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U.S. Army Air Forces test pilot Lt. F.W. "Mike" Hunter wearing a flight suit in October 1942

An aircraft pilot, or aviator, is an individual who controls an aircraft's flight by operating its directional controls. Other aircrew members, such as navigators and flight engineers, are also considered aviators because they assist in operating the aircraft’s navigation and engine systems. Aircrew members like drone operators, flight attendants, mechanics, and ground crew are not classified as aviators.

To recognize pilots’ qualifications and responsibilities, most militaries and many airlines around the world award aviator badges to their pilots.

Definition

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The first recorded use of the term aviator (aviateur in French) was in 1887, as a variation of aviation, from the Latin avis (meaning bird), coined in 1863 by G. J. G. de La Landelle [fr] in Aviation Ou Navigation Aérienne ("Aviation or Air Navigation"). The term aviatrix (aviatrice in French), now archaic, was formerly used for a female pilot. The term aviator (aviateur in French), now archaic, was formerly used for a male pilot. People who operate aircraft obtain a pilot licence. Aviation regulations referred to pilots. These terms were used more in the early days of aviation, when airplanes were extremely rare, and connoted bravery and adventure. For example, a 1905 reference work described the Wright brothers' first airplane: "The weight, including the body of the aviator, is a little more than 700 pounds".[1]

History

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To ensure the safety of people in the air and on the ground, early aviation soon required that aircraft be under the operational control of a properly trained, certified pilot at all times, who is responsible for the safe and legal completion of the flight. The Aéro-Club de France delivered the first certificate to Louis Blériot in 1908—followed by Glenn Curtiss, Léon Delagrange, and Robert Esnault-Pelterie. The British Royal Aero Club followed in 1910 and the Aero Club of America in 1911 (Glenn Curtiss receiving the first).

Civilian

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Pilots landing a Boeing 777

Civilian pilots fly aircraft of all types privately for pleasure, charity, or in pursuance of a business, or commercially for non-scheduled (charter) and scheduled passenger and cargo air carriers (airlines), corporate aviation, agriculture (crop dusting, etc.), forest fire control, law enforcement, etc. When flying for an airline, pilots are usually referred to as airline pilots, with the pilot in command often referred to as the captain.

Airline

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There were 290,000 airline pilots in the world in 2017 and aircraft simulator manufacturer CAE Inc. forecasts a need for 255,000 new ones for a population of 440,000 by 2027, 150,000 for growth and 105,000 to offset retirement and attrition: 90,000 in Asia-Pacific (average pilot age in 2016: 45.8 years), 85,000 in Americas (48 years), 50,000 in Europe (43.7 years) and 30,000 in Middle East & Africa (45.7 years).[2]

Boeing expects 790,000 new pilots in 20 years from 2018, 635,000 for commercial aviation, 96,000 for business aviation and 59,000 for helicopters: 33% in Asia Pacific (261,000), 26% in North America (206,000), 18% in Europe (146,000), 8% in the Middle East (64,000), 7% in Latin America (57,000), 4% in Africa (29,000) and 3% in Russia/ Central Asia (27,000).[3] By November 2017, due a shortage of qualified pilots, some pilots were leaving corporate aviation to return to airlines. In one example a Global 6000 pilot, making $250,000 a year for 10 to 15 flight hours a month, returned to American Airlines with full seniority. A Gulfstream G650 or Global 6000 pilot might earn between $245,000 and $265,000, and recruiting one may require up to $300,000. At the other end of the spectrum, constrained by the available pilots, some small carriers hire new pilots who need 300 hours to jump to airlines in a year. They may also recruit non-career pilots who have other jobs or airline retirees who want to continue to fly.[4]

Automation

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The number of airline pilots could decrease as automation replaces copilots and eventually pilots as well. In January 2017 Rhett Ross, CEO of Continental Motors said "my concern is that in the next two decades—if not sooner—automated and autonomous flight will have developed sufficiently to put downward pressure on both wages and the number and kind of flying jobs available. So if a kid asks the question now and he or she is 18, 20 years from now will be 2037 and our would-be careerist will be 38—not even mid-career. Who among us thinks aviation and especially for-hire flying will look like it does now?" Christian Dries, owner of Diamond Aircraft Austria said "Behind the curtain, aircraft manufacturers are working on a single-pilot cockpit where the airplane can be controlled from the ground and only in case of malfunction does the pilot of the plane interfere. Basically the flight will be autonomous and I expect this to happen in the next five to six years for freighters."[needs update][5]

In August 2017 financial company UBS predicted pilotless airliners are technically feasible and could appear around 2025, offering around $35bn of savings, mainly in pilot costs: $26bn for airlines, $3bn for business jets and $2.1bn for civil helicopters; $3bn/year from lower pilot training and aviation insurance costs due to safer flights; $1bn from flight optimisation (1% of global airlines' $133bn jet fuel bill in 2016); not counting revenue opportunity from increased capacity utilization.

Regulations have to adapt with air cargo likely at the forefront, but pilotless flights could be limited by consumer behaviour: 54% of 8,000 people surveyed are defiant while 17% are supportive, with acceptation progressively forecast.[6]

AVweb reporter Geoff Rapoport stated, "pilotless aircraft are an appealing prospect for airlines bracing for the need to hire several hundred thousand new pilots in the next decade. Wages and training costs have been rapidly rising at regional U.S. airlines over the last several years as the major airlines have hired pilots from the regionals at unprecedented rates to cover increased air travel demand from economic expansion and a wave of retirements".[7]

Going to pilotless airliners could be done in one bold step or in gradual improvements like by reducing the cockpit crew for long haul missions or allowing single pilot cargo aircraft. The industry has not decided how to proceed yet. Present automated systems are not autonomous and must be monitored; their replacement could require artificial intelligence with machine learning while present certified software is deterministic.[8] As the Airbus A350 would only need minor modifications, Air Caraibes and French Bee parent Groupe Dubreuil see two-pilot crews in long-haul operations, without a third pilot for rotation, happening around 2024–2025.[9]

Single-pilot freighters could start with regional flights.[10] The Air Line Pilots Association believe removing pilots would threaten aviation safety and opposes the April 2018 FAA Reauthorization Act's Section 744 establishing a research and development program to assist single-pilot cargo aircraft by remote and computer piloting.[11]

For French aerospace research center Onera and avionics manufacturer Thales, artificial intelligence (AI) like consumer neural networks learning from large datasets cannot explain their operation and cannot be certified for safe air transport. Progress towards ‘explainable’ AIs can be expected in the next decade, as the Onera expects "leads" for a certifiable AI system, along EASA standards evolution.[12]

Africa and Asia

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In some countries, such as Pakistan, Thailand and several African nations, there is a strong relationship between the military and the principal national airlines, and many airline pilots come from the military; however, that is no longer the case in the United States and Western Europe.[citation needed] While the flight decks of U.S. and European airliners do have ex-military pilots, many pilots are civilians. Military training and flying, while rigorous, is fundamentally different in many ways from civilian piloting.

Canada

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Operating an aircraft in Canada is regulated by the Aeronautics Act of 1985 and the Canadian Aviation Regulations provide rules for Pilot licensing in Canada.

Retirement age is provided by each airline, with some set to age 60, but changes to the Canadian Human Rights Act have restricted the retirement age set by the airlines.[13]

United States

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In the United States in 2020, there were 691,691 active pilot certificates.[14] This was down from a high of over 800,000 active pilots in 1980.[15] Of the active pilot certificate holders, there were 160,860 Private, 103,879 Commercial, 164,193 Airline Transport, and 222,629 Student.[16]

In 1930, the Air Commerce Act established pilot licensing requirements for American civil aviation.

Commercial airline pilots in the United States have a mandatory retirement age of 65, having increased from age 60 in 2007.[17]

Military

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A U.S. Air Force F-16 pilot in flight

Military pilots fly with the armed forces, primarily the air forces, of a government or nation-state. Their tasks involve combat and non-combat operations, including direct hostile engagements and support operations. Military pilots undergo specialized training, often with weapons. Examples of military pilots include fighter pilots, bomber pilots, transport pilots, test pilots, and astronauts.

Captain Marcel Courmes, French officer and pilot of the 2nd Bombardment Group GB 2, August 1915.

Military pilots are trained with a different syllabus than civilian pilots, which is delivered by military instructors. This is due to the different aircraft, flight goals, flight situations and chains of responsibility. Many military pilots do transfer to civilian-pilot qualification after they leave the military, and typically their military experience provides the basis for a civilian pilot's license.

It was in France that the world's first bombing group was created, on November 23, 1914. The Voisin III were the only aircraft available for this mission. These could only carry very light loads (between 55–160 kg of bombs), the bombs were rudimentary and the aiming systems remained to be developed. Initially, the bombs were simply thrown overboard by the crew, with necessarily very limited accuracy.

Nevertheless, the beginnings of tactical and strategic bombing took place in the first days of the war. Thus, the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) carried out bombing missions of the hangars of the airports of Düsseldorf, Cologne and Friedrichhafen during the autumn of 1914. The formation of the Brieftauben Abteilung Ostende ("Ostend Carrier Pigeon Detachment", name of code of the first German bombing units) carried out bombing missions over the English Channel in December 1914.

Unmanned aerial vehicles

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Further information: Unmanned aerial vehicle § Degree of autonomy
A United States Air Force RPA pilot.

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs, also known as "drones") operate without a pilot on board and are classed into two categories: autonomous aircraft that operate without active human control during flight and remotely piloted UAVs which are operated remotely by one or more persons. The person controlling a remotely piloted UAV may be referred to as its pilot or operator. Depending on the sophistication and use of the UAV, pilots/operators of UAVs may require certification or training, but are generally not subject to the licensing/certification requirements of pilots of manned aircraft. Some UAV's can be bought online and are not in military use.

Most jurisdictions have restrictions on the use of UAVs which have greatly limited their use in controlled airspace; UAVs have mostly been limited to military and hobbyist use. In the United States, use of UAVs is very limited in controlled airspace (generally, above 400 ft/122m and away from airports), and the FAA prohibits nearly all commercial use. Once regulations are made to allow expanded use of UAVs in controlled airspace, there is expected to be a large surge of UAVs in use and, consequently, high demand for pilots/operators of these aircraft.[18]

Space

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Picture of astronaut going through pilot training exercise.

The general concept of an airplane pilot can be applied to human spaceflight, as well. The pilot is the astronaut who directly controls the operation of a spacecraft. This term derives directly from the usage of the word "pilot" in aviation, where it is synonymous with "aviator".

Pilot certifications

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Military aviation training in a Royal Air Force Nimrod aircraft
Further information: Pilot licensing and certification

Pilots are required to go through many hours of flight training and theoretical study, that differ depending on the country. The first step is acquiring the Private Pilot License (PPL), or Private Pilot Certificate. In the United States of America, this includes a minimum of 35 to 40 hours of flight training, the majority of which with a Certified Flight Instructor.

In the United States, an LSA (Light Sport Aircraft) license can be obtained in at least 20 hours of flight time.

Generally, the next step in a pilot's progression is Instrument Rating (IR), or Multi-Engine Rating (MEP) addons. Pilots may also choose to pursue a Commercial Pilot License (CPL) after completing their PPL. This is required if the pilot desires to pursue a professional career as a pilot. To captain an airliner, one must obtain an Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL). In the United States after 1 August 2013, an ATPL is required even when acting as a first officer.[19] Some countries/carriers require/use a multi-crew cooperation (MCC) certificate.

Life expectancy

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There is a popular belief that airline pilots die earlier than the general population. This belief was not supported by studies of American Airlines and British Airways pilots.[20][21][22] A hoax claiming to show an inverse relationship between retirement age and life expectancy was refuted by Boeing.[23][24] However, a study of several airline pilot associations' data found evidence of higher mortality.[25]

A 1978 study of military pilots found increased longevity, which was attributed to "generally good socioeconomic background, the positive genetic influence of long-lived parents, the above average intelligence, and the health and fitness orientation of the military aviator".[26]

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Aircraft pilot

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An aircraft pilot is a certified individual qualified to operate in flight, serving as the who holds ultimate responsibility and authority for the safe operation of the , including compliance with all applicable regulations and ensuring the welfare of passengers, crew, and cargo. This role demands proficiency in , management, assessment, and emergency procedures, with pilots navigating through while coordinating with to maintain separation from other . Pilots operate a diverse array of , from small single-engine planes used in to large commercial jets and fighters, adapting their skills to the specific type and category of vehicle. The profession encompasses several categories based on certification levels issued by aviation authorities such as the (FAA) in the United States and aligned with (ICAO) standards globally. These include student pilots, who undergo initial training; recreational and private pilots, authorized for non-commercial personal or limited business flights; commercial pilots, who may receive compensation for services like aerial or ; and pilots, the highest level required for scheduled or operations in multi-crew environments. pilots, trained through armed forces programs, perform specialized roles such as , , or , often requiring additional qualifications beyond civilian standards. To obtain , aspiring pilots must meet age, medical, , and flight requirements, including passing written exams, practical flight tests, and accumulating logged flight hours—typically 40 hours for private and up to 1,500 hours for . The origins of aircraft piloting trace back to December 17, 1903, when Orville and Wilbur Wright achieved the first sustained, controlled, powered flight in a heavier-than-air machine near , marking the birth of modern . Over the subsequent decades, the role evolved rapidly with advancements in technology and regulation; the FAA was established in 1958 to oversee safety, standardizing pilot training and certification amid growing demands. Today, pilots play a critical role in global transportation, with approximately 155,400 airline and commercial pilots employed in the U.S. as of 2024, contributing to an industry projected to add 6,700 jobs by 2034 due to rising demand for and . Globally, the aviation industry faces a pilot shortage, with forecasts predicting a need for over 660,000 new pilots by 2044 to meet growth and retirements, as of 2025. Beyond flying, pilots must continually update skills through recurrent training, simulator sessions, and proficiency checks to address evolving safety standards and technological integrations like advanced .

Fundamentals

Definition

An aircraft pilot is a trained professional responsible for the operation and control of an during flight. According to the (ICAO) Annex 1, a pilot is defined as a who manipulates the flight controls of an during , while the pilot-in-command (PIC) is the pilot designated by the operator—or by the owner in cases without an operator—as being in command and charged with the safe conduct of the flight. This role entails sole responsibility for the safety and operation of the from the moment it is in motion under its own power for the purpose of flight until it comes to rest after landing. In the United States, the (FAA) similarly defines the pilot-in-command under 14 CFR § 1.1 as the person who has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight, who has been designated as PIC before or during the flight, and who holds the appropriate category, class, and if required for the operation. The PIC exercises ultimate authority over the aircraft and crew, which may involve delegating direct control of the flight path to other qualified crew members or while ensuring adherence to all applicable regulations during . Aircraft pilots are differentiated from other aviation roles such as the second-in-command (SIC), who is a pilot designated to assist the PIC and take over control if needed but does not hold final authority, and the flight engineer, who is a flightcrew member responsible for monitoring and operating the aircraft's mechanical, electrical, and other systems affecting airworthiness rather than direct flight control. Under FAA regulations, these distinctions ensure clear delineation of duties, with pilots focusing on manipulation of controls and navigation, while flight engineers handle system oversight. Core skills for aircraft pilots include proficient aircraft handling, such as takeoff, , and maneuvering; navigation using instruments and visual references; and decision-making in compliance with regulatory frameworks like FAA's 14 CFR Part 61, which outlines the aeronautical knowledge and proficiency required to ensure safe flight operations. These skills emphasize the pilot's ability to maintain control and respond to variables like weather, traffic, and emergencies while upholding legal responsibilities for aircraft operation. The term "pilot" itself originates from nautical terminology, referring to a steersman guiding a vessel.

Roles and Responsibilities

Aircraft pilots bear a range of responsibilities across all phases of flight to ensure safety, compliance with regulations, and efficient operations. Prior to departure, the pilot in command (PIC) must conduct thorough pre-flight preparations, including assessing weather conditions, inspecting the aircraft, and briefing the crew if applicable. Under 14 CFR § 91.103, the PIC is required to familiarize themselves with all available information concerning the flight, such as weather reports, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays. This weather assessment involves reviewing METARs, TAFs, and other forecasts to identify potential hazards like turbulence or icing, ensuring the flight can proceed safely. Aircraft inspection, as outlined in the FAA's Airplane Flying Handbook, begins with a visual walk-around to check for structural damage, fluid leaks, tire conditions, and control surface integrity, followed by interior verifications of instruments, emergency equipment, and security. For multi-crew operations, the PIC leads a briefing to review flight plans, roles, emergency procedures, and crew coordination, fostering clear communication from the outset. During flight, pilots manage , maintain communication with (ATC), execute emergency procedures as needed, and oversee passenger safety. Navigation duties require adhering to filed flight plans, monitoring instruments like GPS and VOR for course corrections, and adjusting for or other factors to reach waypoints accurately. Communication with ATC involves promptly acknowledging clearances, reporting position and intentions, and complying with instructions for separation and routing, per 14 CFR § 91.123, while declaring any deviations only in emergencies. In emergencies, such as engine failure or encounters, the PIC follows standardized procedures from the , prioritizing aircraft control ("aviate"), problem diagnosis ("navigate"), and communication ("communicate"), and may deviate from rules to ensure safety under 14 CFR § 91.3. For passenger safety, the PIC ensures all occupants are briefed on and use safety belts and harnesses during takeoff, , and , as mandated by 14 CFR § 91.107, and monitors cabin conditions to prevent hazards like unsecured items. After , pilots complete post-flight tasks including the flight, reporting issues, and conducting debriefings. Flight , required under 14 CFR § 61.51, involves recording details such as duration, conditions, and maneuvers in the pilot's to maintain and . reporting entails noting any discrepancies observed during or after flight in the aircraft , notifying maintenance personnel as per 14 CFR § 91.405, to address issues before the next use. Debriefings allow the PIC and crew to review the flight's performance, discuss any anomalies, and identify , promoting continuous improvement in operations. Legally, the PIC holds ultimate accountability for the aircraft's operation and safety, serving as the final authority as defined in 14 CFR § 91.3, which includes the responsibility to enforce rules and ensure compliance among all aboard. While the PIC may delegate specific tasks—such as monitoring instruments or communicating with ATC—the ultimate responsibility cannot be transferred, and the PIC remains liable for any outcomes. To assume these roles, pilots must hold appropriate FAA certifications, such as a private pilot certificate for basic operations or an airline transport pilot certificate for commercial flights.

Historical Development

Early Pioneers

The origins of aircraft piloting trace back to the late , when inventors experimented with unpowered gliders to understand controlled heavier-than-air flight. , a German engineer, is widely recognized as a foundational figure for constructing and piloting over 2,000 glider flights between 1891 and 1896, using designs inspired by bird wings and airfoils to achieve stable glides of up to 300 meters. His systematic testing of cambered wings demonstrated the principles of lift and control through body weight shifting, establishing as a science and influencing subsequent powered flight attempts. Similarly, American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley advanced the field with his unpiloted series, achieving the first sustained engine-powered flights of a heavier-than-air machine in 1896, covering distances up to three-quarters of a mile over the . Langley's rubber-band and steam-powered models validated the feasibility of mechanical propulsion, though his 1903 manned attempts ended in failure, paving the way for others. The breakthrough in piloted powered flight occurred on December 17, 1903, when American brothers Orville and Wilbur Wright achieved the world's first sustained, controlled, and powered airplane flight at . Orville piloted the initial 12-second hop covering 120 feet (37 meters), with subsequent flights that day reaching 59 seconds and 852 feet (260 meters) under Wilbur's control, using their self-built 12-horsepower engine and wing-warping for three-axis control. As bicycle mechanics turned inventors, the Wrights refined their skills through prior glider piloting, becoming the first true airplane pilots by mastering takeoff, sustained level flight, and landing. Their success marked the transition from experimental gliding to viable piloting, inspiring global emulation. By the early 1910s, aviation shifted from isolated inventors to a nascent profession of exhibition pilots and barnstormers, who demonstrated aircraft capabilities through daring public flights. Lincoln Beachey, an American aviator trained under Glenn Curtiss, emerged as a leading exhibition pilot, performing the first airplane loop in 1913 and thrilling crowds with inverted flights, dives, and flights under bridges, including over Niagara Falls in 1911. These barnstormers, traveling to air meets and fairs, popularized flying and honed piloting techniques, though many perished in crashes due to rudimentary safety measures. Professionalization accelerated with the issuance of the first official pilot licenses by France's Aéro-Club de France in January 1909, retroactively dated to January 7 for Louis Blériot, standardizing qualifications amid rising international competitions. This framework, later adopted by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale, formalized piloting as a recognized skill, briefly laying groundwork for military aviation applications in the lead-up to World War I.

20th Century Evolution

The First World War marked a pivotal shift in from experimental pursuits to organized military operations, leading to the formal establishment of dedicated air forces across major powers. In response to the demands of , bombing, and dogfighting, nations like Britain formed the Royal Flying Corps in 1912, which evolved into the Royal Air Force in 1918, while Germany created the in 1916. These structures professionalized piloting, requiring pilots to undergo rigorous training in , gunnery, and maneuvers, transforming into a strategic military asset. Iconic figures such as German ace , known as the Red Baron, exemplified this era's intensity; he was credited with downing 80 enemy aircraft between 1916 and 1918 before his death in April 1918, influencing tactics like and emphasizing pilot skill in . Following the war, the surplus of military aircraft—thousands in the U.S. alone, including thousands of Curtiss JN-4 Jennys—fueled the growth of civilian aviation through barnstorming, where former pilots performed stunts and offered rides to the public, democratizing access to flight and inspiring widespread interest. This period also saw the emergence of commercial applications, notably through the U.S. Air Mail Service, inaugurated on May 15, 1918, initially operated by Army pilots flying routes between New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., before transitioning to civilian contractors in August 1918; by 1920, it had delivered 49 million letters, laying groundwork for reliable aerial transport. Charles Lindbergh's solo transatlantic flight on May 20-21, 1927, aboard the Spirit of St. Louis further catalyzed the industry, sparking a "Lindbergh boom" that boosted aircraft production, public enthusiasm, and the development of transcontinental commercial routes by airlines like Pan American. Early licensing concepts also took shape, with the U.S. issuing its first federal pilot certificate in 1927 under the Air Commerce Act of 1926, standardizing qualifications for safer operations. World War II accelerated the professionalization of piloting on an unprecedented scale, with the U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) implementing massive training programs to produce over 193,000 pilots by 1945 through a structured curriculum of preflight academics, primary flight instruction, basic maneuvers, and advanced combat preparation at numerous bases. These efforts, managed by the Army Air Forces Training Command, emphasized mass production of skilled aviators to support global operations, incorporating innovations like link trainers for instrument flying. Concurrently, the (WASP) program, established in 1943 by merging the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron and Women's Flying Training Detachment, trained over 1,000 women to ferry aircraft, tow targets, and perform test flights, logging 60 million miles and freeing male pilots for combat duties until the program's disbandment in December 1944.

Post-WWII Advancements

Following World War II, the surplus of trained pilots from extensive wartime programs, such as the U.S. Civilian Pilot Training Program, provided a ready workforce that accelerated the growth of commercial aviation. Airlines rapidly expanded operations, with passenger numbers surging from about 16 million in 1945 to over 50 million by 1955, driven by demobilized military aircraft repurposed for civilian use and increasing demand for faster, more reliable air travel. This boom transformed piloting from a niche profession into a global industry, emphasizing route efficiency and international connectivity. The advent of the jet age further revolutionized pilot requirements, exemplified by the Boeing 707's entry into service in 1958 after FAA certification. Unlike propeller-driven aircraft, jets demanded specialized skills in managing high-altitude pressurization, rapid climb rates exceeding 6,000 feet per minute, and fuel-efficient high-speed cruise at Mach 0.8, leading to mandatory transition training programs that extended beyond traditional flight hours to include simulator-based instruction on jet engine failures and stall recovery. Concurrently, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), formed via the 1944 Chicago Convention, established global standards through Annex 1 on Personnel Licensing, adopted in 1948, which defined minimum training hours, medical certifications, and competency checks for pilots to ensure interoperability across borders. These regulations, ratified by over 190 member states, harmonized licensing for commercial operations and mitigated risks in the expanding international network. Cold War tensions spurred instrumentation advancements that benefited commercial pilots, including enhanced radar altimeters, inertial navigation systems, and early autopilots refined from military applications in the 1950s and 1960s. These tools improved all-weather precision and reduced workload during long-haul flights, with systems like (VOR) beacons becoming standard for en-route navigation. By the 1970s, supersonic flight introduced even greater challenges, as seen with the Anglo-French , which entered commercial service in 1976 after pilots completed intensive six-month training regimens focused on operations, sonic boom avoidance over land, and thermal expansion effects at Mach 2 speeds. This specialized preparation, drawn from experienced jet crews, underscored the era's push toward boundary-pushing aviation while prioritizing safety through rigorous simulation and high-fidelity mockups.

Training and Certification

Educational Pathways

Becoming an aircraft pilot requires a structured educational pathway that combines theoretical knowledge through ground school with hands-on . This process typically begins with foundational courses designed to build a comprehensive understanding of principles, progressing to practical application in the air. Institutions offering these programs range from certified flight schools to universities with integrated aviation degrees, ensuring students meet regulatory standards while developing essential skills. Ground school forms the cornerstone of pilot education, providing the theoretical framework necessary for safe and effective flying. Key components include , which explains the principles of lift, drag, , and weight that govern aircraft performance; , covering weather patterns, atmospheric conditions, and their impact on flight operations; and aviation regulations, detailing federal rules on , operations, and safety protocols. These subjects are typically delivered through classroom instruction, online modules, or self-study materials, with most programs requiring 36-40 hours of dedicated training for initial certification levels. Flight training builds directly on this foundation, emphasizing progressive skill development under instructor supervision. Students generally achieve their after accumulating 10-20 hours of dual instruction, focusing on basic maneuvers such as takeoffs, landings, and traffic pattern operations to demonstrate solo proficiency. As training advances, pilots incorporate instrument training to prepare for operations in low-visibility conditions, including simulated instrument flights that teach and control using cockpit instruments rather than visual references. This phase enhances and precision, forming a critical step toward more complex flight scenarios. Pilot education is delivered through a variety of institutions tailored to different career goals and learning preferences. Certified flight schools, approved under FAA Part 61 or Part 141 regulations, offer flexible, practical programs emphasizing direct experience and individualized instruction. For those seeking a broader academic foundation, universities provide degree programs in that integrate with subjects like management and engineering. Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, for example, offers the in Aeronautical Science, which combines rigorous flight operations with classroom learning in a structured leading to professional pilot qualifications. These pathways have evolved from early 20th-century informal apprenticeships to today's standardized, safety-focused programs regulated by authorities.

Licensing and Ratings

The licensing of aircraft pilots is governed by international standards established by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), outlined in Annex 1 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, which sets minimum requirements for personnel licensing that member states must implement through their national aviation authorities. These standards ensure pilots possess the necessary skills, knowledge, and experience for safe operations, with licenses categorized primarily as Private Pilot Licence (PPL), Commercial Pilot Licence (CPL), and Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL). The PPL authorizes non-commercial flights for personal use, requiring a minimum of 40 hours of flight time (or 35 hours if completed in an approved training course) for aeroplanes, including at least 10 hours of solo flight and 5 hours of solo cross-country time. The CPL permits remuneration for flying services, such as aerial work or instruction, and demands at least 200 hours of total flight time (or 150 hours in approved training) for aeroplanes, building on PPL requirements with additional cross-country and instrument training. National authorities may require more flight time; for example, the FAA in the United States mandates 250 hours under 14 CFR Part 61 or 190 hours in an approved Part 141 program. The ATPL, essential for serving as pilot-in-command in multi-crew commercial air transport operations, requires a minimum of 1,500 hours of flight time as a pilot of aeroplanes, including 500 hours in multi-pilot operations, 250 hours as pilot-in-command, and 200 hours of cross-country flight time. In the United States, for example, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) aligns with ICAO by mandating 1,500 total hours for the ATP certificate. Beyond basic licenses, pilots obtain ratings to expand their privileges for specific operations or aircraft types, as defined in ICAO Annex 1, Chapter 2. An (IR) qualifies pilots to fly under (IFR) in low visibility or adverse weather, requiring demonstration of proficiency in simulated instrument conditions, typically adding 40-50 hours of instrument time depending on national implementation. A multi-engine class rating allows operation of aeroplanes with more than one engine, necessitating training on engine-out procedures and asymmetric thrust management, often achieved with as few as 10-15 hours of flight in multi-engine aircraft. Type ratings are required for complex, turbine-powered, or exceeding certain weights or speeds, such as the , involving specialized simulator and to ensure familiarity with aircraft-specific systems and limitations; these are endorsed on the license and must be renewed periodically. Licenses and ratings are subject to renewal and recency requirements to maintain , including regular medical assessments and proficiency demonstrations. ICAO specifies three classes of medical certificates issued by authorized medical examiners: Class 1 for ATPL and CPL holders, involving comprehensive evaluations of vision, hearing, cardiovascular health, and neurological function, valid for 12 months initially (6 months for pilots over 40 in commercial operations); Class 2 for PPL holders, with less stringent standards focused on general fitness; and Class 3 for certain non-flight roles. Medical certificates must be renewed at intervals aligned with license type, and pilots undergo periodic flight reviews or proficiency checks—such as biennial flight reviews in the U.S. under FAA regulations—to verify ongoing competence in maneuvers, , and procedures. National authorities, like the (EASA) or FAA, enforce these ICAO baselines with additional oversight, ensuring global interoperability while adapting to local needs.

Civilian Pilots

Commercial Airline Pilots

Commercial airline pilots operate large for scheduled and services, managing high-volume routes under strict regulatory oversight to ensure safety and operational efficiency. These pilots typically work in two-person crews, with one serving as and the other as first officer, handling navigation, communication with , and monitoring systems during flights that can span several hours or days. Their responsibilities include pre-flight planning, such as reviewing , fuel requirements, and flight paths, as well as post-flight debriefs to assess performance and address any issues. To enter the profession, aspiring pilots must obtain an Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate, which requires a minimum of 1,500 total flight hours, including at least 500 hours of cross-country flight, 100 hours of night flying, and 75 hours of instrument time under actual or simulated conditions. Reduced-hour Restricted ATP certificates (1,000-1,250 hours) are available for qualified candidates, such as those with aviation degrees or military experience. This certification is the highest level issued by aviation authorities like the U.S. (FAA) and is mandatory for serving as pilot-in-command on scheduled airline operations carrying passengers or cargo for hire. Once hired, pilots undergo airline-specific simulator training to earn a for the aircraft they will fly, such as the or Airbus A320, which involves intensive sessions replicating real-world scenarios to build proficiency in handling the 's unique systems and emergency procedures. Major airlines often prioritize candidates with additional qualifications, like multi-engine ratings and prior experience in regional or cargo operations, to accelerate integration into their fleets. In daily operations, commercial airline pilots adhere to Crew Resource Management (CRM) principles, a standardized training program that emphasizes effective communication, decision-making, and teamwork in the two-pilot cockpit to mitigate human error and enhance safety. CRM training, mandated by regulators worldwide, includes scenario-based exercises that promote assertiveness, workload sharing, and cross-checking critical actions, such as during takeoff or approach phases. Flight duty periods are regulated to prevent fatigue, with the FAA's Part 117 limiting unaugmented crews to 8-14 hours depending on start time and flight segments, extendable up to 16 hours with captain approval and rest accommodations. These limits ensure pilots receive at least 10 consecutive hours of rest between duties, supporting alertness on international routes where time zones and jet lag add complexity. Similar frameworks exist globally through the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), harmonizing standards across member states to maintain consistent safety levels. Globally, there are approximately 382,000 active commercial airline pilots as of 2025, supporting an industry that operates millions of flights annually. However, the sector has faced significant shortages since 2020, exacerbated by the pandemic's early retirements, training disruptions, and a surge in demand, leading to delayed flights and hiring surges at carriers worldwide. projects a need for 660,000 new commercial pilots over the next 20 years (2025-2044) to meet fleet growth and replacements, highlighting ongoing challenges in regions like and . These shortages underscore the demanding career path, where pilots must continually update skills through recurrent training while balancing irregular schedules and health requirements for long-term employability.

General and Business Aviation Pilots

General and business aviation pilots operate in the non-scheduled civilian sector, encompassing private recreational flying, charter services, and corporate transportation, distinct from rigid airline operations. These pilots handle a diverse array of missions, including bush piloting in remote terrains where they deliver , provide medical evacuations, or support efforts using rugged aircraft suited for unprepared airstrips. Aerial represents another key role, involving flights to collect geospatial data for mapping, , and resource assessment, often employing specialized equipment like and cameras mounted on . In the domain, pilots fly corporate jets such as Gulfstream models to transport executives and facilitate global , requiring precise and adherence to high standards in varied conditions. In the United States, operations under (FAA) regulations are governed primarily by Part 91 for , which applies to non-commercial flights like personal or instructional use, emphasizing basic safety and equipment rules without the stringent scheduling of commercial carriers. For charter and on-demand services, Part 135 imposes additional requirements, including enhanced maintenance protocols, pilot rest mandates, and operational approvals to ensure passenger safety in commuter and scenarios. Entry into these roles typically necessitates a Commercial Pilot License (CPL), which demands at least 250 hours of logged , including 100 hours as pilot-in-command and specific cross-country and instrument . The U.S. boasts 848,770 active certificated pilots as of 2024, with the vast majority active in , underscoring the sector's scale and accessibility compared to airline piloting. Internationally, standards vary, reflecting local infrastructure and regulatory maturity. In , oversees through the Canadian Aviation Regulations, aligning closely with FAA principles by requiring similar licensing exams, medical certifications, and flight hour minima for CPL holders, while emphasizing bilingual proficiency in English and French for operations. In developing regions of and , pilot training often incorporates informal or on-the-job elements due to resource constraints, with aspiring or pilots gaining experience through in under-resourced environments before formal , though established academies like those in provide structured pathways. These variations highlight the adaptability required in global , where pilots navigate diverse regulatory landscapes to support essential connectivity in remote or emerging markets.

Military Pilots

Roles in Armed Forces

pilots in forces serve as commissioned officers responsible for operating in support of national defense objectives, distinguishing them from pilots through their uniformed status and adherence to military oaths and hierarchies. Upon commissioning, these officers swear an to support and defend the against all enemies, foreign and domestic, thereby committing to faithfully discharge their duties under a strict chain of command that emphasizes obedience to lawful orders and operational discipline, unlike the regulatory oversight governing aviation. In the U.S. Air Force, pilots undertake roles in fighters for air-to-air engagements, bombers for strategic strikes, and transport aircraft for logistical support, deploying worldwide to execute combat and advisory missions. Navy pilots, particularly those specialized in carrier operations, focus on launching from aircraft carriers to conduct strike missions against enemy targets, anti-submarine warfare, and fleet defense, often operating in maritime environments to project power. Army pilots primarily fly helicopters such as the UH-60 Black Hawk for troop transport and the AH-64 Apache for attack roles, emphasizing ground maneuver support in diverse terrains. Key missions for these pilots include achieving air superiority to dominate the airspace and neutralize enemy threats, to gather on adversary positions, and to aid ground forces in real-time scenarios. For instance, A-10 Thunderbolt II pilots specialize in , using the aircraft's robust design and weaponry to destroy armored vehicles and provide for troops under threat, ensuring survivability in low-altitude, high-risk environments.

Training and Operations

Military pilots undergo rigorous training tailored to the demands of combat aviation, beginning with foundational education at service academies such as the (USAFA), where cadets receive introductory airmanship instruction through simulators and introductory flight experiences to build basic aviation proficiency. Following commissioning, candidates proceed to specialized flight schools, including the Air Force's Undergraduate Pilot Training (UPT) program, a intensive approximately 52-week course divided into academic, primary, and advanced phases that covers instrument flying, formation tactics, and mission planning using aircraft like the T-6 Texan II and T-38 Talon. This training adapts general aviation principles to military contexts, emphasizing high-stakes maneuvers under simulated combat conditions. Advanced tactical proficiency is honed through exercises like Red Flag, a large-scale simulation exercise held several times each year hosted by the 414th Combat Training Squadron at , where pilots engage in realistic air combat scenarios to accumulate the equivalent of their first 10 combat missions, enhancing decision-making and coordination with joint forces. A key challenge in this preparation is the high attrition rate, typically ranging from 20-30%, primarily due to failures in mastering high-G maneuvers and simulator-based evaluations that replicate the physiological stresses of aerial combat, such as centrifuge training to build tolerance for G-forces up to 9G. Washouts often occur during initial phases where pilots must demonstrate precise control during aggressive turns and evasion tactics, ensuring only those capable of operational demands advance. As of 2025, the U.S. military faces a pilot shortage, with the short approximately 1,850 pilots (including 1,142 fighter pilots) as of 2024, contributing to retention rates around 45% for active-duty pilots and straining training and operational readiness. In operations, military pilots deploy to conflict zones with specialized roles, as exemplified by F-16 Fighting Falcon pilots during the 1991 , where 249 aircraft flew nearly 13,500 sorties to achieve air superiority and support ground forces through precision strikes against Iraqi defenses. Post-2000s integrations have increasingly incorporated unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) alongside manned operations, with the Department of Defense's 2000-2025 UAV roadmap outlining expanded use in reconnaissance and strike missions during Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom, where UAVs accumulated over 100,000 flight hours by 2005 to complement piloted in persistent and targeted engagements. These deployments underscore the evolution toward hybrid manned-unmanned tactics, allowing pilots to focus on complex command while leveraging drones for high-risk, low-altitude operations.

Specialized Piloting

Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Operators

(UAV) operators, also known as drone pilots or remote pilots, are ground-based personnel who control aircraft without an onboard human crew, relying on remote piloting systems rather than direct physical presence in the . These operators manage flight paths, sensors, and payloads from ground control stations, often using communication links for beyond-line-of-sight operations. A prominent example is the MQ-9 Reaper, a U.S. UAV operated by a team consisting of a rated pilot who controls the aircraft and directs the mission, and an enlisted sensor operator who manages cameras, , and weapons systems; the crew typically works from a stateside connected via the Predator Primary Satellite Link for over-the-horizon control, with forward teams handling launch and recovery. Certification for civilian UAV operators in the United States focuses on knowledge and safety rather than accumulated flight hours, distinguishing it from traditional manned licensing. Under (FAA) Part 107 regulations for small unmanned aircraft systems (sUAS) weighing less than 55 pounds, individuals must be at least 16 years old, demonstrate the ability to read, speak, write, and understand English, maintain a physical and mental condition suitable for safe operation, and pass the FAA's aeronautical knowledge test covering rules, weather effects, and emergency procedures. No prior flight experience is required, emphasizing instead proficiency in remote operations, visual line-of-sight rules (unless waived), and risk assessment to integrate drones into national . In military contexts, UAV operators undergo specialized tailored to remote piloting and integration, bypassing the extensive manned flight hours demanded of traditional pilots. The U.S. Air Force's Remotely Piloted (RPA) pilot program, for instance, spans about one year and includes initial in simulators, instrument procedures, fundamentals, and mission-specific skills like and weapons employment, without requiring prior or manned flight hours; candidates must meet age limits (18-42 upon selection for ) and pass screenings, followed by operational assignments on platforms like the MQ-9. This competency-based approach prioritizes understanding of RPA systems, , and multi-domain coordination over physical flying endurance. The field has experienced rapid growth, driven by expanding commercial, agricultural, and public safety applications, alongside demands. By late 2023, the FAA had registered over 863,000 drones, reflecting growth from approximately 450,000 active registrations around 2019, and reaching about 856,000 by October 2025. In operations, UAVs have become central to and precision strikes; for example, hundreds of airstrikes were conducted in regions like , , , and during the , underscoring their role in reducing risk to personnel while enabling persistent overwatch. In 2025, the FAA's Drone Integration facilitates routine beyond-visual-line-of-sight (BVLOS) operations below 400 feet, expanding opportunities for remote piloting in commercial applications.

Astronaut Pilots

Astronaut pilots, often selected from experienced or test pilots, serve as commanders and pilots of crewed space vehicles, managing flight operations in the challenging environment of . The role originated with the program in 1959, where seven test pilots, including and , were chosen by to operate the Mercury , marking the inception of in the United States. These early astronaut pilots underwent rigorous training to handle suborbital and orbital missions, blending expertise with nascent space technologies. Over time, the profession evolved to encompass more complex operations, such as the from 1981 to 2011, where pilots like piloted the mission, the first orbital flight of the shuttle Columbia, requiring precise manual control during ascent, reentry, and landing phases. In the modern era, astronaut pilots have transitioned into commercial spaceflight roles, exemplified by the mission in 2021, where civilian Jared , a licensed pilot, commanded the Crew Dragon capsule during the first all-civilian orbital mission. For NASA's missions using 's Crew Dragon, commanders must possess at least 1,000 hours of jet aircraft flight experience, ensuring they can handle the vehicle's autonomous and manual flight modes in . This requirement underscores the prerequisite for astronaut pilots, typically involving FAA commercial pilot certification or equivalent military qualifications. NASA's astronaut pilots, meanwhile, continue to fly missions to the aboard vehicles like the Soyuz or Crew Dragon, managing docking, rendezvous, and de-orbit maneuvers. In September 2024, during the mission, Jared commanded another all-civilian Crew Dragon flight, achieving the first commercial spacewalk. As of November 2025, has been nominated by President-elect Trump to administer , reflecting the growing intersection of private enterprise and space piloting. Training for astronaut pilots is intensive and multifaceted, spanning approximately two years at NASA's , where candidates master , systems, and emergency procedures. Key elements include simulations of zero-gravity environments using parabolic flights or labs to practice extravehicular activities and handling. Pilots also train on devices to simulate high-g forces during launch and reentry, and engage in simulations for operating the on the or Station. This comprehensive regimen ensures proficiency in both piloting the vehicle and conducting scientific objectives in microgravity.

Professional Considerations

Automation and Technology Integration

Automation has profoundly transformed the role of aircraft pilots by integrating advanced systems that handle routine flight tasks, allowing pilots to focus on higher-level decision-making and monitoring. systems, a cornerstone of modern , maintain aircraft attitude, altitude, and heading, significantly reducing pilot during cruise phases and enabling more efficient fuel management. technology, which replaces mechanical linkages with electronic signals for flight control, was first implemented in a commercial with the A320 in 1988, providing precise handling and envelope protection to prevent stalls or excessive maneuvers. , featuring digital displays and integrated , further streamline operations by consolidating instrumentation, which can reduce pilot during critical phases like takeoff and landing. These technologies collectively enhance safety by minimizing in repetitive tasks, though they demand vigilant oversight to ensure seamless integration with pilot inputs. Despite these benefits, automation introduces risks, particularly the phenomenon of "automation surprise," where pilots encounter unexpected system behaviors during mode transitions or failures, leading to momentary loss of . A prominent example is the 2009 crash of , where icing caused unreliable airspeed data, disengaging the and resulting in pilot confusion over protections; the official investigation attributed the incident partly to inadequate for such reversion scenarios. This has sparked debates on balancing automation reliance with manual skills, prompting regulatory emphasis on recurrent for manual flying to maintain proficiency in emergencies. Such , often conducted in simulators every few years, mitigates risks by reinforcing hand-flying capabilities, as evidenced in post-incident guidelines from aviation authorities. Looking ahead, emerging technologies like AI co-pilots are poised to augment pilot capabilities by providing real-time decision support, , and workload alleviation, with research highlighting their potential to act as collaborative backups without overriding human authority. Proposals for single-pilot operations in have faced setbacks, with the (EASA) halting research in June 2025 and shelving proposals in August 2025 due to safety concerns and technological gaps, though studies continue to evaluate reduced-crew concepts which suggest feasibility through advanced automation but underscore elevated workload risks during non-normal events, necessitating robust oversight and regulatory validation. These trends emphasize a human-centered approach, ensuring technology enhances rather than supplants pilot judgment.

Health and Longevity

Aircraft pilots face several occupational health risks that can affect their physical and mental well-being over the course of their careers. Frequent long-haul flights often lead to disruption, commonly known as , which results from crossing multiple time zones and irregular sleep schedules; this can cause , , digestive issues, and long-term associations with mood disorders and reproductive health problems. Additionally, exposure to cosmic at high altitudes increases with flight duration and latitude, with long-haul pilots typically receiving an annual dose of 0.5 to 5 millisieverts (mSv), depending on route and frequency—comparable to several chest X-rays but below the occupational limit of 20 mSv per year. exposure from engines and poses another risk, contributing to gradual , particularly in pilots without consistent use of protective gear, as prolonged levels exceeding 85 decibels can cause irreversible auditory damage. Mental health challenges, including and anxiety from high-responsibility operations, further compound these physical risks and may shorten career if unaddressed. Military pilots, in particular, experience elevated stress from or high-stakes missions, which can exacerbate sleep disturbances and contribute to burnout. Despite these hazards, epidemiological studies indicate that commercial pilots often enjoy above-average , attributed to rigorous fitness requirements, healthy lifestyles, and the "healthy worker effect" where only fit individuals enter and remain in the profession. A analysis of over 1,400 retired airline pilots found that those retiring at age 60 had a survival of 23.8 years, compared to 17.4 years for the general U.S. male population, equating to a 5-10 year advantage overall. Other research confirms lower overall mortality rates, with pilots showing reduced incidence of and certain cancers. To mitigate these health impacts and ensure safe operations, regulatory bodies like the (FAA) enforce strict medical standards, requiring pilots to undergo periodic examinations to monitor vision, hearing, cardiovascular health, and neurological function, with certifications renewed every 6-12 months depending on age and class. These standards help sustain pilots' fitness into later career stages, though at age 65 for Airline Transport Pilot (ATP) certificate holders in scheduled commercial operations limits career length to promote and fatigue . While legislative proposals, such as the 2023 Let Experienced Pilots Fly Act, have sought to extend this age to 67, they have not been enacted; a similar bill, the Let Experienced Pilots Fly Act of 2025 (H.R.5523), was introduced in September 2025 but has not been enacted as of November 2025, maintaining the 65-year threshold to balance experience with age-related risks.

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  127. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4511278/
  128. https://www.faa.gov/ame_guide/media/ame_guide.pdf
  129. https://www.alpa.org/Articles/2023/08/Why-ALPA-Opposes-Extending-US-Pilot-Retirement-Age
  130. https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/1761/text
  131. https://www.congress.gov/bill/119th-congress/house-bill/5523
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