

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See also: Acatepec

Tututepec, Yucu Dzaa

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See also: Tututepec

Zacatepec, Yucu Chatuta

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See also: Santa María Zacatepec
  • 1120-?: Lord 11 Jaguar Tlaloc Fire Wall

In Mixteca Alta

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Achiutla, Ñuu Ndecu

[edit]
See also: Achiutla

Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty

  • ?: Lord 11 Flower Cloud Xicolli, with Lady 13 Wind Cloud Hair (siblings and spouses, children of Lord 4 Wind, King of Nuu Yuchi)
  • ?: Lord 10 Alligator Digging Stick (father-in-law of Lord 2 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
  • ?: Lord 8 Wind Smoked Claw (brother-in-law of Lord 12 Deer, King of Tlaxiaco)
  • ?: Lord 7 Movement Blood Shedding Rain (son-in-law of 11 Wind, King of Tlaxiaco)
  • ?: Lord 9 Wind Sun Fire Serpent
  • ?: Lord 10 Alligator Jaguar with Claws like Flints (son of the previous)

Water Rubber Ball (Chacahua? Manialtepec?)

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Andua

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  • c.887: Lord 12 Vulture Golden Eagle
  • ?: Lord 3 Monkey Mexican Jaguar

Bulto de Xipe/Huachino

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See also: Red and White Bundle
  • ?: Lord 10 Movement
  • ?: Lord 12 Lizard
  • ?-1101: Lord 11 Wind Blood Jaguar (son of the previous)
    • To Tilantongo (1101-1115) and Nuu Yuchi (1115-1164)
  • ?: Lord 6 Vulture Jaguar with Knife (son of Lord 9 Rain of Tlaxiaco)[17]

Chalcatongo, Nuu Ndaya

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See also: Chalcatongo
  • ?: Lord 8 Aligator Bloody Coyote
  • ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Beard (descendant)

Cholula

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See also: Cholula (Mesoamerican site)
  • ?: Lord 1 Lizard Serpent-Decorated Shield, with Lady 11 Serpent Jewel Mouth (wife)
  • c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

Hill of the Mask

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Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Tlaxiaco dynasty[17]
Lord 8 Jaguar
Bloody Coyote		 1113
Tlaxiaco 		? Lady 2 Vulture Jewel Fan
two children 		? King at Tlaxiaco, a partition from Teozacoalco. His children possibly divided the realm.
Lord 4 Grass
Sun Face		 ?
Son of Lord 8 Jaguar 		? Lady 6 Reed Venus Face
one child 		? Also king at Sosola (Acuchi).
Lord 1 Movement
Fire Serpent with Feathers		 ?
Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed 		? Lady 2 House Precious Quexquemitl
one child 		? Possibly survived his son, and was succeeded by his grandson.
Lord 7 Serpent
Eagle		 ?
Son of Lord 4 House, Prince of Hill of the Mask and Lady 3 House 		? Lady 3 Jaguar War Quexquemitl
one child

Lady 4 Serpent
one child 		? Possibly survived his son (given the son's absence of nickname), and was succeeded by his grandson.
Lord 7 Rain
Ascending Flame		 ?
Son of Lord 7 Serpent and Lady 4 Serpent 		?-1338 Lady 4 Monkey of Tilantongo,
Precious Fire Serpent
no children 		1338
Hill of the Mask
Hill of the Mask annexed to Teozacoalco

Jaltepec, Añute

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See also: Jaltepec
Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Apoala-Jaltepec dynasty
Lord 10 Reed
Eagle		 c.880?
Son of Lord 2 Grass
Death Serpent, prince of Apoala and Lady 8 Rabbit
Sun Headdress, Queen of Whirlpool of Blood-Temple of the
Spiderweb and Smoke 		? – after 920 Lady 2 Lizard
Venus Red and White Band
at least one child 		after 920
Lord 3 Rain
Ballcourt with Lines		 ?
Son of Lord 10 Reed and Lady 2 Lizard 		? Lady 7 Death
Rain Flaming Knot
no children 		?
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lady 9 Wind
Stone Quexquemitl 		c.1010
Daughter of Lord 8 Wind
Twenty Eagles, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quexquemitl 		? – 1090 1041
five children 		1090
Jaltepec
aged 79–80? 		Spouses, ruled jointly.
  • Lord 13 Grass, Lady 9 Wind's brother, ruled in the settlement of Arrow-Red Liquid
Lord 10 Eagle
Stone Jaguar 		?
Son of Lord 10 Flower, King of Tilantongo and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán 		?
Lady 6 Monkey
War Quexquemitl		 1073?
Daughter of Lord 10 Eagle and Lady 9 Wind 		1090 – 1101 Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino,
Bloody Jaguar
1090
two children 		1101
Huachino
aged 27–28?		 Assassinated with her husband in Huachino during the Tilantongo coup d'état of Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw.
Lord 1 Alligator
Ballcourt Eagle		 1094
Huachino
Second son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and Lady 6 Monkey 		1101 – after 1122 Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo,
Feather Blood Quetzal
1122
one child

Lady 6 Flint of Tilantongo,
Precious Fire Serpent
1122
no children 		after 1122
aged more than 25-26 		Younger son of Lady 6 Monkey, inherited her settlement at Jaltepec and married daughters of her assassin.
Lord 5 Lizard Blood Jewel 1122 or after 1122
Son of Lord 1 Alligator and Lady 6 Wind of Tilantongo 		? Lady 4 Rain Heartcross

Lady 8 Rabbit

(Both women were sisters and from the town of Temazcal Cave of Atl Tlachinolli)

(three known children in total) 		?
Lord 1 Rain Celestial Eagle ?
Son of Lord 5 Lizard 		? Lady 2 Alligator
Smoke Spiderweb
four children 		?
Lord 5 Flower Celestial Eagle ?
Son of Lord 1 Rain and Lady 2 Alligator 		? Lady 10 Water Xolotl Red Jewel
two children 		?
Lord 6 Reed Jaguar Sun ?
Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 10 Water 		? Lady 5 Movement Copal Ornament
two children 		?
Lord 13 Wind Tlachtli War ?
Son of Lord 6 Reed and 5 Movement 		? Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán,
Butterfly Quetzal Blood
four children 		?
Lord 9 Lizard
Fire Face		 ?
Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 12 Rain of Zahuatlán 		? – after 1381 Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán, War Quexquemitl
three children 		after 1381 In his reign Zaachila attacked Jaltepec, took the eldest sons of Lord 9 Lizard, and executed them. His minor son was the only one that survived. This son, Lord 2 Jaguar, would eventually succeed his father.
Lord 2 Jaguar Before 1372
Son of Lord 9 Lizard and Lady 12 Deer of Cuauhtinchán 		after 1381 – ? Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco, Sun Fan
1372[18]
one child 		?
Lord 5 Water
Jaguar of Tlaxiaco		 ?
Son of Lord 2 Jaguar and Lady 1 Serpent of Teozacoalco 		? – after 1391 Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco,
Fan of Tlaxiaco
two children 		?
Lord 10 Monkey
Rain Falling from Heaven		 1391[19]
Jaltepec
Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 7 Rain of Tlaxiaco 		? – after 1414 Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán,
Xolotl-Jewel
1414[20]
three children 		after 1414
Lord 3 Death
Grey Eagle		 Before 1420
Son of Lord 10 Monkey and Lady 2 Water of Yanhuitlán 		? – 1444 Lady 3 Serpent
Flower Garland
1420
three children 		1444
Jaltepec
aged more than 23-24
Lord 1 Monkey
Rain Sun		 1416
Jaltepec
Son of Lord 3 Death and Lady 3 Serpent 		1444 – 1480 Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco,
Plumed Sun
(d.1477)
1447
at least one child

Lady 10 Movement,
Plumed Sun,
Queen of Quetzaltepec
no children 		1480
Jaltepec
aged 63–64
Lord 4 Serpent
Bloody Eagle		 1451
Jaltepec
Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 7 Water of Teozacoalco 		1480 – 1520 Lady 5 Monkey of Teozacoalco,
Seed of the Broken Mountain
(1466-1518)
two children 		1520
Jaltepec
aged 68–69
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 13 Grass
Fire Serpent		 1516
Jaltepec
Son of Lord 4 Deer, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec 		1520 – 1541 Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco, Jewel Red Objects Package
1523
five children

Lady 5 Jaguar Cocoa Garland 		1541
Jaltepec
aged 24–25		 Maternal grandson of his predecessor.
Lord 10 Grass
Jaguar Smoke Tlaltecuhtli		 1527
Jaltepec
Son of Lord 13 Grass and Lady 2 Jaguar of Tlaxiaco 		1541 – after 1556 Lady 10 Serpent Flowered Tree Golden Band
1546
unknown children 		After 1556 Last known ruler in the settlement.

Juquila, Nuu Sitoho

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See also: Juquila
  • ?: Lord 1 Death Sun Serpent, with Lady 11 Serpent Flower Quetzal Feathers (wife)

"Monkey"

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  • ?: Lord 7 Grass Bloody Jaguar

Mitlatongo, Dzandaya

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  • ?: Lord 1 Monkey

Flower Mountain, Yucu Ita

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  • ?: Lord 11 Jaguar

Broken Mountain

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  • ?: Lady 1 Death

Place of Flints/Pedernales, Nuu Yuchi

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Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lord 4 Wind
Fire Serpent		 1092
Huachino
Son of Lord 11 Wind, King of Huachino and
Lady 6 Monkey, Queen of Jaltepec 		1115 – 1164 Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo,
Rain Spiderweb
1124
one child

Lady 5 Lizard of Deep Valley,
Zacate-Pulque Vase
1124 or 1125
three children

Lady 5 Wind of Tilantongo,
Jade and Fur Ornament
1125
no children~ 		1164
Pedernales
aged 71–72		 First known ruler of the settlement, which seems to have been separated either from Tilantongo or Jaltepec.
Lady 13 Flower
Precious Bird		 c.1124/25
Daughter of Lord 4 Wind and Lady 10 Flower of Tilantongo 		1164 – ? Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo,
Sacred Serpent
c.1138
ten children 		?
Lord 7 Eagle
Flames		 1138
Pedernales
First son of Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and
Lady 13 Flower 		? Lady 3 Serpent of Achiutla,
Sacred Jewel
no children 		? Left no children and was succeeded by his brother.
Lord 4 Jaguar
War Jaguar		 1144
Pedernales
Second son of Lord Lord 4 Alligator of Tilantongo and
Lady 13 Flower 		? Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla,
Serpent Jewel
at least one child 		?
Lord 1 Eagle
Rain		 c.1160
Son of Lord 4 Water, prince of Pedernales and Lady
1 Grass of Achiutla 		? – after 1171 Unmarried After 1171 Nephew of his predecessors.
Lord 7 Reed
Pheasant		 ?
Son of Lord 13 Serpent, Prince of Pedernales and
Lady 11 Deer, Princess of Pedernales 		? ? ? Cousin of his predecessor.
Pedernales annexed to Teozacoalco

Quetzal

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  • ?: Lord 4 Stone Face with Quetzal Feathers

Río de la Serpiente

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  • ?: Lord 3 Eagle

San Pedro Cántaros, Nuu Naha

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Teozacoalco dynasty

  • ?: Lord 1 House Jaguar Sky Assassin (son of Lord 8 Rabbit, King of Teozacoalco)
  • ?: Lord 6 Death Sun Rain (descendant, brother-in-law of Lord 6 Deer, King of Teozacoalco)
  • ?: Lord 3 Dog (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 3 Monkey (grandson of the previous)

Place of the Drum (Soyaltepec) (?)

[edit]
See also: San Bartolo Soyaltepec
  • ?: Lord 4 Jaguar Serpent War Snare

Suchixtlán, Chiyo Yuhu

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Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Suchixtlán dynasty
Lord 8 Wind
Stone Eagle/
Twenty Eagles		 ?
Son or descendant
of Lord 3 Rain, King of Jaltepec 		? – 1027 Lady 10 Deer
Jaguar Quexquemitl
1009

Lady 10 Grass
1010

Lady 10 Eagle
1011

seven children in total 		1027
Suchixtlán
or Jaltepec
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 12 Movement
Jaguar that Burns the Mexicans		 ? ? Lady 1 Jaguar Divine Fan
at least one child 		?
Lord 13 Eagle
Bloody Jaguar		 ?
Son of Lord 12 Movement and Lady 1 Jaguar 		? Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo
four children 		?
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 2 Flower
Rising Jewel 		?
Daughter of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 12 Flower of Tilantongo 		? – 1461 c.1450?
two children 		? Spouses and explicitly co-rulers in Suchixtlán (according to Codex Muro). Lord 6 Death possibly also inherited his kingdom at San Pedro Cántaros.
Lord 6 Death Sun Rain ?
Son of Lord 10 Alligator, king of Cántaros and Lady 7 Vulture (of Tilantongo?) 		1461
Lady 11 Monkey
Jade Spiderweb 		?
Son of Lord 6 Death and Lady 2 Flower 		? three children ? Probably ruled jointly, as despite she inherited the kingdom, her husband is said to have also ruled there.
Lord 4 Death
War Venus 		?
Son of Lord 6 Deer, king of Tilantongo and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec 		? ?
Lord 8 Monkey ?
Son of Lord 4 Death
and Lady 11 Monkey 		? Lady 4 Water of Tilantongo,
Butterfly with Red Spots
no children 		?
Hiatus with no known rulers
Lord 8 Movement Jaguar Tlaloc Wall ? ? Lady 8 Flint of Jaltepec,
Venus Legs Bent Strip
(born 1528)
c.1530/40?
no children 		? Last known ruler of the town.

Teita

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  • ?: Lord 10 Rabbit Heart
  • ?: Lord 13 Jaguar War Eagle

Teozacoalco, Chiyo Cahnu

[edit]
See also: Teozacoalco
Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 4 Dog
Coyote Hunter		 1110
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 8 Deer and
Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino 		1115 – after 1132 Lady 4 Death Jewel
(born 1115)
1125
two children 		after 1132
Lord 13 Dog
Venus Eagle		 1132
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 4 Dog and Lady 4 Death 		after 1132 – after 1149 Lady 8 Vulture Stone Quechquemitl

Lady 4 Rabbit Feathers on the Sand

two children in total 		after 1149
Lord 7 Water
Red Eagle		 1149
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 13 Dog 		? Lady 11 Water Precious Serpent
two children 		?
Lord 13 Eagle
Sacred Rain
Son of Lord 7 Water and Lady 11 Water 		? – after 1189 Lady 13 Death Jade Quechquemitl
two children

Lady 10 Deer Jaguar Quechquemitl
three children

Lady 8 Reed Precious Girl
one child

Lady of the Staff of Respect
no children

Lady 11 Movement Jewel with Quetzal Feathers
two children

Lady 9 Monkey
one child 		after 1189
Lord 8 Rabbit
Fire of Tlaxiaco		 1189
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 13 Eagle and Lady 8 Reed 		? Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo,
Transparent Butterfly
five children 		?
Lord 12 House
Fire Serpent Flying in the Sky		 ?
Son of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo 		? five children ? Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 11 Alligator
Quetzal Jewel		 ?
Daughter of Lord 8 Rabbit and Lady 6 Grass of Tilantongo 		?
Lord 9 Movement
Precious Water 		?
Son of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator 		? – 1321[17] no children 1321
Teozacoalco 		Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly. Left no children.
Lady 2 Jaguar
Jade Spiderweb 		?
Daughter of Lord 12 House and Lady 11 Alligator
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lord 2 Dog
Rope and Knives		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Flower, King of Zaachila and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco 		1321[17] – after 1323 Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo,
Plumed Serpent
three children 		?
Lord 9 House
Mexican Jaguar		 1323
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 2 Dog and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo 		? – after 1372 Lady 3 Rabbit Divine Flame,
Queen of Tilantongo
(born 1345)
1353
no children 		after 1372 Also, by marriage, king of Tilantongo.
Lord 2 Water
Fire Serpent		 1357
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco 		after 1372 – after 1402 Lady 2 Vulture of Teita,
Flower Jewel
one child

Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila,
Jade Fan
six children

Lady 12 Flint of Teita
one child

Lady 4 Reed
Twenty Jaguars
no children 		after 1402
aged more than 44-45		 After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lord 5 Rain
Water Falling from the Sky		 1402?
Son of Lord Lord 2 Water and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila 		? – after 1416 Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco,
Quetzal Sun
1416
four children 		after 1416 His children inherited their mother's realm. Teozacoalco reunited with Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer
Sacred Rain		 1393
Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo 		after 1416 – ? Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec,
Seed of the Broken Mountain
two children 		after 1416
aged more than 22-23		 Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower
Pheasant		 1409
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec 		? – after 1438 Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo,
Quetzal Fan
seven children 		after 1438
aged more than 28-29		 Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain
Sun Rain		 1438
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 4 Flower
and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo 		? – after 1476 Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán,
Cocoa Flower
four children 		after 1476
aged more than 37-38
Lord 4 Deer
Eagle of Tlaxiaco		 1476
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 10 Rain
and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán 		? – 1521 Lady 11 Serpent

Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec,
Sun Fan
(born 1484)

one child in total 		1521
Teozacoalco
aged 44–45		 His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Teozacoalco occupied by the Spanish

Tilantongo, Ñuu Tnoo

[edit]
See also: Tilantongo
Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
1st Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 10 House
Jaguar		 ? ? Lady 1 Grass Puma
one child 		? First known ruler of the settlement.
Lord 3 Eagle
Eagle of the Serpent Place		 ?
Son of Lord 10 House and Lady 1 Grass 		? – after 942 Lady 4 Rabbit Quexquemitl of Mitlatongo
two children 		after 942
Lord 9 Wind
Stone Skull		 942
Tilantongo
Son of Lord Lord 3 Eagle and Lady 4 Rabbit of Mitlatongo 		? – 1020 Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán,
Rain Hill
c.990

three children 		1020
aged 77–78
Lord 10 Flower
Burnt-Eyed Jaguar		 992
Tilantongo
Son of Lord 9 Wind and Lady 5 Reed of Monte Albán 		1020 – 1043 Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán,
Plumed Serpent
(born 1005)
1013
six children 		1043
aged 50–51 		Many of his relatives are known to have sit exclusively in some thrones:
  • ?: Lord 10 Flower (II) Tail Arc (his brother-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Dark Speckled Mountain )
  • ?: Lord 13 Death (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Head ; he would also become father-in-law of Lord 8 Deer)
  • ?: Lord 10 Reed (I) Precious Jaguar (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Tataltepec (Yucu Tatnu))
  • ?: Lord 10 Reed (II) (his son-in-law; ruled in the settlement of Topiltepec, Yucu Quesi/Nuu Ñañu )
Lord 12 Lizard
Arrow Feet		 c.1013
Son of Lord 10 Flower and Lady 2 Serpent of Suchixtlán 		1043 – c.1080? Lady 4 Flint of Topiltepec,
Face Quetzal Feathers

Lady 4 Alligator of Topiltepec,
Jewel Face

four children in total 		c.1080?
Tilantongo
aged around 66-67		 Married his nieces, daughters of his sister.
Lord 5 Movement
Smoked Sky		 ?
Son of Lord 12 Lizard 		1080 – ? Lady 4 Death of Jaltepec,
Jewel of the People
no children

Lady 2 Grass
1073
one child 		? The succession of the son and grandson of Lord 12 Lizard is debated, as Lord 12 Lizard is the last of his dynasty explicitly depicted as king of Tilantongo before Lord 8 Deer's conquest (1097). Even his grandson, who died young in a mysterious suicide ritual, is sometimes called by experts as an heir, instead of an official ruler. There isn't also any indication of the time of death of Lord 12 Lizard, which confuses matters. What is known is that, as Lady 2 Grass (Lord 2 Rain's mother) came from Visible Stones (a place under domination of Suchixtlán), Suchixtlán became influent in Tilantongo during this period of uncertainty. It's also possible that Lord 12 Lizard's sister, Lady 4 Rabbit Precious Quetzal, was his next heiress, as, before usurping the throne, Lord 8 Deer had bowed to her and her husband in their town at Sosola (Acuchi).
Lord 2 Rain
Twenty Jaguars		 1075
Tilantongo
Son of Lord 5 Movement and Lady 2 Grass 		? – 18 June 1097 Unmarried 18 June 1097
Tilantongo
aged 21–22
2nd Tilantongo dynasty
Lord 8 Deer
Jaguar Claw		 1063
Tilantongo
Son of Lord 5 Alligator Sun Rain, Priest and Lady 11 Water Jewel Bird 		18 June 1097 – 10 November 1115 Lady 13 Serpent of Huachino,
Flowered Serpent
1103
five children

Lady 6 Eagle of Chalcatongo,
Jaguar Spiderweb
1105
one child

Lady 10 Vulture
Shining Quexquemitl
1105
two children

Lady 11 Serpent of Totomihuacan,
Jaguar Flower Turquoise Teeth
1105
two children

Lady Lady 6 Wind of Cuyotepeji,
Great Feathers of Noble Blood
no children 		10 November 1115
Tilantongo
aged 51–52		 Usurper and founder of a new royal line at Tilantongo. After his death the influence in Mixtec realms passed to Pedernales, but the succession continued in Tilantongo. Lord 8 Deer was related to other settlements:
  • His father-in-law, Lord 1 Deer Coanacoch is the only known ruler in the settlement of Cuyotepeji.
Regency of Lady 6 Eagle Jaguar Spiderweb of Chalcatongo during Lord 6 House's minority
Lord 6 House
Jaguar Falling from Heaven		 1109
Tilantongo
Son of Lord 8 Deer and Lady 6 Eagle of Chacaltongo 		10 November 1115 – ? Lady 9 Movement Heart of Juquila
one child 		?
Lord 5 Water
Stone Jaguar Heaven		 ?
Son of Lord 6 House and Lady Lady 9 Movement of Juquila 		? Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo,
Quetzal Jewel
eight children 		? Married his cousin, daughter of his father's half-brother.
Lord 8 Reed
Pheasant		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo 		? two children ? Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 5 Rabbit
Jewel		 ?
Daughter of Lord 5 Water and Lady 10 Reed of Tilantongo 		?
Lord 2 Movement
Serpent with Markings		 ?
Son of Lord 8 Reed and Lady 5 Rabbit 		?-1206 Lady 4 Eagle of Teita,
Blood Quechquemitl

Lady 12 Flint of Mountain of Flowers,
Hummingbird Jewel

Lady 10 Eagle of Mountain of Flowers,
Serpent Spiderweb

three children in total 		1206
Tilantongo		 Apparently survived his own sons and heirs, Lord 8 Grass Coyote Sacrificer and Lord 1 Lizard Bloody Jaguar, and was succeeded by his grandchildren.
Lord 12 Reed
Coyote Sun		 ?
Son of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain 		1206-? before or c.1206
three children 		? Sibling-spouses, ruled jointly.
Lady 3 Jaguar
Precious Butterfly Sun		 ?
Daughter of Lord 1 Lizard, Prince of Tilantongo and Lady 6 Reed of Sunken Disk Plain 		?
Lord 5 Rain
Sun Movement		 ?
Son of Lord 12 Reed and Lady 3 Jaguar 		? Lady 13 Lizard of Puma,
Truly Precious Butterfly
one child 		? Lord 5 Rain was related to other settlements' rulers:
  • ?: Lord 7 Movement Bloody Jaguar, his father-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Puma .
Lord 13 Wind
Fire Serpent		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Rain and Lady 13 Lizard of Puma 		? – after 1277 Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco,
Venus Quechquemitl
1277
one child 		after 1277
Lord 9 Serpent
Jaguar War Illuminator		 ?
Son of Lord 13 Wind and Lady 1 Water of Teozacoalco 		? Lady 8 Flint of Yucuita

Lady 7 Flower of Yucuita

four children in total 		?
Lord 4 Water
Bloody Eagle		 ?
Son of Lord 9 Serpent 		? – 1341 Lady Lady 6 Water
Quetzal Jewel of Flower War
no children 		1341
Tilantongo 		Left no children, and his dynasty came to an end. He was succeeded by his widow.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty
Lady 6 Water
Quetzal Jewel of Flower War		 ?
Daughter of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo 		1341 – after 1345 Lord 4 Water
Bloody Eagle
no children

Prince Lord 4 Death of Tlaxiaco,
War Venus
1343
four children 		after 1345 Widow and niece of the previous. As the eldest child of the only sister of Lord 4 Water that had children, she became the inheritor of his uncle-husband's kingdom. She inherited it not as widow of her husband, but as a rightful heir of her uncle.
Lady 3 Rabbit
Divine Flame 		1345
Tilantongo
Daughter of Lord Lord 4 Death, Prince of Tlaxiaco and Lady 6 Water 		after 1345-after 1372 1353
six children 		after 1372 Like her mother, she married her own uncle (her mother's brother), keeping the kingdom in the family, and made possible the reunion of Tilantongo and Teozacoalco.
Lord 9 House
Mexican Jaguar 		1323
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 2 Dog, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 6 Reed of Tilantongo
Lord 2 Water
Fire Serpent		 1357
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 9 House and Lady 3 Rabbit of Tlaxiaco 		after 1372 – after 1402 Lady 2 Vulture of Teita,
Flower Jewel
one child

Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila,
Jade Fan
six children

Lady 12 Flint of Teita
one child

Lady 4 Reed
Twenty Jaguars
no children 		after 1402
aged more than 44-45		 After his death his inheritance is divided: His eldest daughter received Tilantongo; his first son got Teozacoalco, and his second son eventually inherited his mother's realm of Zaachila.
Lady 12 Flower
Broken Mountain Butterfly		 ?
Daughter of Lord 2 Water and 2 Vulture of Teita 		after 1402 – ? Lord Lord 12 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán,
Bloody Jaguar
no children 		? First separate ruler of Tilantongo since 1341. At her death, her children inherited Tilantongo.
Lord 6 Deer
Sacred Rain		 1393
Son of Lord 13 Eagle, King of Suchixtlán and Lady 12 Flower, Queen of Tilantongo 		after 1416? Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec,
Seed of the Broken Mountain
two children 		after 1416
aged more than 22-23		 Nephew of the predecessor.
Lord 4 Flower
Pheasant		 1409
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 6 Deer and Lady 13 Wind of Jaltepec 		? – after 1438 Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo,
Quetzal Fan
seven children 		after 1438
aged more than 28-29		 Probably during his reign, the capital of the dual kingdom of Teozacoalco-Tilantongo may have returned to Tilantongo, but this isn't certain.
Lord 10 Rain
Sun Rain		 1438
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 4 Flower
and Lady 7 Vulture of Etlatongo 		? – after 1476 Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán,
Cocoa Flower
four children 		after 1476
aged more than 37-38
Lord 4 Deer
Eagle of Tlaxiaco		 1476
Teozacoalco
Son of Lord 10 Rain
and Lady 5 Wind of Suchixtlán 		? – 1521 Lady 11 Serpent

Lady 12 Vulture of Jaltepec,
Sun Fan
(born 1484)

one child in total 		1521
Teozacoalco
aged 44–45		 His kingdom fell to the Spanish, and may have died during the invasion. Probably because of this same invasion, the kingdom lost its status: his son may have succeeded only in the maternal kingdom of Jaltepec.
Tilantongo occupied by the Spanish

Tlaxiaco, Ndisi Nuu

[edit]
See also: Tlaxiaco
Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Tlaxiaco dynasty[17]
Lord 8 Jaguar
Bloody Coyote		 1113
Tlaxiaco 		? Lady 2 Vulture Jewel Fan
two children 		? First known king at Tlaxiaco, partition from Teozacoalco.
Lord 4 Grass
Sun Face		 ?
Son of Lord 8 Jaguar 		? Lady 6 Reed Venus Face
one child 		?
Lord 2 Wind
Bloody Rain		 ?
Son of Lord 4 Grass and Lady 6 Reed Venus Face 		? Lady 4 Death of Achiutla
no children 		? Left no children. Tlaxiaco was inherited by his uncle.
Lord 2 Movement
Fire Serpent in Flames		 ?
Son of Lord 8 Jaguar 		? Lady 2 Death Plumed Sun
one child 		?
Lord 3 Serpent
Flame Rain		 ?
Son of Lord 2 Movement and Lady 2 Death 		? Lady 12 Wind Quetzal Jewel

Lady 7 Death

two children in total 		?
Lord 1 Deer
Eagle		 ?
Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind Quetzal Jewel!Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death 		? Lady 10 Grass Precious Butterfly
two children 		?
Lord 12 Rain
Bloody Jaguar		 ?
Son of Lord 3 Serpent and Lady 12 Wind or Lady 7 Death 		? – 1305 Lady 1 Monkey of Tilantongo,
Jade Quexquemitl
one child 		1305
Tlaxiaco
Lord 12 Deer
Serpent that Lightens the War		 ?
Son of Lord 3 Dog and Lady 8 Serpent, heiress of Tlaxiaco 		1305 – ? Lady 11 Lizard of Achiutla,
Flame Jewel
1305
no children

Lady 6 Rabbit of Tilantongo,
Jewel Seed
no children 		? It 's possible that he succeeded his maternal grandfather in his mother's lifetime; she chose to follow her husband (12 Deer's father) in a peregrination.[17] The male line is explicitly broken off after 12 Deer's death: he had no children. A succession crisis is opened, and is ultimately won by Lady 11 Rabbit, who was cleverly allied with Tilantongo-Teozacoalco.
Pedernales-Achiutla dynasty
Lady 11 Rabbit
Jewel of the Rising Sun 		?
Daughter of Lord 8 Wind, King of Achiutla and Lady 10 Dog of Tlaxiaco 		c.1330 two children ? Spouses, ruled jointly. Lady 11 Rabbit (from Achiutla on paternal side) was a niece of Lord 12 Deer.
Lord 10 Rabbit
Jaguar of Tlaxiaco 		?
Son of Lord 4 Movement Rain Falling from the Sky and Lady 2 Eagle Sunflower 		?
Lord 9 Rain
Bloody Jaguar		 ?
Son of Lord 10 Rabbit and Lady 11 Rabbit 		? – after 1343 Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco
1343
three children 		After 1343
Lord 11 Wind
Smoked Claw		 ?
Son of Lord 9 Rain and Lady 7 Flint of Teozacoalco 		? Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla,
Jewel Flower
five children 		?
  • Lord 1 Dog, his brother-in-law, is the only known ruler in the settlement of Feline Mountain .
Lord 1 Monkey
Sun Rain		 ?
Son of Lord 11 Wind and Lady 4 Grass of Achiutla 		? Lady 5 Flint
Heavenly Fan
three children 		?
Lord 13 Eagle
Eagle of Tlaxiaco		 ?
Son of Lord 1 Monkey and Lady 5 Flint 		?-after 1400 Lady 8 Jaguar of Achiutla
c.1400
one child 		After 1400 His heiress didn't succeed in the kingdom; his successor was his granddaughter.
Zaachila-Teozacoalco dynasty[17]
Lady 8 Deer
Quetzal Spiderweb		 ?
Daughter of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco 		? Lord 10 Alligator, King of Achiutla,
Stone Claw
no children 		? Her twin brother ascended in the Zapotec throne of Zaachila.
Lord 3 Serpent
Venus Sun		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco 		? Lady 10 Movement
Sun Jewel
no children 		? Younger brother of the twins.
Lord 8 Grass/ Malinaltzin
Sun Rain		 c.1435
Tlaxiaco
Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco 		?-1503 Lady 9 Deer of Teozacoalco,
Jewel Flower
1460
one child

Lady 1 Serpent
Butterfly Quetzal Feathers
no children 		1511
Tlaxiaco
aged 75–76		 Younger brother of the former. In 1503 Tlaxiaco was defeated by the Aztec Empire.
Tlaxiaco annexed to the Aztec Empire

Totomihuacan

[edit]
  • ?: Lord 5 Eagle

Tula (Toltec)

[edit]
See also: Toltec
  • c.1096: Lord 4 Jaguar Night Face

Deep Valley

[edit]
  • ?: Lord 12 Dog Eagle, with Lady 5 Lizard Pulque-Zacate Vase (wife)

Yanhuitlán

[edit]
See also: Yanhuitlán
  • c.1320: Lord 6 Water Multicolored Feathers
  • c.1500?: Lady 1 Flower Jaguar Quexquemitl, with Lord 8 Death Fire Serpent (husband; son of Lord 10 Rain, King of Teozacualco)

Zaachila, Tocuisi (Zapotec)

[edit]
See also: Zapotec civilization
Ruler Born Reign Consort Death Notes
Zaachila Zapotec dynasty[17]
Lord 9 Serpent ? ? Lady 11 Rabbit
Venus Quexquemitl
at least one child 		?
Lord 5 Flower
Xipe		 ?
Son of Lord 9 Serpent and Lady 11 Rabbit 		? – 1328 Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco,
Quetzal
six children 		1328
Zaachila
Lord 3 Alligator
(Ozomatli)		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Flower and Lady 4 Rabbit of Teozacoalco 		1328 – 1361 Lady 12 Flint
Staff of Respect

Lady 10 House Jewel

five children in total 		1361
Zaachila
Lord 11 Water
Stone Rain
(Cosijoeza I; Huijatoo)		 ?
Son of Lord 3 Alligator 		1361 – 1386 Lady 8 Movement of Zaachila,
Fire Serpent
no children

Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli,
Plumed Serpent
six children 		1386
Zaachila
Lord 6 Water
Cracked Boards
(Zaachila I)		 c.1350
Son of Lord 11 Water and Lady 13 Serpent of Cacaxtli 		1386 – 1415 Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco,
Sun Jewel
one child 		1415
Zaachila
aged 64–65
Lord 3 Reed
Smoked Eye
(Zaachila II)		 ?
Son of Lord 6 Water and Lady 1 Reed of Tlaxiaco 		1415 – 1454 Unmarried 1454
Zaachila		 Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a cousin.
Lord 5 Reed Twenty Jaguars
(Cosijopii I; Zaachila III)		 1397
Son of Lord 2 Water, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 3 Alligator of Zaachila 		1454 – 1487 Unmarried 1487
Zaachila
aged 89–90		 Left no descendants. He was succeeded by a nephew.
Lord 8 Deer
Fire Serpent
(Cosijoeza II)		 ?
Son of Lord 5 Rain, King of Teozacoalco and Lady 5 Flower of Tlaxiaco 		1487 – 1504 Xilabela of the Aztec Empire
two children 		1504
Zaachila		 Nephew of the predecessor. Had a twin sister, Lady 8 Deer, who ascended to the throne of Tlaxiaco.
Regency of Xilabela of the Aztec Empire (1504-1518) Siblings, it's possible that they ruled jointly.
Cosijopii II 30 December 1502
Zaachila
Son of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire 		1504 – 1523 ? 1563
Zaachila
aged 60–61
Pinopija ?
Zaachila
Daughter of Lord 8 Deer and Xilabela of the Aztec Empire 		1504 – 1520 ? c.1520
Zaachila
Zaachila annexed to the Aztec Empire

In Mixteca Baja

[edit]

Acatlan

[edit]
See also: Acatlán de Osorio
  • ?: Lord 1 Rain
  • ?: Lord 9 Reed (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 6 Deer (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 8 Flint (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 8 Alligator (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 7 Monkey (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 8 Movement (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 9 Flint (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 6 Water (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 4 Eagle (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 10 Reed (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 4 Flower (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 4 House (son of the previous)
  • ?-1519/20: Unknown (son of the previous)

Chila

[edit]
See also: Chila (municipality)
  • ?: Lord 10 Flint
  • ?: Lord 4 Deer (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 1 Eagle (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 13 Dog (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 13 Reed (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 2 Monkey (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 10 Monkey (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 10 Movement (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 3 House (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 8 Wind (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 6 Rabbit (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 13 Death (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 1 House (son of the previous)
  • ?: Lord 5 Monkey (son of the previous)
  • ?-1519/20: Lord 4 Dog (son of the previous)

Language, codices, and artwork

[edit]
The preconquest Codex Bodley, page 21, names Lord Eight Grass as being the last king of Tiaxiaco.
Shield of Yanhuitlan in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico city

The Mixtecan languages (in their many variants) were estimated to be spoken by about 300,000 people at the end of the 20th century, although the majority of Mixtec speakers also had at least a working knowledge of the Spanish language. Some Mixtecan languages are called by names other than Mixtec, particularly Cuicatec (Cuicateco), and Triqui (or Trique).

The Mixtec are well known in the anthropological world for their Codices or phonetic pictures[clarification needed] in which they wrote their history and genealogies in deerskin in the "fold-book" form. The best-known story of the Mixtec Codices is that of Lord Eight Deer, named after the day in which he was born, whose personal name is Jaguar Claw, and whose epic history is related in several codices, including the Codex Bodley and Codex Zouche-Nuttall. He successfully conquered and united most of the Mixteca region.

They were also known for their exceptional mastery of jewelry and mosaic, among which gold and turquoise figure prominently. Products by Mixtec goldsmiths formed an important part of the tribute the Mixtecs paid to the Aztecs during parts of their history.[21][unreliable source?] Turquoise mosaic masks also played an important role in both political and religious functions.[22] These masks were used as gifts to form political alliances, in ceremonies during which the wearer of the mask impersonated a god, and were fixed to funerary bundles that were seen as oracles.[23]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mixtec

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from Grokipedia
The Mixtecs, known to themselves as the Ñuu Savi or "People of the Rain," are an indigenous Mesoamerican whose ancestral homeland, the Mixteca, extends across portions of the modern Mexican states of , , and . They represent the third-largest Native Mexican ethnic group and developed a series of autonomous Postclassic kingdoms (ca. 900–1521 CE) marked by dynastic marriages, conquests, and ritual practices rather than centralized imperial control. Their cultural legacy includes a sophisticated pictorial , distinct from but contemporaneous with Aztec glyphs, preserved in screenfold codices that chronicle royal genealogies, territorial foundations, and political events dating back to at least 940 CE. Archaeological evidence from sites like , which Mixtecs assumed control of around 1350 CE after the Zapotecs, reveals elite tombs containing mosaics, ornaments, and imported goods indicative of extensive regional and artisanal expertise. These artifacts and manuscripts highlight the Mixtecs' integration into Mesoamerican networks while maintaining localized polities centered on yya ñuu (hill-country lordships). Post-conquest, Mixtec communities persisted, adapting their traditions amid colonial impositions, with codices serving as vital records for indigenous historiography.

Etymology and Terminology

Nomenclature and Self-Identification

The exonym "Mixtec" originates from the Nahuatl term mixtēcah, denoting the "inhabitants of the cloud land" or "cloud people," a reference to the foggy, elevated terrain of their homeland in the Sierra Madre mountains. This Nahuatl designation, adopted by Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, reflected Aztec perceptions of the region's perpetual mists and the people's residence in highland areas like Mixtlan, where mix- signifies "cloud." In contrast, the Mixtec autonym is Ñuu Savi (or variants such as Ñuu N'davi), literally meaning "people of the " or " people" in the Mixtec language, emphasizing their cultural and environmental ties to the rainy highlands of , , and . Pre-Columbian Mixtec speakers did not employ a singular pan-ethnic term; instead, they identified primarily with specific city-states or ñuu (communal lands), such as Ñuu Dzavui for the Tututepec kingdom, though retrospective collective usage of Ñuu Savi encompasses their dispersed polities across . Contemporary Mixtec communities, numbering approximately 500,000 speakers of divergent Mixtec dialects, continue to favor Ñuu Savi for self-reference, distinguishing it from imposed colonial labels.

Historical Overview

Origins and Early Settlement (Pre-Classic Period)

The Pre-Classic period (ca. 2000 BCE–250 CE) in the Mixteca region of , , witnessed the emergence of sedentary agricultural settlements that form the archaeological precursors to Mixtec civilization. Early farming villages appeared by around 1500 BCE, characterized by small communities relying on cultivation, production, and limited hunting in the highlands of La Mixteca Alta. These settlements, such as those documented in surveys of the Nochixtlán Valley, reflect initial adaptations to the region's dissected topography, with occupations on defensible hilltops and slopes conducive to terracing. Excavations at Etlatongo, a key site in La Mixteca Alta, reveal evidence of social complexity as early as the Middle Pre-Classic (ca. 1500–400 BCE), including the construction of the earliest known highland , radiocarbon dated to 1374 BCE (calibrated). This feature, associated with ritual ballgames central to Mesoamerican interaction spheres, indicates integration into regional networks and public ceremonialism, alongside domestic figurines suggesting household rituals involving fertility and ancestor veneration. By the Late Pre-Classic (ca. 400 BCE–200 CE), sites like Etlatongo expanded to approximately 26 hectares, featuring higher-status platform mounds, elite residences, and communal plazas that signal nascent hierarchies and urbanizing trends. Proto-Mixtec populations, inferred from linguistic reconstructions of and ceramic continuity, likely inhabited these areas, distinguishing themselves through localized pottery styles and subsistence strategies amid interactions with neighboring Zapotec groups in the . Settlement patterns emphasized dispersed villages rather than centralized nucleation, with population densities remaining modest until later periods, constrained by environmental factors like seasonal aridity and . This foundational phase laid the groundwork for the polities that characterized Mixtec development in the subsequent Classic era.

Development of City-States (Classic and Early Postclassic)

During the period (ca. 200–900 CE), Mixtec settlements in the Mixteca Alta region evolved from Formative-era villages into hierarchical polities characterized by hilltop urbanism and dispersed centers, lacking a single dominant capital akin to in the Valley of . Archaeological surveys reveal dozens of "mini-Monte Albáns"—compact urban sites on defensible hilltops, each spanning 30–100 hectares, with populations likely numbering in the thousands per center and multiple coexisting polities per valley. These sites featured centralized plazas flanked by platform mounds (up to 5 m high and 25–40 m per side), extensive terracing for agriculture and habitation (e.g., 82 terraces at Cerro Encantado), ballcourts, and defensive walls (up to 700 m long), indicating organized labor mobilization and elite oversight of ritual and craft production. Evidence from systematic surface collections at secondary centers like Cerro de la Cantera, El Peñasco, and Cerro Yucuayuxi shows ceramic influences from the Valley of , suggesting cultural exchange but political autonomy, with single-plaza layouts pointing to centralized governance by elite households rather than multi-palace complexes. Protohistoric political forms, such as the yuhuitayu (small modular kingdoms with limited territorial control), likely crystallized by the Early Classic subphase (ca. 200–500 CE), fostering intraregional competition without evidence of overarching hegemony or subordination to external powers like . Population densities rose, with tens of thousands inhabiting the Mixteca Alta by the Middle Classic (ca. 500–700 CE), supported by terraced farming on steep slopes, though Late Classic (ca. 700–900 CE) phases show continuity amid regional instability, including possible conflicts inferred from defensive features and sparse monumental construction compared to earlier subphases. No large-scale inscriptions or codices survive from this era, limiting direct insights into rulership, but architectural standardization implies stratified societies with elites controlling access to plazas for ceremonies and redistribution. In the Early Postclassic (ca. 900–1200 CE), Mixtec city-states persisted in their decentralized pattern across the Mixteca Alta and Baja, with small kingdoms maintaining modest urban cores amid post-Monte Albán transformations in . However, exceptions emerged on the , where Tututepec (Yucu Dzaa) developed into a prominent state by the CE, controlling lowland territories through alliances and expansion, as evidenced by distributions linking it to highland Mixteca centers and distant Cholula. Highland sites continued hilltop settlement with refined public architecture, reflecting sustained hierarchy and adaptation to environmental constraints like erosion-prone slopes, setting the stage for Late Postclassic imperial growth without disrupting the core yuhuitayu model of localized rule. Overall, this era's developments prioritized resilience through modular polities over centralized empire-building, driven by geographic fragmentation and resource competition.

Peak and Interactions in the Late Postclassic

The Late Postclassic period (ca. AD 1100–1521) marked the apogee of Mixtec political complexity, characterized by the consolidation of states amid a of competing city-states. Tututepec (Yucu Dzaa), located on the of , emerged as the preeminent Mixtec imperial center, governing a tributary domain exceeding 25,000 km² through military expansion and dynastic ties. This polity's rise, beginning around AD 1000–1100, capitalized on regional fragmentation following earlier upheavals, enabling control over diverse territories from coastal lowlands to highland extensions. Archaeological evidence from Tututepec reveals extensive residential zones and elite compounds supporting a hierarchical administration that integrated subordinate communities via and alliance. Mixtec interactions during this era emphasized marital diplomacy and trade networks linking coastal empires like Tututepec to highland polities in the Mixteca Alta and Baja regions. Royal marriages, as depicted in codices such as the Codex Selden, forged enduring bonds between ruling lineages, facilitating the exchange of goods like cacao, feathers, and crafted items across ecological zones. These ties extended to rival Zapotec states, where alliances coexisted with territorial conflicts, evidenced by shared iconographic motifs and settlement overlaps in Oaxaca's valleys. Warfare remained a tool for expansion, with Mixtec lords employing ritual combat and captive-taking to assert dominance, yet pragmatic coalitions often tempered outright . Broader cultural exchanges contributed to the Mixteca-Puebla stylistic horizon, a syncretic artistic tradition blending Mixtec, Zapotec, and central Mexican elements that influenced Aztec pictorial conventions and symbolism. Highland Mixteca Alta sites exhibited peak population densities, with urban centers like those in the Nochixtlán Valley supporting intensified craft production and ritual activities. By the mid-15th century, Aztec incursions under rulers like imposed tribute demands on peripheral Mixtec kingdoms, though core states like Tututepec retained substantial through negotiated vassalage rather than full subjugation. Ethnohistoric accounts and codices corroborate this dynamic, portraying Mixtec elites navigating external pressures via and selective integration.

Spanish Conquest and Colonial Adaptation

The Spanish entry into Mixtec territories occurred in the early 1520s, as extended influence southward into after the 1521 . Mixtec communities, such as San Juan Chapultepec under don Diego Cortés Dzahui Yuchi, allied with Spanish forces and local groups like Cuilapan and Xoxocotlan against Nahua migrants, welcoming Cortés and ceding lands per his directives to secure favorable terms. This cooperation minimized direct military confrontation in many señoríos, where local rulers negotiated submission to preserve existing hierarchies rather than face annihilation. By the mid-1520s, Spanish and had established presence in key Mixtec centers, leveraging the region's intact political structures and productivity for tribute extraction. Further consolidation came through expeditions targeting resistant pockets, with Pedro de Alvarado's campaigns in 1526–1527 subduing Mixtec and Zapotec holdouts in , enforcing systems that bound communities to Spanish overlords while allowing caciques to mediate labor and tribute obligations. Despite these impositions, outright rebellion remained limited, as Mixtec elites often prioritized survival through alliances, contrasting with more protracted conflicts elsewhere in . Population losses, primarily from introduced diseases like rather than battle casualties, reduced Mixtec numbers dramatically—from an estimated 700,000–1,000,000 pre-conquest to under 200,000 by 1600—undermining unified resistance. In the colonial era, Mixtecs adapted via flexible , retaining cacique-led hierarchies within repúblicas de indios that afforded local governance autonomy under royal oversight, enabling persistence of native languages, kinship networks, and customs. Dynastic records like the Codex Yanhuitlan (ca. 1540s–1550s) exemplify this transition, merging pre-Hispanic pictorial conventions with Spanish legal motifs to document successions, tribute lists, and elite pacts, positioning caciques as bridges between indigenous and colonial authority. Economically, communities sustained (maize, beans, dye) and craft production, integrating into tribute networks that supplied New Spain's markets, while cultural resilience manifested in syncretic —blending Catholic rites with ancestral rituals—sustained by clerical tolerance in remote areas. Marriage alliances among elites further stabilized power, incorporating Spanish nomenclature (e.g., "don") without fully eroding patrilineal descent. This pragmatic accommodation, rooted in decentralized señoríos, allowed Mixtec identity to endure amid demographic collapse and evangelization pressures.

Geography and Environment

La Mixteca Regions

, the ancestral territory of the Mixtec people, spans approximately 45,000 square kilometers across the states of , , and in southern , characterized by varied from rugged highlands to coastal plains that influenced prehispanic settlement and economic specialization. This is divided into three primary subregions—Mixteca Alta, Mixteca Baja, and Mixteca de la Costa—differentiated by elevation, climate, and ecological features, which shaped distinct Mixtec polities and interregional interactions during the Postclassic period (ca. 900–1521 CE). The Mixteca Alta encompasses the elevated core highlands of the Sierra Madre del Sur, primarily in western , with extensions into northeastern and southern , featuring fractured mountainous terrain, pine-forested slopes, and fertile valleys at elevations of 1,700 to 2,300 meters. This subregion, measuring roughly 90 by 128 kilometers, supported dense populations through sloped-field terracing for , beans, and other crops, serving as the demographic and political heartland of Mixtec city-states like Tilantongo and Tututepec's highland allies, with evidence of occupation dating back over 5,000 years. Cool, moist conditions in valleys contrasted with semi-arid uplands, fostering specialized and that underpinned regional hegemony. The Mixteca Baja occupies transitional lowlands and valleys northwest of and southwest of , marked by hot, semiarid plateaus and arid basins that linked highland and coastal zones via corridors. With elevations generally below 1,000 meters, this area experienced irregular rainfall and sparse vegetation, limiting large-scale agriculture but enabling herding and exchange networks for goods like cacao and feathers, as documented in Mixtec codices depicting alliances across these divides. Its fragmented promoted numerous small polities rather than unified kingdoms, contributing to the mosaic of Mixtec political fragmentation observed ethnohistorically. The Mixteca de la Costa comprises tropical coastal plains along the Pacific, rising from sandy lowlands to foothills up to 1,200 meters in height, integrated with the Sierra Madre del Sur and enriched by riverine estuaries. This humid, resource-abundant zone in coastal supported fishing, salt production, and tropical crops like , facilitating maritime with distant Mesoamerican centers and hosting powerful ports such as Tututepec, which exerted influence over highland domains by the CE. ecosystems and seasonal flooding influenced settlement patterns, with archaeological sites revealing elite residences tied to long-distance exchange.

Settlement Patterns and Urban Centers

The Mixtec settlement patterns were characterized by a preference for defensible hilltop and ridgetop locations, particularly in the Mixteca Alta and Baja regions, where rugged and recurrent warfare necessitated fortified positions. These sites often featured extensive terracing for both and residential use, enabling dense populations in otherwise challenging environments; archaeological surveys indicate that the majority of Mixtec urban centers were such terraced hilltop settlements, supporting intensive cultivation via slope modification and water management systems. In the Mixteca Costa, settlements shifted toward coastal and riverine valleys, facilitating and tribute extraction, though hilltop fortifications persisted for elite residences and defense. Major urban centers emerged during the and Postclassic periods (ca. AD 200–1521), functioning as political capitals, ritual hubs, and economic nodes within a of competing city-states known as ñuu. In the Mixteca Alta, Tilantongo (Ñuu Iñño) served as an ancient capital and dynastic origin point, referenced extensively in Mixtec codices for its role in alliances and conquests from at least the Early Postclassic (ca. AD 900–1100). Yucuita, a key Classic-period center, developed into a complex urban hub with monumental and craft production, supporting populations through nearby agricultural terraces. Huamelulpan, in the western Mixteca Alta, represents one of Mesoamerica's earliest urban formations, with Formative-to-Classic occupation featuring large platforms and ballcourts indicative of centralized authority by ca. 500 BC–AD 200. On the coast, Tututepec (Yucu Dzaa) emerged as the capital of a expansive empire in the Late Postclassic (ca. AD 1100–1521), controlling southern n territories through military expansion and maritime trade; excavations reveal a core site spanning 200 hectares with elite palaces, markets, and workshops. Other notable centers included Zaachila in the Valley of Oaxaca, a Postclassic Mixtec stronghold with royal tombs dating to ca. AD 1300–1500, and Jaltepec, documented in codices for its ruling lineages and strategic valley position. These polities varied in size from 10–50 hectares for primary centers, with villages forming hierarchical networks that integrated rural hamlets for labor and resources.

Political and Social Structure

Hierarchical Organization and Warfare

Mixtec polities, known as señorios or small kingdoms, were governed by a ruling couple termed yuhuitayu, comprising a hereditary (yya or ñuu) and his consort, whose stemmed from noble descent and legitimacy recorded in pictorial codices. These dynasties emphasized genealogical continuity, with power consolidated through strategic marriages between noble houses, often depicted as foundational events establishing integrated realms. The , divided into greater and lesser ranks (dzayya yya), held administrative roles, while managed religious affairs intertwined with , supporting a stratified system where elites derived status from mythic origins and conquests. Beneath the , Mixtec society included warriors who facilitated expansion, commoners engaged in and craftsmanship as peasants and artisans, and slaves primarily sourced from captives at the base of the . Commoners, termed macehual in colonial records reflecting prehispanic divisions, sustained the economy through labor, while slaves lacked autonomy and were used in households or rituals. This structure mirrored broader Mesoamerican patterns but was adapted to the fragmented highland and lowland environments of , with local variations in señorío size and influence. Warfare among Mixtec city-states focused on territorial control, tribute extraction, and captive acquisition for sacrificial rites, as illustrated in codices like the Zouche-Nuttall, which detail battles with weapons including obsidian-edged spears, clubs, and shields. Conflicts often arose from dynastic rivalries, culminating in conquests that expanded alliances or subjugated polities, with leaders ritually piercing noses or donning to symbolize victory. A prominent example is Lord Eight Deer Jaguar Claw (ca. 1063–1115 CE), who unified over 40 sites through campaigns and marriages, conquering regions from Tilantongo to the coast by 1101 CE before his assassination. Such endeavors underscored warfare's role in political consolidation, though chronic inter-señorío skirmishes prevented large-scale empires comparable to the .

Notable Rulers and Dynasties by Region

In the Mixteca Alta, the Tilantongo dynasty emerged as a dominant ruling lineage around 990 CE, founded through the strategic marriage of nobles in the ceremonial center of Tilantongo (Ñuu Iñño), which served as a key political and religious hub. This dynasty maintained continuity for centuries, with rulers tracing descent through both male and female lines, as recorded in pre-Hispanic codices such as the Zouche-Nuttall and Bodley. A pivotal figure was Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw (also known as 8 Venado or Ñuu David), born circa 1053 CE in Tilantongo to a priestly family, who rose through ritual investiture, military campaigns, and alliances, ruling until his death around 1115 CE. His exploits, including conquests that linked highland and coastal domains, are central to Mixtec historical narratives, though interpretations of codical events emphasize verifiable genealogical and calendrical data over mythic elements. The Mixteca de la Costa saw the rise of Tututepec (Yucu Dzaa) as a major polity under the influence of Tilantongo's expansion, particularly through Lord 8 Deer Jaguar Claw, who established control there after subduing local lords and forging marital ties around 1084–1095 CE. Tututepec's dynasty capitalized on coastal trade routes, integrating diverse ethnic groups and achieving prominence as a regional power by the late , with archaeological evidence from the site confirming elite burials and administrative structures. Successors maintained this lineage, though specific names beyond 8 Deer's era are less prominently detailed in surviving records. In the Mixteca Baja, dynasties governed smaller, more fragmented kingdoms, such as those near Yanhuitlan, with less centralized authority compared to the Alta or Costa; historical codices provide fewer specifics, indicating reliance on local alliances rather than expansive conquests. Ruling families here, like in other regions, emphasized noble descent and ritual legitimacy, but the area's rugged terrain limited the scale of documented polities until post-conquest integrations.

Economy and Technology

Agriculture, Trade, and Resources

The Mixtecs adapted agricultural practices to the rugged terrain of , emphasizing intensive cultivation to support dense populations in city-states during the Postclassic period (ca. 800–1521 CE). In the highlands of Mixteca Alta, households constructed cross-channel terraces on slopes to capture runoff and expand cultivable land, yielding one annual crop cycle primarily of , beans, and squash—the foundational "three sisters" that enriched soil through symbiotic growth. Slash-and-burn clearing supplemented terracing in flatter zones, while limited diverted streams for dry-season planting, mitigating reliance on erratic rainfall. Paleoethnobotanical analysis from sites like Achiutla confirms dominance in Postclassic diets, alongside secondary crops such as chili peppers, for textiles, and greens, with household labor organizing production for both subsistence and surplus. Natural resources underpinned Mixtec craftsmanship and exchange, with the region providing minerals essential for . Deposits of , , silver, and low-gold alloys () in enabled specialized workshops to produce bells, needles, ornaments, and ceremonial items using and depletion gilding techniques, reflecting advanced technical knowledge by the Late Postclassic. insects harvested from cacti yielded a vibrant red dye prized for textiles and codices, while magnetite sands supported early , and forests supplied timber, fuels, and hunting grounds for supplementary protein via traps and spears. quarries nearby furnished tool materials, though broader procurement integrated external sources. Trade networks linked Mixtec polities internally across Alta, Baja, and coastal zones, and externally to Zapotec, Aztec, and Tarascan spheres, facilitating the flow of perishable and luxury items. Agricultural surpluses, , pottery, and metal artifacts were bartered for Pacific fish bones, Gulf shells, and ceramics, as evidenced by inland archaeological assemblages. Merchant intermediaries and elite alliances drove these exchanges, with Mixtec goldwork and mosaics reaching central , enhancing economic resilience amid warfare and environmental constraints. Such commerce, often pochteca-inspired but localized, amplified resource access without centralized imperial control.

Innovations in Metallurgy and Craftsmanship

The Mixtecs developed advanced metallurgy during the Late Postclassic period (ca. 1100–1521 CE), focusing on gold, copper, silver, and alloys such as tumbaga (a gold-copper mixture) sourced from regional mines and trade networks. This craft emerged late in Mesoamerican chronology, influenced by South American techniques transmitted via coastal trade routes, enabling the production of intricate jewelry, bells, and ceremonial ornaments that signified elite status. Artisans at sites like Tututepec specialized in small-scale, high-precision items, distinguishing Mixtec work through its fine detailing and integration of Mixteca-Puebla stylistic elements, such as anthropomorphic figures and symbolic motifs. A hallmark was the use of molds to fabricate standardized clay cores for , allowing efficient production of hollow, uniform artifacts like beads and pendants. In this process, wax models were coated in clay, invested in molds fired to create cores, then melted out and replaced with molten metal, yielding complex shapes unattainable by hammering alone. Excavations at Tututepec yielded over 40 such molds from elite workshops, evidencing specialized labor divisions and technological refinement that supported economies and elite . Mixtec smiths employed to enhance tumbaga's appearance, selectively corroding surface copper with plant-derived acids (e.g., from ) to reveal a gold-rich , thus maximizing visual impact from lower-gold alloys. Complementary techniques included repoussé hammering for designs, for assembly, and false wire work simulating woven patterns, often applied to items like anthropomorphic figurines and ear spools. These methods produced artifacts of exceptional finesse, such as gold pendants depicting rulers or deities, which circulated widely and were prized by neighboring powers like the for their technical superiority. Beyond , Mixtec craftsmanship excelled in ceramics featuring intricate geometric and narrative scenes painted in multiple fired colors, alongside of and palm fiber into elite garments. These arts intertwined with metalwork in tomb assemblages, as at Tomb 7 at , where metal ornaments complemented ceramic vessels and codices, reflecting a holistic aesthetic of prestige and cosmology. The proficiency of Mixtec artisans elevated their region's output in Mesoamerican exchange systems, with metal goods serving as diplomatic gifts and status markers until the Spanish conquest disrupted production.

Language and Writing Systems

Mixtec Languages and Dialects

The constitute the primary branch of the Mixtecan subgroup within the Eastern Otomanguean , a Mesoamerican native to southern . These languages are tonal, employing pitch distinctions to convey meaning, and exhibit significant phonological and lexical variation across varieties. They are spoken predominantly in , a highland region spanning , , and states, where speakers number approximately 500,000, ranking Mixtec among Mexico's most populous indigenous language clusters after and Maya. Linguistic diversity within Mixtec is profound, with over 50 recognized varieties often treated as dialects in broader classifications but functioning as distinct due to limited , particularly between non-adjacent communities. Neighboring dialects may share comprehension, facilitating regional communication, yet distant forms diverge substantially, comparable to the ' internal spread. Academic classifications, such as those by Josserand (1983), divide Mixtec into 5 to 12 major dialectal regions—often grouped geographically as Lowland, Midland, and Highland Mixtec—reflecting historical migrations and geographic isolation in rugged terrain. The Catalogue of Endangered Languages identifies 12 core languages, while broader inventories like list up to 52 variants, underscoring debates over versus language status based on sociolinguistic and intelligibility thresholds. Many Mixtec varieties face endangerment from Spanish dominance, urbanization, and migration, with assessing nearly half of the approximately 50 dialects as severely endangered or at risk as of assessments in the . In alone, the 2010 census recorded 264,769 speakers across recognized variants, but intergenerational transmission has declined in some communities due to economic pressures favoring Spanish. Efforts to document and revitalize include digital corpora and parallel texts for , highlighting persistent vitality in rural strongholds despite vulnerabilities. Closely related to and Cuicatec within Mixtecan, Mixtec's subgroups show proto-historical sound changes traceable via comparative reconstruction, aiding philological study.

Codices, Pictography, and Historical Records

The Mixtec utilized a in their codices, relying on pictorial glyphs and conventionalized scenes to document historical events, genealogies, and rituals during the Postclassic period (ca. 900–1521 CE). These manuscripts were typically painted on deerskin strips folded in accordion fashion, with content organized into registers separated by red lines, depicting sequential narratives of rulers' lives, marriages (symbolized by hand-holding), conquests, and town foundings. Personal identifiers combined a coefficient from 1 to 13 with one of 20 day signs drawn from the 260-day sacred , such as "Eight Deer" for the prominent ruler Lord , born on June 21, 1064 CE. Place glyphs stylized settlements with totemic features like animals or landmarks, while dates integrated the 52-year round for chronological precision. The system emphasized visual semantics over phonetics, using ideograms for actions and attributes, with reading directions alternating by register (right-to-left above, left-to-right below). Six principal pre-Hispanic Mixtec codices survive: the , Codex Selden, Codex Bodley, Codex Colombino-Becker, Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus I, and Codex Becker I. These interconnect to reconstruct dynastic histories spanning from the to the Spanish conquest, including the unification campaigns of Lord Eight Deer, who forged alliances across chiefdoms like Tilantongo and Tututepec, as detailed in the Codex Zouche-Nuttall's 47 deerskin leaves (19 cm high, 1113.5 cm unfolded). The Codex Selden, for instance, traces over 400 years of genealogy, beginning around the year 4 or 5 Reed with foundational events in Jaltepec and Tilantongo, while the Codex Bodley extends narratives of Lord Four Wind, son of . Such records legitimized authority through divine descent myths, like the War of Heaven, and ritual elements including ceremonies, providing the primary evidence for Mixtec political organization and succession.

Religion, Ritual, and Worldview

Core Beliefs and Cosmology

![Codex Vindobonensis depicting Mixtec origins][float-right] The Mixtec conceived of the cosmos as originating from sacred natural features and structured through acts, as evidenced in the Vindobonensis Mexicanus 26, which portrays the emergence of spiritual beings and the performance of ten foundational rituals to order landforms, places, and the broader . These rituals underscore a where cosmic stability depended on human-divine interactions to establish between earthly realms and supernatural forces. Central to Mixtec origin narratives is the site of Apoala in the Mixteca Alta, associated with a known as Tnu Yuhndu from which ancestral figures emerged, symbolizing the linkage between divine ancestry and territorial foundation. This myth integrates with broader cosmological motifs, including descent from heaven via sacred cords and entrances marked by cosmic symbols like plant mats, indicating a layered with access points to upper and lower realms. Unlike the more rigidly stratified 13 heavens and 9 underworlds of Aztec cosmology, Mixtec depictions emphasize symbolic interconnections between celestial bodies, historical events, and dynastic legitimacy rather than explicit multi-level hierarchies. Core beliefs revolved around a pantheon of supernaturals often identified by calendrical day names, such as the death-associated 9 Grass (Ñaña Ñuhu), who appear in codices advising rulers and blurring distinctions between deified ancestors, localized spirits, and abstract deities. This system lacked the centralized, integrative pantheon of neighboring cultures, favoring instead region-specific patrons tied to fertility, warfare, and lineage continuity, with rain deities like Dzahui central to agricultural prosperity through dedicated highland sanctuaries. The world was oriented into four directional quarters, each with symbolic significance in codical representations, reflecting a causal framework where cosmic order, human actions, and environmental forces interlinked to sustain societal and natural cycles.

Practices, Sacrifices, and Social Functions

Mixtec religious practices encompassed a range of rituals centered on propitiating deities to sustain cosmic order, agricultural fertility, and social hierarchy, including autosacrifice through bloodletting and offerings of goods or captives. Bloodletting involved piercing the tongue, ears, or genitals with maguey thorns or stingray spines, a form of self-offering to nourish gods and ancestors, as inferred from broader Mesoamerican patterns and iconographic motifs in Mixtec codices depicting elites engaged in such acts. Human sacrifice, though less archaeologically attested than among Aztecs, appears in codices as a ritual killing of enemies or symbolic figures, often to affirm divine favor or historical legitimacy. Depictions in codices like the Vienna Codex illustrate sacrificial acts tied to foundational myths, such as heart extraction performed by deities like Seven Movement on a stone figure, symbolizing the transition from primordial chaos to ordered and human society. Other methods included arrow sacrifice, where victims were bound and shot with arrows, and possibly of captives, serving to reenact mythological precedents and ensure renewal of the world. These acts were not quotidian but tied to critical events like temple dedications, accessions, or droughts, with victims typically warriors from rival city-states, emphasizing warfare's dimension. Archaeological evidence remains sparse, with cranial remains at sites like Huamelulpan suggesting post-mortem processing, but codices provide the primary visual record of these practices' antiquity and variability. Socially, sacrifices functioned to reinforce and networks among Mixtec city-states, where rulers orchestrated to display prowess, secure alliances, and legitimize dynasties recorded in genealogical codices. By controlling access to sacred and performance of rites, nobles elevated their status, transforming violent conquests into prestige-enhancing offerings that bound communities through shared participation in cosmic . This integration of with mitigated inter-polity conflicts while perpetuating hierarchies, as residences increasingly linked to sacrificial locales from the Postclassic period onward, fostering social cohesion amid fragmented polities. In contexts, smaller-scale with figurines echoed practices, embedding religious duties in daily life to affirm identity and reciprocity with forces.

Art, Architecture, and Material Culture

Architectural Achievements and Sites

Mixtec in the Postclassic period (ca. 900–1521 CE) featured fortified hilltop settlements adapted to the rugged terrain of Oaxaca's Mixteca region, prioritizing defensive positioning over large-scale monumental temples. Structures typically employed local stone for walls, for , and thatch or flat roofs, forming multi-room elite residences or palaces that served administrative and residential purposes. These compounds often included patios, benches, and integrated , reflecting a focus on elite domestic and funerary functions rather than public ceremonial pyramids seen in neighboring cultures. Prominent sites include Zaachila, a Late Postclassic Mixtec-Zapotec center where excavations since the uncovered a complex on a hilltop adjacent to the modern town, along with exhibiting stone slab construction and geometric motifs akin to those at . Tomb 1 at Zaachila, explored in the mid-20th century, contained human remains and artifacts indicative of elite burials, underscoring the site's role in Mixtec political organization until Spanish contact. Tututepec (Yucu Dzaa), an imperial capital on Oaxaca's coast flourishing from AD 1100 to 1522, demonstrates extensive residential architecture with hierarchical household layouts, including larger elite structures amid commoner dwellings, supporting a that controlled long-distance networks. In the Mixteca Alta, Tilantongo—established around 990 CE as a dynastic hub—likely featured similar palace-like buildings, as inferred from codical references and surface , while hilltop sites like Yucuñudahui preserve platforms and enclosures evidencing strategic . Funerary architecture represents a key achievement, with tombs often carved into hillsides or built beneath floors using corbelled or slab techniques; notable examples include Monte Albán's Tomb 7 (ca. 1000 CE), occupied by Mixtecs after Zapotec decline, which yielded , , and artifacts in a multi-chambered layout sealed by boulders. These structures highlight Mixtec ingenuity in integrating ritual spaces with elite residences, facilitating ancestor veneration central to their cosmology.

Artistic Styles in Codices, Ceramics, and Metalwork

Mixtec artistic expressions in , ceramics, and metalwork belong to the Mixteca-Puebla , which flourished during the Late Postclassic period from circa 900 to 1521 CE across and adjacent regions. This style integrates a cohesive iconographic system featuring deities, , and aristocratic figures to narrate dynastic histories, alliances, and sacred events, prioritizing symbolic density over naturalistic perspective. Codices, such as the and Codex Selden, consist of screenfold strips of tanned deerskin prepared with white as a base, painted in flat, vibrant hues including gold ochre, carmine red, turquoise blue, olive green, and outlined with precise black or red lines. Artistic conventions include stylized, semi-realistic portrayals of humans and gods in profile or ritual poses, embellished with elaborate headdresses, motifs, and glyphs denoting day signs, personal names, and locales; these elements form linear, sequential narratives of conquests, marriages, and accessions, underscoring a decorative emphasis on craftsmanship and symbolic precision. Ceramics replicate motifs on vessels like tripod bowls and jars, employing decoration with meticulously applied paints in red, orange, and black, often depicting interlocking geometric patterns, faces, and scenes. Production involved hand-coiling fine clays without wheels, low-temperature firing, and sometimes lacquering for enhanced color retention, yielding ornate yet functional wares that bridged elite artistry and daily use. Metalwork highlights Mixtec mastery in and (gold-copper alloy), crafted via to form intricate pendants, nose ornaments, and bells portraying rulers with ceremonial such as lip plugs, earrings, staffs, and shields. Techniques extended to for textured surfaces and false filigree for ornamental detailing, producing lightweight, symbolic items for personal adornment and tomb offerings, as seen in assemblages of over 120 pieces from tombs dating to the post-900 CE era.

Interactions with Neighboring Cultures

Relations with Zapotecs, Aztecs, and Toltecs

The Mixtecs and Zapotecs, as neighboring cultures in the Oaxaca region, engaged in a mix of alliances, marriages, and conflicts throughout the Postclassic period (c. 900–1521 CE), as depicted in Mixtec codices such as the and Codex Selden, which record wars between Mixtec city-states and Zapotec towns alongside dynastic unions. Mixtec polities expanded into Zapotec-controlled valleys, leading to the occupation of major sites; for instance, Mixtecs established elite tombs at , originally a Zapotec center founded around 500 BCE, with artifacts from Tomb 7 dated to 1300–1450 CE indicating Mixtec dominance by the Late Postclassic. Similarly, Zaachila transitioned to Mixtec control by the , evidenced by Mixtec-style burials and confirmed by Spanish conquest-era accounts of its rule under Mixtec lords. Relations with the Toltecs (c. 900–1150 CE) were indirect, primarily through trade networks and rather than direct political interaction, with evidence of shared artistic motifs in the Mixtec-Puebla style, including tools and suggesting influence from central . Archaeological findings, such as similar metallurgical techniques and architectural elements, point to exchanges via intermediaries, though no codices or inscriptions document Toltec military campaigns in Mixtec territories. Aztec expansion into Mixtec highlands occurred under rulers like (r. 1486–1502 CE), who conquered several Mixtec kingdoms around 1487 CE, incorporating them as tributary provinces that supplied goods such as mantles, cacao, and feathers to . Highland Mixtecs paid regular tribute but retained local autonomy under puppet rulers, while coastal states like Tututepec resisted Aztec incursions and remained independent until the Spanish conquest.

Alliances, Conflicts, and Cultural Exchanges

Mixtec polities frequently formed alliances with neighboring Zapotec kingdoms through dynastic marriages, which served as a primary mechanism for political integration and territorial consolidation. These unions, extensively documented in Mixtec codices, linked ruling lineages across city-states and facilitated the exchange of resources and military support; for example, the Codex Selden records the marriage of Lord 1 Monkey of Jaltepec to Lady 7 Water of Tilantongo, exemplifying how such ties bound disparate señoríos into broader networks. Marital alliances extended to interactions with Tolteca-Chichimeca groups to the north, combining Nahua and Popoloca influences with Mixtec and Zapotec strategies against common threats. Conflicts with Zapotecs arose from territorial encroachments, particularly as Mixtecs expanded into the Central Valleys of between the 3rd and 8th centuries CE, displacing Zapotec populations and later reusing elite tombs at for Mixtec dignitaries from 1100 to 1350 CE. In the , the ruler (c. 1063–1115 CE) exemplified Mixtec expansionism through a series of conquests, including victories over Zapotec-influenced areas in the Valley of , bolstered by ritual ball games and oaths that forged temporary alliances with subdued lords before integrating them via . Relations with the involved both warfare and opportunistic alliances, as Mixtecs and Zapotecs occasionally united against Aztec incursions but were ultimately subjugated; Aztec forces under defeated the Mixtecs in 1458 CE, imposing enforced by a fort established at Huaxyácac in 1486 CE. Cultural exchanges with neighbors manifested in the Mixteca-Puebla artistic and symbolic complex of the Late Postclassic period (c. – CE), characterized by shared polychrome ceramics, , and ritual motifs like the "Old God" figure, which spread across influencing distant regions such as lowland Maya sites. This tradition reflected hybridized practices from trade and conflict with groups like Tlapanecs and in , evident in fragments indicating Mixtec stylistic diffusion. Shared divinatory systems, including almanacs in codices, underscore common ritual frameworks among Mixtecs, Zapotecs, and , adapting to local political needs. Agricultural techniques, such as maize-bean cultivation, and linguistic ties within the Oto-Manguean family further facilitated enduring exchanges despite rivalries.

Legacy and Modern Context

Archaeological Insights and Debates

Archaeological excavations at have provided pivotal insights into Mixtec elite practices through the discovery of Tomb 7 in 1931 by Alfonso Caso, revealing a Postclassic Mixtec reuse of a Classic-period Zapotec structure containing approximately 600 artifacts, including , silver, mosaics, and Mixtec-style carved bone objects depicting of warfare and captives. This tomb, dated to around 1250–1521 CE, underscores Mixtec mastery in metallurgy and work, with items like mosaics and ceremonial vessels indicating complex funerary rituals involving multiple interments, possibly of high-status individuals including warriors or rulers. Surveys in the Mixteca Alta, such as those at Tayata and nearby sites, demonstrate extensive settlement nucleation during the Early and Middle Formative periods (1400–300 BCE), with populations rivaling those in the Valley of Oaxaca, challenging earlier assumptions of marginality in the region and suggesting organized chiefdoms with monumental architecture precursors. Recent discoveries, including a Mixtec-Zapotec unearthed in San Juan Ixcaquixtla in 2023, reveal hybrid burial practices with stucco-decorated chambers and offerings like ceramic vessels, highlighting sustained cultural interactions and ancestor veneration among trader-warrior groups circa 500 CE. Debates persist regarding Mixtec origins and chronology, particularly the alignment of archaeological phases with codex histories; ceramic sequences in the Mixteca indicate potential gaps or overlaps with Oaxacan valleys, fueling discussions on whether Postclassic Mixtec polities represent indigenous evolution or migrations into Zapotec territories. Scholars like Ronald Spores argue for continuity from Formative settlements, supported by evidence of early at sites like Huamelulpan, while correlations remain contentious due to challenges in distinguishing historical events from mythic narratives and establishing absolute dates via colonial-era anchors. These unresolved issues underscore the need for integrated , radiocarbon, and epigraphic analyses to refine timelines and assess population dynamics amid environmental stresses.

Contemporary Mixtec Communities and Challenges

Contemporary Mixtec communities are concentrated in the Mixteca Alta, Mixteca Baja, and regions across the states of , , and in southwestern , where they maintain traditional agrarian lifestyles centered on , beans, and production. As of estimates drawn from linguistic surveys and demographic studies, around 500,000 people speak one of the over 50 Mixtec language variants, representing the third-largest indigenous language group in after and Maya. These communities, often organized into autonomous municipalities with customary systems like tequio (communal labor), face entrenched rural underdevelopment, with many villages lacking basic services such as paved roads, , and potable , exacerbating cycles of subsistence-level farming and seasonal labor migration. A substantial has formed through decades of labor migration, driven by economic pressures in ; by the early 1990s, 45,000 to 55,000 Mixtecs were estimated to work in California's Central Valley agriculture alone, with current peak-season figures for Mixtec farmworkers in the state hovering around 50,000, comprising 5-10% of the seasonal labor force. Additional populations reside in urban enclaves like (25,000-30,000 as of 2011) and northwestern Mexican states such as , where 21,000 Mixtec speakers were recorded in the 2020 census. These migrants often form paisano networks and hometown associations to remit funds—totaling millions annually to origin villages—for projects, while organizations like the Mixteco Indigena Project provide services in indigenous languages to address integration barriers. Key challenges include persistent poverty in the Mixteca region, characterized by high illiteracy rates, elevated infant mortality, and limited access to education and healthcare, which propel ongoing emigration as a survival strategy rather than choice. Language vitality is threatened by intergenerational shift, with monolingual speakers declining and discrimination—manifested in schools, workplaces, and social settings—discouraging use among youth and migrants, who increasingly adopt Spanish or English for economic mobility. In the United States, Mixtecs encounter exploitation in low-wage sectors, inadequate legal protections due to undocumented status, and cultural isolation, compounded by health disparities from occupational hazards and limited bilingual services. Preservation initiatives, including community-led radio stations and bilingual education programs in Oaxaca, aim to counter these pressures, though many variants remain endangered without sustained institutional support.

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