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The America First Committee (AFC) was an American isolationist pressure group against the United States' entry into World War II.[1][2] Launched in September 1940, it surpassed 800,000 members in 450 chapters at its peak.[3] The AFC principally supported isolationism for its own sake, and its varied coalition included Republicans, Democrats, Progressives, farmers, industrialists, communists, anti-communists, students, and journalists – however, it was controversial for the antisemitic and pro-fascist views of some of its most prominent speakers, leaders, and members.[4][5][6][7]

The AFC was dissolved on December 11, 1941, four days after the attack on Pearl Harbor and three days after Roosevelt declared war on Japan alone. It was the day of Hitler's Nazi German declaration of war against the United States as well as the Fascist Mussolini's Italian declaration of war on the United States on December 11, 1941. Their declarations of war on the United States brought it into the wider European theatre of World War II. This resulted in United States joining Britain and all the British Commonwealth countries that had been standing alone at war with Germany since shortly after its outbreak in early September 1939 after the German Invasion of Poland when Hitler had broken the terms of the Munich Agreement (France, Belgium, Holland, Norway along with the other European nations had been overrun and occupied by German forces shortly afterwards).

The AFC argued that no foreign power could successfully attack a strongly defended United States, that a British defeat by Nazi Germany would not imperil American national security, and that giving military aid to Britain would risk dragging the United States into the war. The group fervently opposed measures for the British advanced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt such as the destroyers-for-bases deal and the Lend-Lease bill, but failed in its efforts to block them.

The AFC was founded by Yale Law School student R. Douglas Stuart Jr., a Princeton graduate who was heir to the Quaker Oats Company fortune, and headed by Robert E. Wood, a retired U.S. Army general who was chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Co. Its highest-profile early official member was Henry Ford, the automotive pioneer and notorious anti-Semite, who resigned in controversy.[8][6] Halfway through the committee's 15-month existence, aviator Charles Lindbergh, who had already delivered 13 speeches on the group's behalf, officially joined it and became the most prominent speaker at its rallies.[9] Lindbergh's presence resulted in increased criticism that America First embraced overt anti-Semitism and fascist sympathies. Historian Susan Dunn has concluded that, "Though most of its members were probably patriotic, well-meaning, and honest in their efforts, the AFC would never be able to purge itself of the taint of anti-Semitism."[6]

Background and origins

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Students at the University of California (Berkeley) participate in a one-day peace strike opposing U.S. entrance into World War II, April 19, 1940

American isolationism of the late 1930s had many adherents, and as historian Susan Dunn has written, "isolationists and anti-interventionists came in all stripes and colors—ideological, economic, ethnic, geographical. Making up this eclectic coalition were farmers, union leaders, wealthy industrialists, college students, newspaper publishers, wealthy patricians, and newly arrived immigrants. There were a potpourri of affiliations and beliefs: Democrats, Republicans, Progressives, liberals, conservatives, socialists, communists, anti-communists, radicals, pacifists, and simple F.D.R.-haters."[7] One of the most famous incidents occurred in February 1939 with a German American Bund organization's Nazi-sympathizing rally, held at the famous sports arena Madison Square Garden in New York City, which attracted thousands.

Much of the impetus for this isolationism came from college students, with Yale University being a particularly strong outpost of such sentiments.[10] The America First Committee was established on September 4, 1940, by Yale Law School student R. Douglas Stuart, Jr. (son of R. Douglas Stuart, co-founder of Quaker Oats).[2] Stuart had been part of an earlier anti-interventionist student organization at Yale Law School,[2] one that began in Spring 1940 and included future president Gerald Ford, future U.S. Supreme Court justice Potter Stewart, and future diplomat Eugene Locke as signatories to an initial organizing letter.[11] Other Yale students who became involved were future Peace Corps director during the Kennedy presidential administration (and brother-in-law) Sargent Shriver,[12] and Kingman Brewster Jr., who would later become president of Yale University.[13] Stuart dropped out of Yale to focus on the anti-intervention cause, and during Summer 1940, he and Brewster found support for the cause among politicians in Washington and party conventions, and among corporate figures in Stuart's home area of Chicago.[10]

On September 5, the committee was publicly launched in a national radio broadcast by retired General Hugh S. Johnson, who had headed the National Recovery Administration (N.R.A.) during the early Great Depression as part of the New Deal programs combating the bad economic conditions for a while before President Roosevelt discharged him in 1934.[6]

Organization and membership

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America First chose retired Brigadier General Robert E. Wood, the 61-year-old chairman of Sears, Roebuck and Co., to preside over the committee.[1] Wood remained in his post until the AFC was disbanded after Germany and Italy declared war on the United States on 11 December 1941 four days after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[14]

Organizationally, America First had an executive committee of about seven people, which took the lead in forming America First policies.[15] Its initial members included Wood, Stuart, and several businessmen from the Midwest.[15] There was also a larger national committee, which was composed of prominent individuals who supported America First's aims.[15] Over the course of the organization's existence, some fifty people were part of the national committee.[15] Finally, there were local chapters organized in cities and towns of various size wherever a sizeable anti-interventionist feeling existed.[16] The existence of chapters permitted a more decentralized fundraising structure, with the chapters typically relying more on small contributions than the national entity.[17]

Serious organization and recruitment efforts took place from Chicago, the national headquarters of the committee, not long after the AFC's September 1940 establishment.[18] These included the taking out of full-page advertisements in leading newspapers in various cities and paying for radio broadcasts.[16] Fundraising drives produced about $370,000 from some 25,000 contributors. Nearly half came from a few millionaires such as William H. Regnery, H. Smith Richardson of the Vick Chemical Company, General Robert E. Wood of Sears-Roebuck, publisher Joseph M. Patterson (New York Daily News) and his cousin, publisher Robert R. McCormick (Chicago Tribune).[19] Other funding came from executives of Montgomery Ward, Hormel Foods, and the Inland Steel Company.[20]

Flyer for an America First Committee rally in St. Louis, Missouri in early April 1941

Renowned aviator Charles Lindbergh and controversial Catholic radio priest Charles Coughlin would serve as the main spokesmen for the committee.[21]

At its peak, America First claimed 800,000–850,000 members in 450 chapters, making the AFC one of the largest anti-war organizations in the history of the United States.[22] Two-thirds of members were located within a 300-mile radius of Chicago,[3] and 135,000 members in 60 chapters throughout Illinois, its strongest state.[23] There were almost no AFC chapters in the American South, where traditions of involvement in the military and ancestral ties to the United Kingdom (Great Britain) were both strong.[24]

The AFC was never able to draw sufficient funding to conducting its own public opinion polling. The New York chapter received slightly more than $190,000, most of it coming from its 47,000 contributors. As the AFC never had a national membership form or national dues, and local chapters were quite autonomous, historians point out that the organization's leaders had no idea how many "members" it had.[25]

The America First Committee attracted the sympathies of political figures, including: Democratic senators Burton K. Wheeler of Montana and David I. Walsh of Massachusetts, and Republican senators Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota and Henrik Shipstead of Minnesota. Philip La Follette, former Governor of Wisconsin and a founder of the Wisconsin Progressive Party, was another prominent member.[10] Overall, support from politicians was strongest in the Midwest.[20] Wheeler and Nye were especially active as speakers at America First rallies.[16] Other celebrities supporting America First were actress Lillian Gish and architect Frank Lloyd Wright.[26] Following his resignation as ambassador to the Court of St. James's in late 1940, the increasingly isolationist, anti-British, and defeatist Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. was offered the chance to head the America First Committee.[27] Members of the national committee included: advertising executive Chester Bowles, diplomat William Richards Castle Jr., journalist John T. Flynn, writer and socialite Alice Roosevelt Longworth, military officer and politician Hanford MacNider, novelist Kathleen Norris, New Deal administrator George Peek, film director Jack Conway and World War I flying ace and later aviation executive Eddie Rickenbacker.[15]

The aforementioned Gerald Ford was one of the first members of the AFC when a chapter formed at Yale University[28] (however he resigned from the AFC shortly afterward, lest he endanger his position as an assistant coach for Yale Bulldogs football);[29] Potter Stewart also served on the original committee of the AFC.[30] Another future president, and son of the former and recently resigned American ambassador to Britain (Joseph P. Kennedy Sr.), John F. Kennedy contributed $100 with an attached note, "What you are doing is vital."[31]

Issues

[edit]

When the war began in Europe (Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland) in September 1939, most Americans, including politicians, demanded neutrality regarding Europe.[32] Although most Americans supported strong measures against Japan, Europe was the focus of the America First Committee. The public mood was changing, however, especially after the fall of France in the spring of 1940.[33] Still, while a majority of the public favored sending material assistance to Great Britain in its fight against Nazi Germany, a majority also wanted the United States to stay out of direct participation in the war.[1]

There were various uncoordinated isolationist groups active during 1939–40, but the public disclosure by President Roosevelt of the destroyers-for-bases deal led to the announcement the following day, September 4, 1940, of the America First Committee, which would become the strongest such group.[1] In its announcement, the AFC advocated four basic principles:

  • The United States must build an impregnable defense for America.
  • No foreign power, nor group of powers, can successfully attack a prepared America.
  • American democracy can be preserved only by keeping out of the European war.
  • "Aid short of war" weakens national defense at home and threatens to involve America in war abroad.[16]
A Dr. Seuss editorial cartoon from early October 1941 criticizing America First

The America First Committee launched a petition aimed at enforcing the 1939 Neutrality Act and forcing President Franklin D. Roosevelt to keep his pledge to keep America out of the war. The committee profoundly distrusted Roosevelt,[4] and argued that he was lying to the American people.

On January 11, 1941, the day after Roosevelt's Lend-Lease bill was submitted to the United States Congress, Wood promised AFC opposition "with all the vigor it can exert."[34] America First staunchly opposed the convoying of ships involving the U.S. Navy, believing that any exchange of fire with German forces would likely pull the United States into the war.[35] It also opposed the Atlantic Charter and the placing of economic pressure on Japan.

Consequently, America First objected to any material assistance to Britain, such as in destroyers-for-bases, that might drag the United States into the war and remained firm in its belief that Nazi Germany posed no military threat to the United States itself.[1] The America First Committee was not a pacifist organization, however, and it based its beliefs around the aim that the United States would embody preparedness with a modern, mechanized army and a navy that would be strong in both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[10]

The principal pressure group opposing America First was the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies, which argued that a German defeat of Britain would in fact endanger American security, and which argued that aiding the British would reduce, not increase, the likelihood of the United States being pulled into the war.[36]

The Lend-Lease bill was debated fiercely in Congress for two months, and the America First Committee devoted its strength towards defeating it, but with the addition of a few amendments it was passed with solid margins in both houses of Congress and signed into law in March 1941.[1] In the end, America First failed in all its efforts to prevent Roosevelt's increasingly close relationship with Britain and failed in its efforts to legislatively block Roosevelt's actions.[36]

Antisemitism, Lindbergh, and other extremists

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"Seeking to brand itself as a mainstream organization, America First struggled with the problem of anti-Semitism of some of its leaders and many of its members", according to the historian Dunn.[6] The group had some Jewish members at the outset: Sears heir and philanthropist Lessing J. Rosenwald was on the national committee; former California congresswoman Florence Prag Kahn was a member; and the first publicity director for the New York chapter was Jewish.[6] However, the automotive pioneer and infamous anti-Semite Henry Ford had joined the national committee at the same time as Rosenwald, which soon led to Rosenwald resigning.[37] In response, America First removed Ford from the national committee and also removed from it Avery Brundage, whose actions at the 1936 Berlin Olympics were associated with anti-Semitism.[6] Attempts by America First to recruit other Jewish people to the national committee found no takers.[37] As Dunn writes, "the problem of anti-Semitism remained; some chapter leaders spewed anti-Semitic accusations, while others invited anti-Semitic speakers to address their members."[6] America First tried to keep some distance between itself and the popular radio priest and fascist sympathizer Father Coughlin.[38]

The world-famous American aviator Charles Lindbergh was admired in Germany and was allowed to see the buildup of the German air force, the Luftwaffe, in 1937. He was impressed by its strength and secretly reported his findings to the General Staff of the United States Army, warning them that the U.S. had fallen behind and that it must urgently build up its aviation.[39] Lindbergh, who had feuded with the Roosevelt administration for years,[40] delivered his first radio speech on September 15, 1939, through all three major radio networks.[41] Voicing his belief that people of Northern and Western European descent were the safeguards of civilization against Asia (which included the Soviet Union),[42] his speech argued that instead of fighting, all of Europe and the United States should "defend the white race against foreign invasion".[41]

For the first half of America First's 15 months of existence, the group and Lindbergh kept at arm's length from each other, as Stuart was leery of being too closely associated with some of the extreme views of Lindbergh's circle, while for his part the aviator preferred to act independently.[43] Wood, however, wanted to bring Lindbergh on, and on April 10, 1941, it was agreed that Lindbergh would join the national committee, with the aviator's first rally appearance taking place on April 17 at the Chicago Arena.[44]

Once he did join,[26] Lindbergh became America First's most prominent speaker.[1] His involvement significantly increased rally attendance and organization membership, but it also greatly increased the level of criticism that America First faced from interventionists and from the Roosevelt administration.[45]

On June 20, 1941, Lindbergh spoke to 30,000 people in Los Angeles and billed it as a "Peace and Preparedness Mass Meeting". Lindbergh criticized the movements that he perceived were leading America into the war and proclaimed that the U.S. was in a position that made it virtually impregnable. He also claimed that the interventionists and the British who called for "the defense of England" really meant "the defeat of Germany."[46][47]

Charles Lindbergh speaking at an America First Committee rally in Fort Wayne, Indiana, in early October 1941

A speech that Lindbergh delivered to a rally in Des Moines, Iowa, on September 11, 1941, may have significantly raised tensions. He identified the forces pulling America into the war as the British, the Roosevelt administration, and American Jews. While he expressed sympathy for the plight of the Jews in Germany, he argued that America's entry into the war would serve them little better:

It is not difficult to understand why Jewish people desire the overthrow of Nazi Germany. The persecution they suffered in Germany would be sufficient to make bitter enemies of any race. No person with a sense of the dignity of mankind can condone the persecution the Jewish race suffered in Germany. But no person of honesty and vision can look on their pro-war policy here today without seeing the dangers involved in such a policy, both for us and for them. Instead of agitating for war the Jewish groups in this country should be opposing it in every possible way, for they will be among the first to feel its consequences. Tolerance is a virtue that depends upon peace and strength. History shows that it cannot survive war and devastation. A few farsighted Jewish people realize this and stand opposed to intervention. But the majority still do not. Their greatest danger to this country lies in their large ownership and influence in our motion pictures, our press, our radio, and our government.[48]

Many condemned the speech as antisemitic. Journalist Dorothy Thompson wrote for the New York Herald Tribune an opinion that many shared: "I am absolutely certain that Lindbergh is pro-Nazi."[4] Republican presidential candidate Wendell Willkie criticized the speech as "the most un-American talk made in my time by any person of national reputation."[14] In the end, Lindbergh's remarks hurt the cause of the isolationists.[20]

During the period after Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union had signed the Molotov–Ribbentrop non-aggression pact, most American Communists were opposed to the United States entering World War II, and they tried to infiltrate or take over America First.[49][verification needed] After June 1941, when Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union, they reversed positions and denounced the AFC as a Nazi front, a group infiltrated by German agents.[50] Nazis also tried to use the committee. The aviator and orator Laura Ingalls' pro-Nazi rhetoric and straight-armed Nazi salutes on her America First speaking tour worried the group's leadership, but they allowed her to continue because of praise from local chapters where she had spoken.[51][52] When Ingalls was arrested in December 1941 and put on trial for being an unregistered Nazi agent, the prosecution revealed that her handler, German diplomat Ulrich Freiherr von Gienanth, had encouraged her to participate in AFC activities.[51] In addition to Ingalls, who was convicted, another America First speaker would be convicted for failing to register as a Japanese agent.[53]

Various historians have described attempts to keep Nazi and fascist sympathizers out of its chapters as not always successful.[53] Historian Alexander DeConde wrote, "Most of the America First supporters were middlewestern Republicans who distrusted the President for various reasons, but it was not a purely sectional organization or partisan political movement. Thousands of sincere Americans of varied background and from both political parties joined and contributed to it. It also attracted support from a number of fringe hate organizations, from anti-Semites, and from Nazi sympathizers. This minority support tarnished its reputation."[1] Author Max Wallace argues that by the summer of 1941, "extremist elements had successfully hijacked the movement".[54]

After Pearl Harbor

[edit]

After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, AFC canceled a rally with Lindbergh at Boston Garden "in view of recent critical developments,"[55] and the organization's leaders announced their support of the war effort. Lindbergh gave this rationale:[56]

We have been stepping closer to war for many months. Now it has come and we must meet it as united Americans regardless of our attitude in the past toward the policy our government has followed. Whether or not that policy has been wise, our country has been attacked by force of arms and by force of arms we must retaliate. Our own defenses and our own military position have already been neglected too long. We must now turn every effort to building the greatest and most efficient Army, Navy and Air Force in the world. When American soldiers go to war it must be with the best equipment that modern skill can design and that modern industry can build.

With the formal declaration of war against Japan, the organization chose to disband. On December 11, the committee leaders met and voted for dissolution,[57][58] the same day upon which Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States. In a statement released to the press, the AFC wrote:

Our principles were right. Had they been followed, war could have been avoided. No good purpose can now be served by considering what might have been, had our objectives been attained. We are at war. Today, though there may be many important subsidiary considerations, the primary objective is not difficult to state. It can be completely defined in one word: Victory.[59]

Once war was declared, the national leaders of the America First Committee supported the United States war effort, with many serving in some capacity. Similarly, many of the leaders of local chapters volunteered for service in the U.S. armed forces; a few continued to involve themselves in anti-war actions.[60]

Legacy

[edit]

In 1983, after his time as president of Yale had concluded, Brewster said he was glad that he and the other isolationists had failed. He also acknowledged that, consciously or not, there was anti-Semitism among the elites at Yale during that period.[29] Asked in a 2000 interview whether the leading members of the America First Committee had ever staged a reunion after the war, founder Stuart said, "No, we did not. We may be a little sensitive to the fact that the world still thinks we're the bad guys."[30]

Paleoconservative commentator Pat Buchanan has praised America First and used its name as a slogan. "The achievements of that organization are monumental," wrote Buchanan in 2004. "By keeping America out of World War II until Hitler attacked Stalin in June 1941, Soviet Russia, not America, bore the brunt of the fighting, bleeding and dying to defeat Nazi Germany."[61] Historian Wayne S. Cole concludes that while the America First Committee did not actually defeat any Roosevelt administration proposal in Congress, it made the margins of several such actions smaller than they would have been otherwise; and that throughout 1941, Roosevelt was constrained in his actions in support of Britain due to isolationist pressures in public opinion that America First did the most to mobilize.[62]

The re-use of the "America First" phrase by Donald Trump in the 2016 United States presidential election led to a look back at the America First Committee through the filter of contemporary events. This included views on the level of extremism found in the 1940–41 movement as well as analysis of whether the new Trump administration was isolationist in the same sense.[4][5]

See also

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References

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Further reading

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America First Committee

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The America First Committee (AFC) was a non-interventionist organization established on September 4, 1940, by Yale Law School students including R. Douglas Stuart Jr. and Kingman Brewster Jr., with the explicit aim of keeping the United States out of the ongoing European phase of World War II.[1][2] The group advocated strict neutrality, arguing that American involvement would primarily serve British imperial interests rather than vital U.S. security needs, and it drew support from a diverse coalition encompassing conservatives, progressives, business leaders, and pacifists who prioritized domestic recovery from the Great Depression over foreign entanglements.[3] Within months, the AFC expanded rapidly into the nation's largest anti-war lobby, amassing approximately 850,000 dues-paying members, establishing over 450 chapters across 40 states, and building a treasury exceeding $500,000 through grassroots fundraising.[3] Prominent spokesmen such as aviator Charles Lindbergh delivered high-profile speeches warning of the risks of provocation and economic drain from aid programs like Lend-Lease, while the committee organized massive rallies—drawing crowds of up to 25,000 in Chicago—and lobbied Congress against measures escalating U.S. commitments abroad.[1][3] Its efforts mirrored prevailing public opinion polls, which consistently showed majority opposition to intervention until the December 1941 Pearl Harbor attack shifted national resolve.[3] The AFC faced intense controversy, with interventionist critics in media and government—often aligned with the era's pro-Allied establishment—labeling it isolationist at best and accusing it of harboring pro-Nazi or anti-Semitic elements, particularly targeting Lindbergh's critiques of British propaganda, Roosevelt administration policies, and influential interventionist lobbies including some Jewish organizations.[3] Empirical examination reveals these charges were overstated for political effect, as the group's platform emphasized constitutional non-entanglement and American sovereignty without endorsing Axis powers; its membership and leadership spanned ideological lines, excluding overt fascists, and post-dissolution, most affiliates swiftly backed the war.[3] The committee formally disbanded on January 10, 1942, issuing a statement affirming loyalty to the U.S. and redirecting resources to national defense.[3]

Historical Context and Formation

Pre-War Isolationist Traditions

American isolationist traditions originated in the founding era, emphasizing avoidance of permanent foreign alliances to preserve national sovereignty and focus on domestic development. In his Farewell Address of September 17, 1796, President George Washington cautioned against "permanent alliances" and "entangling alliances with any portion of the foreign world," advocating temporary alliances only for "extraordinary emergencies" while promoting commerce with all nations on impartial terms.[4] This principle, echoed by Thomas Jefferson in his 1801 inaugural address urging "peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations—entangling alliances with none," reflected a strategic recognition of the United States' geographic separation from Europe, enabling prioritization of internal unity over overseas commitments.[5] These admonitions were not absolute pacifism but a pragmatic realism, grounded in the young republic's limited military capacity and the risks of European power politics, as evidenced by Washington's own experiences in the Revolutionary War and subsequent diplomacy.[6] The Monroe Doctrine of December 2, 1823, further codified this hemispheric focus, declaring the Western Hemisphere off-limits to future European colonization while disavowing U.S. interference in existing European colonies or internal affairs.[7] Articulated amid post-Napoleonic reconquests in Latin America, the doctrine asserted U.S. opposition to European powers' extension of influence but committed America to non-intervention in Old World conflicts, reinforcing isolation from global entanglements beyond continental defense.[8] Throughout the 19th century, this framework supported expansionist policies like Manifest Destiny within North America—annexing Texas in 1845, acquiring California via the 1848 Mexican-American War treaty, and purchasing Alaska in 1867—while avoiding formal alliances, as seen in U.S. neutrality during the Crimean War (1853–1856) and limited engagement in the Spanish-American War of 1898 confined to nearby Cuba and the Philippines. Such actions prioritized regional security and economic opportunity over ideological crusades, aligning with a causal view that distant wars drained resources without commensurate benefits. Post-World War I disillusionment intensified these traditions, culminating in the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles on November 19, 1919 (38–53 vote), which included U.S. membership in the League of Nations.[9] Opposition, led by figures like Henry Cabot Lodge, stemmed from fears that Article X's collective security obligations would subordinate American sovereignty to international bodies, echoing founders' warnings against entangling commitments; a second rejection followed on March 19, 1920 (49–35).[10] This stance persisted into the 1930s amid economic depression and revelations like the Nye Committee report (1934–1936), which alleged profiteering by munitions firms had drawn the U.S. into World War I, fueling public aversion to foreign aid.[11] Congress responded with the Neutrality Acts: the 1935 act (August 31) imposed an arms embargo on belligerents; the 1936 extension banned loans and credits; the 1937 comprehensive version added civil war restrictions, applied to the Spanish Civil War; and the 1939 revision allowed "cash-and-carry" sales to avoid convoy risks.[12] These measures, passed with overwhelming bipartisan support—e.g., the 1935 act by voice vote—reflected empirical lessons from 1917's submarine warfare and loans, prioritizing national security through non-involvement in Europe's escalating conflicts.[13]

Establishment and Initial Objectives

The America First Committee was founded on September 4, 1940, by a group of students at Yale Law School, led by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., the son of Quaker Oats executive R. Douglas Stuart.[2][14] The initiative emerged amid escalating tensions in Europe following the fall of France in June 1940 and President Franklin D. Roosevelt's push for increased military preparedness and aid to Britain, with the students aiming to organize opposition to any moves toward U.S. involvement in the conflict.[15] Stuart, along with associates like Kingman Brewster Jr. and Robert M. Hutchins, rapidly secured initial funding from prominent businessmen, including $25,000 from department store magnate Robert E. Wood, enabling the committee to establish a national headquarters in Chicago.[16] The committee's initial objectives centered on enforcing strict U.S. neutrality and preventing entry into World War II, emphasizing that American security depended on bolstering domestic defenses rather than foreign alliances or lend-lease aid.[17] It advocated for a policy of armed non-interventionism, calling for sufficient military strength to deter attacks on U.S. territory while rejecting commitments that could entangle the nation in overseas wars, a stance rooted in lessons from World War I's perceived futility and economic costs.[1] Within weeks of formation, the group disseminated pamphlets and appeals framing intervention as a threat to American sovereignty and prosperity, prioritizing hemispheric defense over European entanglements.[18] By late 1940, these objectives had propelled rapid growth, with over 450 chapters nationwide and a membership exceeding 800,000, reflecting widespread public wariness of repeating the interventions of 1917.[2] The committee explicitly disavowed alliances with fascist regimes, focusing instead on pragmatic realism: that U.S. resources should fortify the nation against potential threats without subsidizing belligerents abroad.[19] This foundational non-interventionist platform positioned the America First Committee as the largest anti-war organization in U.S. history at the time, challenging the administration's gradual shift toward support for the Allies.[20]

Organizational Structure and Leadership

Key Leaders and Spokesmen

The America First Committee was led by Robert E. Wood, a retired U.S. Army general and former president of Sears, Roebuck and Company, who served as its national chairman from the organization's founding in September 1940 until its dissolution in December 1941.[21] Wood provided essential financial backing and organizational structure, drawing on his business acumen to coordinate chapters across the United States and manage a budget that supported rallies and publicity efforts.[3] Charles A. Lindbergh, the famed aviator known for his 1927 transatlantic flight, became the committee's most prominent spokesman despite not holding a formal leadership position.[17] Beginning in 1940, Lindbergh delivered high-profile speeches, including addresses to Yale University students and a September 1941 rally in Des Moines, Iowa, where he warned against U.S. entanglement in European conflicts and criticized domestic pressures favoring intervention.[22][1] His celebrity status amplified the committee's message, attracting widespread media attention and boosting membership recruitment, though his remarks on Jewish influence in pushing for war drew accusations of antisemitism from opponents.[2] Gerald P. Nye, a Republican senator from North Dakota, served as a key political figure and advocate within the committee, leveraging his prior investigations into World War I munitions profits to argue against renewed foreign involvements.[21] Nye's Senate platform enabled him to challenge administration policies, such as Lend-Lease aid, and he participated in committee events to rally Midwestern support for strict neutrality.[23] Other notable spokesmen included journalist John T. Flynn, who contributed writings and speeches critiquing Roosevelt's foreign policy as a drift toward war, helping to frame the committee's economic arguments against intervention.[21] The leadership emphasized non-interventionist principles rooted in avoiding the costs of prior wars, with these figures collectively addressing audiences through public addresses and media to sustain opposition until Pearl Harbor shifted public sentiment.[24]

Membership Composition and Growth

The America First Committee originated from informal discussions among Yale University students in the spring of 1940, formalized on September 4, 1940, by R. Douglas Stuart Jr., a Yale Law student, and a small group of like-minded undergraduates who opposed U.S. entry into World War II.[25][26] Initial membership was modest, centered on campus activists drawing from the university's non-interventionist traditions, with early chapters established at Yale and soon expanding to other institutions like Princeton and the University of Chicago.[25] Growth accelerated through grassroots organizing, leveraging public disillusionment with European entanglements and effective recruitment via pamphlets, speeches, and local committees. By December 1941, the organization claimed over 800,000 dues-paying members organized into more than 450 semiautonomous chapters and subchapters across the United States, marking it as the largest antiwar group in American history up to that point.[25][18] This expansion was fueled by a modest annual membership fee of 25 cents, which sustained operations without relying heavily on large donors, though financial strains emerged as administrative costs rose.[25] Membership composition reflected a cross-section of isolationist-leaning Americans rather than a monolithic bloc, encompassing students, Midwestern farmers and industrial workers, business leaders, and intellectuals from both conservative and progressive backgrounds, with strongest concentrations in the Midwest where agrarian and manufacturing interests favored avoiding foreign conflicts.[16] While prominent figures like aviator Charles Lindbergh and retailer Robert E. Wood bolstered visibility, the base consisted primarily of ordinary citizens motivated by economic pragmatism and skepticism of British war aims, rather than ideological purity; chapters operated with significant local autonomy, leading to varied emphases but unified opposition to intervention.[26][16]

Core Principles and Policy Stances

Non-Interventionist Philosophy

The America First Committee's non-interventionist philosophy centered on preserving U.S. sovereignty and resources by avoiding entanglement in European wars, prioritizing robust national defense confined to the Western Hemisphere. Formed on September 4, 1940, the group outlined four foundational principles: constructing an impregnable defense for America; affirming that no foreign power or coalition could invade a fortified United States; directing all defense spending toward domestic industries; and restricting American troops to operations solely on U.S. soil under exclusive national authority.[1] These tenets rejected expansive military commitments abroad, drawing instead from the perceived failures of World War I intervention, where U.S. involvement failed to secure enduring peace and arguably sowed seeds for renewed conflict through punitive treaties like Versailles.[17] Proponents viewed America's oceanic buffers as a strategic asset, enabling emphasis on naval and air superiority for hemispheric protection rather than ground forces for distant campaigns. This approach advocated free commerce with all nations alongside diplomatic engagement, but opposed alliances or aid that could precipitate direct hostilities, such as the Lend-Lease Act of March 1941, which was criticized as a covert escalation undermining neutrality.[19] Charles Lindbergh, in an April 23, 1941, address, framed the philosophy as one of "independence, not isolation," rooted in the conviction that national security derived from internal vitality and preparedness, not from imposing American ideals through force or subsidizing foreign belligerents.[17] He argued that history demonstrated the futility of exporting democracy via military means, urging focus on domestic strength to deter threats without the devastation of overseas entanglement.[27] The philosophy embodied a realist calculus, weighing the high costs of intervention—over 116,000 U.S. deaths in World War I for negligible gains—against the benefits of non-involvement, positing that a self-reliant America could maintain global influence through economic power and innovation rather than battlefield sacrifices.[19] Critics within interventionist circles dismissed this as shortsighted, yet AFC leaders countered with evidence from interwar years, where U.S. abstention allowed economic recovery via policies like the Neutrality Acts of the 1930s, preserving resources for potential defense without alienating trading partners.[1] This stance prioritized causal chains of policy outcomes, warning that incremental aid eroded public resolve and congressional oversight, inexorably leading to war declarations absent vital national interests.[17]

Critiques of Foreign Entanglements

The America First Committee critiqued U.S. foreign policy entanglements as a threat to national independence and prosperity, arguing that involvement in European conflicts would undermine the republic's founding aversion to permanent alliances.[3] Echoing George Washington's 1796 Farewell Address, spokesmen like Charles Lindbergh contended that such commitments fostered dependency on foreign powers and invited unnecessary wars that eroded domestic freedoms.[28][29] They maintained that the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans provided natural defenses, allowing the U.S. to prioritize hemispheric security over global interventions.[17] A primary target was the Lend-Lease Act, enacted on March 11, 1941, which the committee viewed as a covert entry into hostilities by supplying war materials to Britain and other Allies without congressional declaration of war.[30] In his April 23, 1941, address to the committee in New York City, Lindbergh warned that such aid programs masked the true costs of entanglement, predicting they would lead to American conscription, economic strain, and eventual combat involvement in Europe's disputes.[31] The group argued that these policies prioritized foreign interests—particularly British imperial aims—over U.S. sovereignty, diverting resources from fortifying American defenses like naval and air power.[19] Committee literature emphasized that foreign wars historically devastated participating democracies, fostering militarism and bureaucratic overreach at home.[29] They advocated a policy of "independence, not isolation," urging strict neutrality to avoid the causal chain from aid to alliance to belligerency, as evidenced by the escalating commitments under President Roosevelt's administration.[17] By focusing on self-reliance and non-intervention, the America First position sought to preserve American exceptionalism against the perils of imperial overextension.[3]

Advocacy Efforts and Public Engagement

Campaigns Against Aid Programs

The America First Committee (AFC) directed significant efforts to oppose President Franklin D. Roosevelt's proposals for extending military aid to Britain and other nations, viewing such measures as precursors to direct U.S. involvement in World War II. Formed in September 1940, the AFC targeted initiatives like the Destroyers for Bases agreement of September 2, 1940, and particularly the Lend-Lease Act introduced in January 1941, which authorized the transfer of war materials without immediate payment.[32] The committee argued that these programs would deplete American resources, undermine national defense, and inevitably draw the U.S. into foreign conflicts, prioritizing instead a policy of armed neutrality and hemispheric defense.[33] AFC campaigns employed multifaceted strategies, including congressional lobbying, where supporters like Senators Gerald Nye and Burton K. Wheeler supplied research and testified against Lend-Lease, labeling it a "War Dictatorship Bill" that bypassed constitutional checks.[21] Public mobilization involved distributing vast quantities of printed literature, sponsoring radio addresses by prominent spokesmen, and organizing rallies to sway opinion. By mid-1941, membership swelled to over 800,000, enabling widespread dissemination of anti-aid messaging through advertisements and petitions urging legislators to reject the bills.[14] [33] Key public engagements featured aviator Charles Lindbergh, a leading AFC voice, who delivered speeches framing aid as futile given Britain's perceived inability to prevail militarily. On April 17, 1941, at Chicago Stadium, Lindbergh rallied supporters against Lend-Lease, asserting it weakened U.S. preparedness; similar addresses followed at Manhattan Center on April 23, Madison Square Garden on May 23, and Hollywood Bowl on June 20, emphasizing negotiated peace over escalation.[33] These events drew thousands and amplified arguments that Roosevelt's policies contradicted electoral mandates against war.[33] Despite intense opposition, the Lend-Lease Act passed the House on February 8, 1941, and Senate on March 8, signed into law on March 11, 1941, providing $7 billion in initial aid.[34] The AFC's failure to halt these measures highlighted the limits of isolationist influence amid shifting public sentiment, though their campaigns delayed passage and forced administration justifications, contributing to a polarized national debate on foreign policy.[32]

Rallies, Speeches, and Media Outreach

The America First Committee organized numerous rallies to disseminate its non-interventionist message, with prominent events drawing large crowds in major cities. On April 17, 1941, the group held a rally at Chicago Stadium attended by approximately 10,000 people, marking Charles Lindbergh's first public appearance as a formal member and featuring his speech urging national unity against foreign entanglements.[35][36] Similar gatherings occurred in New York City on April 23, 1941, where Lindbergh addressed supporters on the futility of aiding European allies and the risks to American interests.[17] These events amplified the committee's opposition to Lend-Lease and military involvement abroad, leveraging high-profile speakers to mobilize public sentiment.[33] Key speeches by committee spokesmen, particularly Lindbergh, were central to its advocacy, often delivered at rallies or via radio to reach broader audiences. Lindbergh's address in Des Moines, Iowa, on September 11, 1941, identified the Roosevelt administration, British interests, and Jewish organizations as primary agitators for U.S. entry into the war, sparking widespread controversy and accusations of antisemitism from interventionist critics.[37] Earlier, his April 23 New York speech emphasized that Allied defeats in Europe rendered further U.S. aid ineffective, arguing for fortified hemispheric defense instead.[17] Other leaders, including Senator Gerald Nye, contributed through similar public addresses, reinforcing the committee's stance that American resources should prioritize domestic security over overseas commitments.[3] Media outreach efforts included the distribution of pamphlets, advertisements, and radio broadcasts to counter pro-intervention narratives. The committee produced materials such as pamphlets questioning the economic impacts of war involvement and critiquing aid programs, disseminated widely to influence opinion.[38] Radio addresses by figures like Lindbergh, broadcast through major networks, allowed direct appeals to the public, with the group maintaining a series of programs featuring debates and monologues on isolationist themes.[39] These efforts, combined with paid advertisements in newspapers, aimed to build grassroots support and highlight perceived biases in mainstream reporting favoring intervention.[16]

Controversies and Diverse Viewpoints

Allegations of Antisemitism and Extremism

The America First Committee encountered allegations of antisemitism largely centered on statements by prominent spokesman Charles Lindbergh, particularly his September 11, 1941, speech in Des Moines, Iowa, where he asserted that three principal groups—"the British, the Jewish, and the Roosevelt Administration"—were agitating for U.S. involvement in the European war, adding that Jewish influence dominated sectors like motion pictures, press, and radio, making Jews "the principal advocates of new war with Germany."[40] The address, delivered under AFC auspices, prompted widespread criticism, with Jewish organizations such as the American Jewish Committee and figures like Lewis Douglas labeling it an incitement to racial hatred akin to Nazi rhetoric, while religious leaders across denominations condemned it as fostering anti-Jewish prejudice.[41] [42] These charges were amplified by interventionist media and political opponents, who portrayed the speech as emblematic of broader antisemitic undercurrents within the committee, despite Lindbergh framing his remarks as a factual observation of lobbying pressures rather than a call for discrimination.[22] Further scrutiny arose from associations with individuals like Gerald L.K. Smith, a vocal antisemite who addressed some AFC gatherings, and invitations extended to speakers with pro-German leanings, which critics cited as tolerance for extremist views sympathetic to Nazi Germany.[16] However, the committee's leadership, including chairman Robert E. Wood, emphasized its non-partisan, non-sectarian character, pointing to Jewish members such as journalist John T. Flynn and initial supporters who endorsed isolationism without endorsing prejudice, and actively sought to expel overtly pro-Nazi elements to preserve focus on foreign policy neutrality.[3] Defenders argued that such allegations often conflated legitimate critique of interventionist influences—regardless of ethnic composition—with hatred, noting that Lindbergh later expressed regret over misinterpretations and horror at Nazi atrocities post-war, and that the AFC's platform never advocated racial policies or alliance with fascism.[43] Allegations of extremism extended to claims of fascist sympathies, fueled by the presence of fringe isolationists who admired German militarism or opposed aid to Britain on grounds overlapping with Axis propaganda, yet the organization's core documents and resolutions rejected totalitarian ideologies, prioritizing U.S. sovereignty and defense over ideological alignment with any foreign power.[3] While some members harbored personal views sympathetic to aspects of European authoritarian efficiency, the committee's official stance condemned Nazi aggression in Europe as a justification for non-involvement, not endorsement, and its rapid dissolution after Pearl Harbor on December 10, 1941, underscored a commitment to constitutional processes rather than subversive extremism.[22] These controversies, though damaging to recruitment, highlighted tensions between isolationist advocacy and wartime consensus pressures, with retrospective analyses attributing much of the extremism label to rhetorical tactics by proponents of U.S. entry into the conflict.[3]

Associations with Isolationist Fringes

The America First Committee drew support from a spectrum of isolationists, including fringes on the political right that blended non-interventionism with antisemitic or pro-Axis sympathies, such as followers of Father Charles E. Coughlin and remnants of William Dudley Pelley's Silver Shirts. Coughlin, whose radio audience peaked at 30 million listeners by 1936, advocated strict neutrality toward Europe while railing against "international Jewish bankers" as war agitators, aligning his National Union for Social Justice with AFC goals despite no formal merger; his supporters infiltrated anti-war groups like the National Non-Sectarian League for Peace, which overlapped with AFC chapters in eastern cities.[44][23] Similarly, ex-members of the Silver Shirts—a uniformed, fascist-inspired group founded in 1933 that echoed Nazi aesthetics and called for a "Christian vanguard" against perceived Jewish influence—sought to embed within AFC local efforts. In Oregon, for instance, former Silver Shirt Delmore Schwartz helped organize the state chapter in 1940, reflecting how disbanding fringe outfits funneled activists into broader isolationist platforms. The Christian Front, Coughlin's street-level militia accused by the FBI in 1940 of plotting violence against Jews and FDR, also provided grassroots backing at AFC events, though such ties fueled interventionist critiques portraying the committee as a haven for extremists.[45][46] AFC leadership actively repudiated these fringes to preserve mainstream credibility, explicitly barring fascist organizations like the Silver Shirts, German-American Bund, Ku Klux Klan, and Christian Front from membership or rallies, as affirmed in committee policy statements and by spokesmen including Charles Lindbergh, who in 1941 correspondence urged distancing from such groups to counter Nazi propaganda exploitation. Gerald L.K. Smith, a Coughlin protégé known for inflammatory antisemitism, approached AFC for alliance but was rebuffed as too radical, later co-opting the "America First" name for his own 1943 party after the committee's dissolution. These associations, while marginal to the AFC's 800,000-plus membership dominated by students, businessmen, and Midwestern Republicans, amplified accusations from pro-Allied media and politicians, who often conflated principled non-intervention with sympathy for authoritarian regimes amid the era's polarized debate.[47][48][49]

Dissolution and Immediate Consequences

Response to Pearl Harbor

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, decisively undermined the America First Committee's non-interventionist platform, as it demonstrated direct aggression against U.S. territory and naval forces, killing 2,403 Americans and destroying or damaging 18 ships, including eight battleships.[18] [50] This event shifted public opinion toward unified support for war, rendering the committee's advocacy for strict neutrality untenable amid widespread calls for retaliation against Japan.[50] In response, the America First Committee executive committee convened and voted to disband on December 11, 1941, four days after the attack, explicitly urging its approximately 800,000 members to back the national war effort without reservation.[18] [1] The official statement emphasized loyalty to the United States, stating that the organization would cease operations to avoid any perception of obstruction during a time of crisis, reflecting a pragmatic acknowledgment that continued isolationist agitation could no longer align with the altered strategic reality.[18] Prominent figures associated with the committee, including aviator Charles Lindbergh, who had been a leading spokesman, publicly pivoted to endorse the war. Lindbergh attempted to reenlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces to contribute his expertise but was denied by order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, who viewed prior committee rhetoric as potentially disloyal; nonetheless, Lindbergh later flew over 50 combat missions in the Pacific theater as a civilian consultant for aircraft manufacturers, aiding in tactics that improved efficiency against Japanese forces.[1] This response highlighted the committee's internal consensus that the Pearl Harbor assault invalidated pre-attack arguments against preparedness and alliances, prioritizing national defense over ideological purity.[16]

Formal End and Member Transitions

The America First Committee formally disbanded on December 11, 1941, four days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and three days after President Franklin D. Roosevelt's declaration of war on Japan.[14][18] The executive committee voted unanimously to dissolve the organization, citing the national emergency as necessitating an end to internal debate on foreign policy.[18] In its final public statement, the group asserted that its prior advocacy for neutrality might have averted the attack but acknowledged the reality of war, directing all members to prioritize national defense over continued opposition to involvement.[14] Following dissolution, the committee instructed its approximately 800,000 members to rally behind the U.S. war effort, effectively transitioning from organized opposition to individual contributions in the conflict.[14][18] Many complied, enlisting in military service or supporting domestic mobilization, though the abrupt shift drew scrutiny from federal authorities monitoring potential disloyalty.[51] Prominent figures faced varied outcomes: aviator Charles Lindbergh, a key spokesman, sought reinstatement in the Army Air Corps but was denied due to his prior public resignation and isolationist speeches, later contributing as a civilian consultant and flying 50 combat missions in the Pacific theater by 1944.[22] Other leaders, such as Senator Gerald P. Nye and Representative Hamilton Fish III, continued congressional service initially but encountered political repercussions; Nye's committee investigations into war profiteering were curtailed, and both lost reelection bids in 1944 amid accusations of lingering isolationism.[21] The transition marked a broader realignment, with the committee's infrastructure—local chapters and funds—dismantled, though isolated pockets of non-interventionist sentiment persisted among former adherents without formal revival.[14]

Legacy and Historical Reassessment

Short-Term Public and Political Impact

The America First Committee exerted considerable short-term influence on public discourse by mobilizing isolationist opposition to U.S. involvement in World War II, peaking with over 800,000 members across 450 chapters by mid-1941 and organizing rallies that drew tens of thousands, thereby amplifying sentiments reflected in polls showing 85 percent of Americans against intervention in early 1941.[3] [21] Its campaigns, including speeches by figures like Charles Lindbergh, kept non-interventionism prominent amid administration pushes for aid to Britain, contributing to sustained public wariness despite gradual shifts.[50] Politically, the committee bolstered congressional resistance to President Roosevelt's policies, with affiliated senators such as Gerald Nye and Burton Wheeler voting against the Lend-Lease Act, which passed the Senate 60-31 on March 8, 1941, and the House 260-165 on March 11, reflecting organized but minority opposition that forced detailed justifications for aid programs.[21] This pressure delayed full-scale commitments and highlighted partisan divides, particularly among Republicans, though it failed to block measures like the extension of the draft in August 1941. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, the committee's rapid dissolution on December 10 underscored its short-term vulnerability to direct threats, as Gallup polls shifted dramatically to 97 percent approval for declaring war by December 11, effectively marginalizing isolationist voices and unifying political support for U.S. entry into the conflict.[52] In the immediate aftermath, former members like Lindbergh pivoted to support the war effort, illustrating the committee's influence as transient amid escalating global crises.[3]

Long-Term Evaluations of Prescience

The America First Committee (AFC) predicted that U.S. military involvement in World War II would impose staggering human and economic costs, potentially exceeding those of World War I, while failing to secure lasting global stability or prevent the ascendancy of communism. These warnings materialized in the form of 405,399 American military deaths and 671,846 wounded, alongside a national debt that surged from $49 billion in 1941 to $258 billion by war's end, representing over 112% of GDP. Furthermore, spokesmen like Charles Lindbergh cautioned that prioritizing the defeat of Nazi Germany would chiefly empower the Soviet Union, enabling its expansion across Eastern Europe—a outcome realized through agreements like Yalta in February 1945, where Allied concessions facilitated Soviet control over Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, and other nations, precipitating the Cold War and Iron Curtain division that persisted until 1989.[19] Revisionist historians have credited the AFC with foresight regarding the perils of overextension, arguing that non-intervention might have allowed the U.S. to fortify hemispheric defenses while Europe exhausted itself in intra-continental conflict, avoiding the direct costs of a two-front war and the moral hazards of atomic bombings on Japan in August 1945. Pat Buchanan, in his analysis, contends that earlier peace negotiations between Britain and Germany after the 1940 fall of France—advocated implicitly by isolationists—could have curtailed the conflict's scope, preventing both the full-scale Holocaust's escalation and U.S. entanglement that ultimately bolstered Soviet dominance rather than containing it.[3] Critics, however, counter that such prescience overlooked empirical evidence of Axis aggression, including Japan's 1937 invasion of China and Germany's 1939 conquests, asserting that inaction would have permitted Nazi technological advances (e.g., V-2 rockets and jet aircraft) to threaten U.S. shores eventually, necessitating costlier delayed intervention.[53] Long-term evaluations also highlight the AFC's anticipation of perpetual foreign commitments, as U.S. victory entrenched a global military presence that evolved into interventions in Korea (1950–1953, 36,574 deaths) and Vietnam (1955–1975, 58,220 deaths), echoing warnings against abandoning Washington's farewell admonition against entangling alliances. While mainstream academic narratives, often shaped by postwar consensus on intervention's necessity, dismiss isolationism as shortsighted, empirical data on sustained U.S. overreach—evident in trillion-dollar defense budgets and alliance obligations into the 21st century—lends credence to the AFC's causal emphasis on prioritizing national sovereignty over ideological crusades.

References

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  3. The Truth About the America First Movement
  4. Washington's Farewell Address, 1796 - Office of the Historian
  5. Farewell Address to the People of the United States
  6. Farewell Address (1796) - Teaching American History
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  8. Monroe Doctrine declared | December 2, 1823 | HISTORY
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  13. The Neutrality Acts of the 1930s | The National WWII Museum
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  21. America First Committee - Spartacus Educational
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  24. 'America First': From Charles Lindbergh To President Trump - NPR
  25. https://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/articles/4331-the-forgotten-antiwar-movement
  26. The True History Behind 'The Plot Against America'
  27. War and Peace: Two Historic Speeches - CHARLES A. LINDBERGH
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  29. The Lost Liberalism of America First | Cato Institute
  30. [PDF] How American Was 'America First'?
  31. New York City Speech- America First Committee - Charles Lindbergh
  32. In Danger Undaunted: The Anti-Interventionist Movement of 1940 ...
  33. FDR's War of Words with Lindbergh - AMERICAN HERITAGE
  34. US Neutrality Acts of the 1930s and the Lend-Lease Act - ThoughtCo
  35. The forgotten antiwar movement | Features | Yale Alumni Magazine
  36. LINDBERGH CALLS WAR LOST BY ALLIES; Our Aid Powerless to ...
  37. TWE Remembers: Charles Lindbergh's Des Moines Speech
  38. America First Committee
  39. America First Committee Broadcasts - Old Time Radio Catalog
  40. The Text of Lindbergh's Address in Des Moines Coliseum
  41. Leaders of All Religions Sharply Condemn Lindbergh's Anti-jewish ...
  42. Lewis Douglas and Two Groups Assail Des Moines Speech
  43. Lindbergh Said to Regret Misperceptions Over Jews
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  45. [PDF] Mid-Twentieth-Century White Supremacist Movements in Oregon
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  48. [PDF] HAVE YOU CHANGED YOUR MIND? - Charles Lindbergh
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  52. Gallup Vault: A Country Unified After Pearl Harbor
  53. 'Angry Days' Shows An America Torn Over Entering World War II
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