Hubbry Logo
AstronautAstronautMain
Open search
Astronaut
Community hub
Astronaut
logo
8 pages, 0 posts
0 subscribers
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Be the first to start a discussion here.
Astronaut
Astronaut
Astronaut
View on Wikipedia
from Wikipedia

NASA astronaut Bruce McCandless II using a Manned Maneuvering Unit outside Space Shuttle Challenger on shuttle mission STS-41-B in 1984.

An astronaut (from the Ancient Greek ἄστρον (astron), meaning 'star', and ναύτης (nautes), meaning 'sailor') is a person trained, equipped, and deployed by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander or crew member of a spacecraft. Although generally reserved for professional space travelers, the term is sometimes applied to anyone who travels into space, including scientists, politicians, journalists, and space tourists.[1][2]

"Astronaut" technically applies to all human space travelers regardless of nationality. However, astronauts fielded by Russia or the Soviet Union are typically known instead as cosmonauts (from the Russian "kosmos" (космос), meaning "space", also borrowed from Greek κόσμος).[3] Comparatively recent developments in crewed spaceflight made by China have led to the rise of the term taikonaut (from the Mandarin "tàikōng" (太空), meaning "space"), although its use is somewhat informal and its origin is unclear. In China, the People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronauts and their foreign counterparts are all officially called hángtiānyuán (航天员, meaning "celestial navigator" or literally "heaven-sailing staff").

Since 1961 and as of 2021, 600 astronauts have flown in space.[4] Until 2002, astronauts were sponsored and trained exclusively by governments, either by the military or by civilian space agencies. With the suborbital flight of the privately funded SpaceShipOne in 2004, a new category of astronaut was created: the commercial astronaut.

Definition

[edit]
Alan Shepard aboard Freedom 7 (1961)

The criteria for what constitutes human spaceflight vary, with some focus on the point where the atmosphere becomes so thin that centrifugal force, rather than aerodynamic force, carries a significant portion of the weight of the flight object. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) Sporting Code for astronautics recognizes only flights that exceed the Kármán line, at an altitude of 100 kilometers (62 mi).[5] In the United States, professional, military, and commercial astronauts who travel above an altitude of 80 kilometres (50 mi)[6] are awarded astronaut wings.

As of 17 November 2016, 552 people from 36 countries have reached 100 km (62 mi) or more in altitude, of whom 549 reached low Earth orbit or beyond.[7] Of these, 24 people have traveled beyond low Earth orbit, either to lunar orbit, the lunar surface, or, in one case, a loop around the Moon.[note 1] Three of the 24—Jim Lovell, John Young and Eugene Cernan—did so twice.[8]

As of 17 November 2016, under the U.S. definition, 558 people qualify as having reached space, above 50 miles (80 km) altitude. Of eight X-15 pilots who exceeded 50 miles (80 km) in altitude, only one, Joseph A. Walker, exceeded 100 kilometers (about 62.1 miles) and he did it two times, becoming the first person in space twice.[7] Space travelers have spent over 41,790 man-days (114.5-man-years) in space, including over 100 astronaut-days of spacewalks.[9][10] As of 2024, the man with the longest cumulative time in space is Oleg Kononenko, who has spent over 1100 days in space.[11] Peggy A. Whitson holds the record for the most time in space by a woman, at 675 days.[12]

Terminology

[edit]
See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

In 1959, when both the United States and Soviet Union were planning, but had yet to launch humans into space, NASA Administrator T. Keith Glennan and his Deputy Administrator, Hugh Dryden, discussed whether spacecraft crew members should be called astronauts or cosmonauts. Dryden preferred "cosmonaut", on the grounds that flights would occur in and to the broader cosmos, while the "astro" prefix suggested flight specifically to the stars.[13] Most NASA Space Task Group members preferred "astronaut", which survived by common usage as the preferred American term.[14] When the Soviet Union launched the first man into space, Yuri Gagarin in 1961, they chose a term which anglicizes to "cosmonaut".[15][16]

Astronaut

[edit]
The first sixteen NASA astronauts to be selected, February 1963. Back row: White, McDivitt, Young, See, Conrad, Borman, Armstrong, Stafford, Lovell. Front row: Cooper, Grissom, Carpenter, Schirra, Glenn, Shepard, Slayton.

A professional space traveler is called an astronaut.[17] The first known use of the term "astronaut" in the modern sense was by Neil R. Jones in his 1930 short story "The Death's Head Meteor". The word itself had been known earlier; for example, in Percy Greg's 1880 book Across the Zodiac, "astronaut" referred to a spacecraft. In Les Navigateurs de l'infini (1925) by J.-H. Rosny aîné, the word astronautique (astronautics) was used. The word may have been inspired by "aeronaut", an older term for an air traveler first applied in 1784 to balloonists. An early use of "astronaut" in a non-fiction publication is Eric Frank Russell's poem "The Astronaut", appearing in the November 1934 Bulletin of the British Interplanetary Society.[18]

The first known formal use of the term astronautics in the scientific community was the establishment of the annual International Astronautical Congress in 1950, and the subsequent founding of the International Astronautical Federation the following year.[19]

NASA applies the term astronaut to any crew member aboard NASA spacecraft bound for Earth orbit or beyond. NASA also uses the term as a title for those selected to join its Astronaut Corps.[20] The European Space Agency similarly uses the term astronaut for members of its Astronaut Corps.[21]

Cosmonaut

[edit]
The first eleven Soviet cosmonauts to fly, July 1965. Back row, left to right: Leonov, Titov, Bykovsky, Yegorov, Popovich; front row: Komarov, Gagarin, Tereshkova, Nikolayev, Feoktistov, Belyayev.
Main article: Soviet space program
For a more comprehensive list, see List of cosmonauts.

By convention, an astronaut employed by the Russian Federal Space Agency (or its predecessor, the Soviet space program) is called a cosmonaut in English texts.[20] The word is an Anglicization of kosmonavt (Russian: космонавт Russian pronunciation: [kəsmɐˈnaft]).[22] Other countries of the former Eastern Bloc use variations of the Russian kosmonavt, such as the Polish: kosmonauta (although Poles also used astronauta, and the two words are considered synonyms).[23]

Coinage of the term космонавт has been credited to Soviet aeronautics (or "cosmonautics") pioneer Mikhail Tikhonravov (1900–1974).[15][16] The first cosmonaut was Soviet Air Force pilot Yuri Gagarin, also the first person in space. He was part of the first six Soviet citizens, with German Titov, Yevgeny Khrunov, Andriyan Nikolayev, Pavel Popovich, and Grigoriy Nelyubov, who were given the title of pilot-cosmonaut in January 1961.[24] Valentina Tereshkova was the first female cosmonaut and the first and youngest woman to have flown in space with a solo mission on the Vostok 6 in 1963.[25] On 14 March 1995,[26] Norman Thagard became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, and thus became the first "American cosmonaut".[27][28]

Taikonaut

[edit]
The first Chinese taikonauts on a 2010 Somalia stamp
Main articles: People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps and China Manned Space Program
For a more comprehensive list, see List of Chinese astronauts.

In Chinese, the term Yǔ háng yuán (宇航员, "cosmos navigating personnel") is used for astronauts and cosmonauts in general,[29][30] while hángtiān yuán (航天员, "navigating celestial-heaven personnel") is used for Chinese astronauts. Here, hángtiān (航天, literally "heaven-navigating", or spaceflight) is strictly[31] defined as the navigation of outer space within the local star system, i.e. Solar System. The phrase tàikōng rén (太空人, "spaceman") is often used in Hong Kong and Taiwan.[32]

The term taikonaut is used by some English-language news media organizations for professional space travelers from China.[33] The word has featured in the Longman and Oxford English dictionaries, and the term became more common in 2003 when China sent its first astronaut Yang Liwei into space aboard the Shenzhou 5 spacecraft.[34] This is the term used by Xinhua News Agency in the English version of the Chinese People's Daily since the advent of the Chinese space program.[35] The origin of the term is unclear; as early as May 1998, Chiew Lee Yih (趙裡昱) from Malaysia used it in newsgroups.[36][37][non-primary source needed]

Other terms

[edit]
Main article: Spaceflight participant

With the rise of space tourism, NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency agreed to use the term "spaceflight participant" to distinguish those space travelers from professional astronauts on missions coordinated by those two agencies.

Finnish American astronaut Timothy Kopra

While no nation other than Russia (and previously the Soviet Union), the United States, and China have launched a crewed spacecraft, several other nations have sent people into space in cooperation with one of these countries, e.g. the Soviet-led Interkosmos program. Inspired partly by these missions, other synonyms for astronaut have entered occasional English usage. For example, the term spationaut (French: spationaute) is sometimes used to describe French space travelers, from the Latin word spatium for "space"; the Malay term angkasawan (deriving from angkasa meaning 'space') was used to describe participants in the Angkasawan program (note its similarity with the Indonesian term antariksawan). Plans of the Indian Space Research Organisation to launch its crewed Gaganyaan spacecraft have spurred at times public discussion if another term than astronaut should be used for the crew members, suggesting vyomanaut (from the Sanskrit word vyoman meaning 'sky' or 'space') or gagannaut (from the Sanskrit word gagan for 'sky').[38][39] In Finland, the NASA astronaut Timothy Kopra, a Finnish American, has sometimes been referred to as sisunautti, from the Finnish word sisu.[40] Across Germanic languages, the word for "astronaut" typically translates to "space traveler", as it does with German's Raumfahrer, Dutch's ruimtevaarder, Swedish's rymdfarare, and Norwegian's romfarer.

For its 2022 Astronaut Group, the European Space Agency envisioned recruiting an astronaut with a physical disability, a category they called "parastronauts", with the intention but not guarantee of spaceflight.[41] The categories of disability considered for the program were individuals with lower limb deficiency (either through amputation or congenital), leg length difference, or a short stature (less than 130 centimetres or 4 feet 3 inches).[42] On 23 November 2022, John McFall was selected to be the first ESA parastronaut;[43] he has rejected the use of the term.[44]

As of 2021 in the United States, astronaut status is conferred on a person depending on the authorizing agency:

  • one who flies in a vehicle above 50 miles (80 km) for NASA or the military is considered an astronaut (with no qualifier)
  • one who flies in a vehicle to the International Space Station in a mission coordinated by NASA and Roscosmos is a spaceflight participant
  • one who flies above 50 miles (80 km) in a non-NASA vehicle as a crewmember and demonstrates activities during flight that are essential to public safety, or contribute to human space flight safety, is considered a commercial astronaut by the Federal Aviation Administration[45]
  • one who flies to the International Space Station as part of a "privately funded, dedicated commercial spaceflight on a commercial launch vehicle dedicated to the mission ... to conduct approved commercial and marketing activities on the space station (or in a commercial segment attached to the station)" is considered a private astronaut by NASA[46] (as of 2020, nobody has yet qualified for this status)

On July 20, 2021, the FAA issued an order redefining the eligibility criteria to be an astronaut in response to the private suborbital spaceflights of Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson.[47][48] The new criteria states that one must have "[d]emonstrated activities during flight that were essential to public safety, or contributed to human space flight safety" to qualify as an astronaut. This new definition excludes Bezos and Branson.

Space travel milestones

[edit]
See also: Spaceflight records and Timeline of space travel by nationality
Yuri Gagarin, first human in space (1961)
Valentina Tereshkova, first woman in space (1963)
Neil Armstrong, first human to walk on the Moon (1969)
Vladimír Remek, a Czechoslovak who became the first non-American and non-Soviet cosmonaut in space (1978)
Yang Liwei, first person sent into space by China (2003)
Map of countries that have sent humans into space

The first human in space was Soviet Yuri Gagarin, who was launched on 12 April 1961, aboard Vostok 1 and orbited around the Earth for 108 minutes. The first woman in space was Soviet Valentina Tereshkova, who launched on 16 June 1963, aboard Vostok 6 and orbited Earth for almost three days.

Alan Shepard became the first American and second person in space on 5 May 1961, on a 15-minute sub-orbital flight aboard Freedom 7. The first American to orbit the Earth was John Glenn, aboard Friendship 7 on 20 February 1962. The first American woman in space was Sally Ride, during Space Shuttle Challenger's mission STS-7, on 18 June 1983.[49] In 1992, Mae Jemison became the first African American woman to travel in space aboard STS-47.

Cosmonaut Alexei Leonov was the first person to conduct an extravehicular activity (EVA), (commonly called a "spacewalk"), on 18 March 1965, on the Soviet Union's Voskhod 2 mission. This was followed two and a half months later by astronaut Ed White who made the first American EVA on NASA's Gemini 4 mission.[50]

The first crewed mission to orbit the Moon, Apollo 8, included American William Anders who was born in Hong Kong, making him the first Asian-born astronaut in 1968.

The Soviet Union, through its Intercosmos program, allowed people from multiple other countries, mostly Soviet-allied but also including from France and Austria, to participate in Soyuz TM-7 and Soyuz TM-13, respectively. This made the Czechoslovak Vladimír Remek the first cosmonaut/astronaut from a country other than the Soviet Union or the United States to fly to space in 1978 on a Soyuz-U rocket.[51]

On 23 July 1980, Pham Tuan of Vietnam became the first Asian in space when he flew aboard Soyuz 37.[52] Also in 1980, Cuban Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez became the first person of black African descent, as well as the first Hispanic astronaut. In 1983, Guion Bluford became the first African American to fly into space. In April 1985, the Taiwanese-American Taylor Wang became the first ethnic Chinese person in space.[53][54]

With the increase of seats on the Space Shuttle, the U.S. also began taking international astronauts. In 1983, Ulf Merbold of West Germany became the first non-US citizen to fly in a US spacecraft. In 1984, Marc Garneau became the first of eight Canadian astronauts to fly in space (through 2010).[55] The first person born in Africa to fly in space was Patrick Baudry of France, in 1985.[56][57] In same NASA flight as the Frenchman was the Saudi Arabian Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin AbdulAziz Al-Saud, who became the first Muslim and Arab astronaut.[58] In 1985, Rodolfo Neri Vela became the first Mexican-born person in space.[59] In 1991, Helen Sharman became the first Briton to fly in space.[60]

In 2001, American Dennis Tito became the first space tourist, after paying a fee for a trip aboard Russian spacecraft Soyuz. In 2002, another private tourist, the South African Mark Shuttleworth, became the first citizen of an African country to fly into space.[61]

On 15 October 2003, Yang Liwei became China's first astronaut on its own spacecraft, the Shenzhou 5.

Age milestones

[edit]

The youngest person to reach space is Oliver Daemen, who was 18 years and 11 months old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-16.[62] Daemen, who was a commercial passenger aboard the New Shepard, broke the record of Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov, who was 25 years old when he flew Vostok 2. Titov remains the youngest human to reach orbit; he rounded the planet 17 times. Titov was also the first person to suffer space sickness and the first person to sleep in space, twice.[63][64]

The oldest person to reach space is William Shatner, who was 90 years old when he made a suborbital spaceflight on Blue Origin NS-18.[65] The oldest person to reach orbit is John Glenn, one of the Mercury 7, who was 77 when he flew on STS-95.[66]

Duration and distance milestones

[edit]

The longest time spent in space was by Russian Valeri Polyakov, who spent 438 days there.[9] As of 2006, the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut is seven, a record held by both Jerry L. Ross and Franklin Chang-Diaz. The farthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401,056 km (249,205 mi), when Jim Lovell, Jack Swigert, and Fred Haise went around the Moon during the Apollo 13 emergency.[9]

Civilian and non-government milestones

[edit]

The first civilian in space was Valentina Tereshkova[67] aboard Vostok 6 (she also became the first woman in space on that mission). Tereshkova was only honorarily inducted into the USSR's Air Force, which did not accept female pilots at that time. A month later, Joseph Albert Walker became the first American civilian in space when his X-15 Flight 90 crossed the 100 kilometers (54 nautical miles) line, qualifying him by the international definition of spaceflight.[68][69] Walker had joined the US Army Air Force but was not a member during his flight. The first people in space who had never been a member of any country's armed forces were both Konstantin Feoktistov and Boris Yegorov aboard Voskhod 1.

The first non-governmental space traveler was Byron K. Lichtenberg, a researcher from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology who flew on STS-9 in 1983.[70] In December 1990, Toyohiro Akiyama became the first paying space traveler and the first journalist in space for Tokyo Broadcasting System, a visit to Mir as part of an estimated $12 million (USD) deal with a Japanese TV station, although at the time, the term used to refer to Akiyama was "Research Cosmonaut".[71][72][73] Akiyama suffered severe space sickness during his mission, which affected his productivity.[72]

The first self-funded space tourist was Dennis Tito on board the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TM-3 on 28 April 2001.

Self-funded travelers

[edit]
Further information: Space tourism

The first person to fly on an entirely privately funded mission was Mike Melvill, piloting SpaceShipOne flight 15P on a suborbital journey, although he was a test pilot employed by Scaled Composites and not an actual paying space tourist.[74][75] Jared Isaacman was the first person to self-fund a mission to orbit, commanding Inspiration4 in 2021.[76] Nine others have paid Space Adventures to fly to the International Space Station:

  1. Dennis Tito (American): 28 April – 6 May 2001
  2. Mark Shuttleworth (South African): 25 April – 5 May 2002
  3. Gregory Olsen (American): 1–11 October 2005
  4. Anousheh Ansari (Iranian / American): 18–29 September 2006
  5. Charles Simonyi (Hungarian / American): 7–21 April 2007, 26 March – 8 April 2009
  6. Richard Garriott (British / American): 12–24 October 2008
  7. Guy Laliberté (Canadian): 30 September 2009 – 11 October 2009
  8. Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano (both Japanese): 8 – 24 December 2021

Training

[edit]
Elliot See during water egress training with NASA (1965)
Main article: Astronaut training
See also: Astronaut ranks and positions

The first NASA astronauts were selected for training in 1959.[77] Early in the space program, military jet test piloting and engineering training were often cited as prerequisites for selection as an astronaut at NASA, although neither John Glenn nor Scott Carpenter (of the Mercury Seven) had any university degree, in engineering or any other discipline at the time of their selection. Selection was initially limited to military pilots.[78][79] The earliest astronauts for both the US and the USSR tended to be jet fighter pilots, and were often test pilots.

Once selected, NASA astronauts go through twenty months of training in a variety of areas, including training for extravehicular activity in a facility such as NASA's Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory.[1][78] Astronauts-in-training (astronaut candidates) may also experience short periods of weightlessness (microgravity) in an aircraft called the "Vomit Comet," the nickname given to a pair of modified KC-135s (retired in 2000 and 2004, respectively, and replaced in 2005 with a C-9) which perform parabolic flights.[77] Astronauts are also required to accumulate a number of flight hours in high-performance jet aircraft. This is mostly done in T-38 jet aircraft out of Ellington Field, due to its proximity to the Johnson Space Center. Ellington Field is also where the Shuttle Training Aircraft is maintained and developed, although most flights of the aircraft are conducted from Edwards Air Force Base.

Astronauts in training must learn how to control and fly the Space Shuttle; further, it is vital that they are familiar with the International Space Station so they know what they must do when they get there.[80]

NASA candidacy requirements

[edit]
Unless otherwise noted, the following data are incorporated from the Astronaut Requirements article by NASA
  • The candidate must be a citizen of the United States.
  • The candidate must complete a master's degree in a STEM field, including engineering, biological science, physical science, computer science or mathematics.
  • The candidate must have at least two years of related professional experience obtained after degree completion or at least 1,000 hours pilot-in-command time on jet aircraft.
  • The candidate must be able to pass the NASA long-duration flight astronaut physical.
  • The candidate must also have skills in leadership, teamwork and communications.

The master's degree requirement can also be met by:

  • Two years of work toward a doctoral program in a related science, technology, engineering or math field.
  • A completed Doctor of Medicine or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree.
  • Completion of a nationally recognized test pilot school program.

Mission Specialist Educator

[edit]
Main article: Educator Astronaut Project
  • Applicants must have a bachelor's degree with teaching experience, including work at the kindergarten through twelfth grade level. An advanced degree, such as a master's degree or a doctoral degree, is not required, but is strongly desired.[81]

Mission Specialist Educators, or "Educator Astronauts", were first selected in 2004; as of 2007, there are three NASA Educator astronauts: Joseph M. Acaba, Richard R. Arnold, and Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger.[82][83] Barbara Morgan, selected as back-up teacher to Christa McAuliffe in 1985, is considered to be the first Educator astronaut by the media, but she trained as a mission specialist.[84] The Educator Astronaut program is a successor to the Teacher in Space program from the 1980s.[85][86]

Health risks of space travel

[edit]
See also: Effect of spaceflight on the human body and Space medicine
Gennady Padalka performing ultrasound on Michael Fincke during ISS Expedition 9

Astronauts are susceptible to a variety of health risks including decompression sickness, barotrauma, immunodeficiencies, loss of bone and muscle, loss of eyesight, orthostatic intolerance, sleep disturbances, and radiation injury.[87][88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96] A variety of large scale medical studies are being conducted in space via the National Space Biomedical Research Institute (NSBRI) to address these issues. Prominent among these is the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity Study in which astronauts (including former ISS commanders Leroy Chiao and Gennady Padalka) perform ultrasound scans under the guidance of remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study's techniques are now being applied to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as ultrasound performed by non-expert operators in medical and high school students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations, where access to a trained physician is often rare.[97][98][99]

A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that Salmonella typhimurium, a bacterium that can cause food poisoning, became more virulent when cultivated in space.[100] More recently, in 2017, bacteria were found to be more resistant to antibiotics and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.[101] Microorganisms have been observed to survive the vacuum of outer space.[102][103]

On 31 December 2012, a NASA-supported study reported that human spaceflight may harm the brain and accelerate the onset of Alzheimer's disease.[104][105][106]

In October 2015, the NASA Office of Inspector General issued a health hazards report related to space exploration, including a human mission to Mars.[107][108]

Over the last decade, flight surgeons and scientists at NASA have seen a pattern of vision problems in astronauts on long-duration space missions. The syndrome, known as visual impairment intracranial pressure (VIIP), has been reported in nearly two-thirds of space explorers after long periods spent aboard the International Space Station (ISS).[109]

On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain have been found in astronauts who have taken trips in space, based on MRI studies. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.[110][111]

Being in space can be physiologically deconditioning on the body. It can affect the otolith organs and adaptive capabilities of the central nervous system. Zero gravity and cosmic rays can cause many implications for astronauts.[112]

In October 2018, NASA-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into outer space, including travel to the planet Mars, may substantially damage the gastrointestinal tissues of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the brains of astronauts, and age them prematurely.[113]

Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the International Space Station (ISS) of five Enterobacter bugandensis bacterial strains, none pathogenic to humans, that microorganisms on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for astronauts.[114][115]

A study by Russian scientists published in April 2019 stated that astronauts facing space radiation could face temporary hindrance of their memory centers. While this does not affect their intellectual capabilities, it temporarily hinders formation of new cells in brain's memory centers. The study conducted by Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (MIPT) concluded this after they observed that mice exposed to neutron and gamma radiation did not impact the rodents' intellectual capabilities.[116]

A 2020 study conducted on the brains of eight male Russian cosmonauts after they returned from long stays aboard the International Space Station showed that long-duration spaceflight causes many physiological adaptions, including macro- and microstructural changes. While scientists still know little about the effects of spaceflight on brain structure, this study showed that space travel can lead to new motor skills (dexterity), but also slightly weaker vision, both of which could possibly be long lasting. It was the first study to provide clear evidence of sensorimotor neuroplasticity, which is the brain's ability to change through growth and reorganization.[117][118]

Food and drink

[edit]
Main article: Space food
Astronauts making and eating hamburgers on board the ISS, 2002[119]

An astronaut on the International Space Station requires about 830 g (29 oz) mass of food per meal each day (inclusive of about 120 g or 4.2 oz packaging mass per meal).

Space Shuttle astronauts worked with nutritionists to select menus that appealed to their individual tastes. Five months before flight, menus were selected and analyzed for nutritional content by the shuttle dietician. Foods are tested to see how they will react in a reduced gravity environment. Caloric requirements are determined using a basal energy expenditure (BEE) formula. On Earth, the average American uses about 35 US gallons (130 L) of water every day. On board the ISS astronauts limit water use to only about three US gallons (11 L) per day.[120]

Insignia

[edit]
NASA Astronaut lapel pin

In Russia, cosmonauts are awarded Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation upon completion of their missions, often accompanied with the award of Hero of the Russian Federation. This follows the practice established in the USSR where cosmonauts were usually awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union.

At NASA, those who complete astronaut candidate training receive a silver lapel pin. Once they have flown in space, they receive a gold pin. U.S. astronauts who also have active-duty military status receive a special qualification badge, known as the Astronaut Badge, after participation on a spaceflight. The United States Air Force also presents an Astronaut Badge to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

Deaths

[edit]
For a more comprehensive list, see List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents § Astronaut fatalities.
Space Mirror Memorial

As of 2020, eighteen astronauts (fourteen men and four women) have died during four space flights. By nationality, thirteen were American, four were Russian (Soviet Union), and one was Israeli.

As of 2020, eleven people (all men) have died training for spaceflight: eight Americans and three Russians. Six of these were in crashes of training jet aircraft, one drowned during water recovery training, and four were due to fires in pure oxygen environments.

Astronaut David Scott left a memorial consisting of a statuette titled Fallen Astronaut on the surface of the Moon during his 1971 Apollo 15 mission, along with a list of the names of eight of the astronauts and six cosmonauts known at the time to have died in service.[121]

The Space Mirror Memorial, which stands on the grounds of the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, is maintained by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and commemorates the lives of the men and women who have died during spaceflight and during training in the space programs of the United States. In addition to twenty NASA career astronauts, the memorial includes the names of an X-15 test pilot, a U.S. Air Force officer who died while training for a then-classified military space program, and a civilian spaceflight participant.

See also

[edit]

Explanatory notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Astronaut

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
An astronaut is a person trained by a program to command, pilot, or serve as a crew member of a , with the term generally reserved for those who have reached . The word "astronaut" originates from terms astron () and nautes (), translating to "star sailor," and it specifically refers to crew members launched aboard for space missions. Human spaceflight began in the late 1950s amid the between the and the , with Soviet cosmonaut becoming the first person in space on April 12, 1961, aboard Vostok 1. 's inaugural class of astronauts, known as the , was selected in 1959 from military test pilots, marking the start of the U.S. human spaceflight program. Landmark achievements followed, including the first American orbital flight by in 1962 and the mission in 1969, where and became the first humans to walk on the Moon. As of 2025, more than 700 individuals from 47 countries have flown to space, contributing to missions ranging from suborbital flights to long-duration stays on the (ISS). Astronauts are selected through highly competitive processes that prioritize candidates with advanced STEM degrees, exceptional physical and psychological fitness, and relevant experience such as piloting or ; for instance, NASA's selection drew over 12,000 applicants for just 10 spots. Once chosen, they undergo two years of intensive training, including simulations, survival skills, spacewalk practice, and mission-specific preparation for environments like the ISS or lunar operations. In their roles, astronauts conduct scientific research—such as studies on human physiology and materials in microgravity—operate systems, perform extravehicular activities (EVAs or spacewalks), and collaborate internationally on programs like , aimed at returning humans to the Moon and preparing for Mars exploration. Since 2000, the ISS has hosted over 290 visitors from 26 nations, fostering advancements in , , and sustainable space habitation; in November 2025, it marked 25 years of continuous human presence. As of 2025, NASA's active astronaut corps includes 48 flight-eligible members, with ongoing selections to support commercial partnerships and deep-space ambitions, while international agencies like the (ESA) and continue to train diverse crews for collaborative ventures. Astronauts not only drive scientific progress but also inspire global public engagement through outreach, embodying humanity's enduring quest to explore the .

Definition and Terminology

Core Definition

An astronaut is a person trained and selected by a human spaceflight program to serve as a commander, pilot, or crew member aboard a spacecraft, enabling the operation and execution of space missions. The term originates from the Greek words astron (star) and nautes (sailor), literally meaning "star sailor," and applies to individuals launched into space as part of professional crews. This role encompasses responsibilities such as vehicle control, scientific experimentation, and mission coordination during orbital or deep-space flights. Professional astronauts are distinguished from spaceflight participants, such as space tourists, who are non- individuals carried aboard launch or reentry vehicles without undergoing the rigorous or operational duties required of certified members. Under U.S. (FAA) regulations, spaceflight participants do not qualify as astronauts or , as they lack the designation and preparation for active mission roles. This separation ensures that only trained professionals handle critical functions, while participants engage in passive travel. Internationally, the role of astronauts is enshrined in the 1967 Outer Space Treaty, which designates them as "envoys of mankind" in outer space, obligating signatory states to provide all possible assistance in cases of accident, distress, or emergency landing. Article V of the treaty further requires the safe and prompt return of astronauts to the state of registry of their spacecraft and mandates mutual aid among astronauts from different nations during space activities. This framework underscores the cooperative and humanitarian aspects of human spaceflight, transcending national boundaries. The astronaut role has evolved from its origins in military test pilots, who dominated early selections for their expertise in high-risk vehicle handling, to a broader cadre of specialists including scientists, , physicians, and international partners to support complex, multidisciplinary missions. 's initial 1959 cohort consisted entirely of test pilots, but subsequent groups incorporated mission specialists focused on scientific and technical operations, reflecting the shift toward sustained and international collaboration. Today, astronaut candidates draw from diverse fields to address the demands of programs like , emphasizing adaptability across piloting, , and disciplines.

International Terms

The term "astronaut" derives from the Greek words astron () and nautes (), literally meaning " ," and was coined in scientific speculation as early as 1929 before gaining popularity through in the mid-20th century. It was formally adopted by the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration () in 1958 as the official designation for individuals trained for , and it remains the standard term used by and most Western space agencies, including those in and , to describe professionals who travel beyond Earth's atmosphere. This nomenclature reflects a focus on stellar , aligning with the exploratory ethos of early American space programs. In contrast, the Russian space agency employs the term "cosmonaut," derived from the Greek kosmos () and nautes (sailor), meaning "universe sailor." The word entered usage in 1959, coinciding with the Soviet Union's preparations for manned under the Vostok program, and was first applied to during his historic orbital flight in 1961. This term underscores the Soviet emphasis on cosmic exploration and has persisted through 's operations, distinguishing Russian spacefarers from their Western counterparts in international discourse. For China's space program, managed by the (CNSA), the official term is yuhangyuan (宇航员), which translates from Mandarin as "space navigator" or "universe traveler," reflecting a direct linguistic focus on navigation through the . An English-language , "taikonaut," emerged in 1998 from the Mandarin taikong () combined with the Greek -naut (sailor), and gained traction in following China's first manned mission in 2003 with the Shenzhou program. While taikonaut is not officially endorsed by CNSA, it has become a common informal descriptor for Chinese space personnel, paralleling the cultural adaptations seen in other programs. The (ESA) occasionally uses "spationaut" (or spationaute in French), derived from the Latin spatium (space) and Greek nautes (sailor), meaning "space sailor," particularly in French-speaking contexts to denote European astronauts. This term entered limited usage in the as ESA expanded its astronaut corps, though "astronaut" predominates in official English communications. Similarly, Malaysia's Angkasawan program, launched in 2007 to send its first national to the , adopted angkasawan from Malay, directly meaning "astronaut" or "space traveler," to culturally localize the role within its national space initiatives. These variations highlight how spacefaring nations adapt terminology to blend indigenous languages with classical roots, fostering in global space endeavors.

Historical Development

Early Spaceflight Milestones

The era of early human spaceflight began with the Soviet Union's Vostok 1 mission on April 12, 1961, when cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to reach space, completing a single orbit of Earth in a 108-minute flight aboard the Vostok spacecraft. This pioneering achievement demonstrated that humans could survive the rigors of launch, weightlessness, and reentry, paving the way for subsequent orbital missions. In response, the accelerated its , initiated in 1958 and spanning until 1963, to achieve manned suborbital and orbital flights using one-person capsules launched by Redstone and Atlas rockets. The program's first success came on May 5, 1961, with astronaut Alan Shepard's suborbital flight aboard Freedom 7, lasting 15 minutes and reaching an altitude of about 187 kilometers, marking the initial American step into space. Building on this, became the first American to orbit Earth on February 20, 1962, during the Friendship 7 mission, completing three circuits in under five hours and confirming the viability of human-piloted orbital operations. The Soviet program advanced gender diversity in space with cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova's flight on June 16, 1963, where she became the first woman in space, orbiting Earth 48 times over nearly 71 hours and conducting observations that contributed to biomedical data on female physiology in microgravity. The culmination of early lunar ambitions arrived with NASA's , which achieved the first human on July 20, 1969, during , as astronauts and descended in the to the Sea of Tranquility, with Armstrong uttering the iconic words upon his first step: "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." Over the subsequent years, six Apollo missions (11 through 17, excluding the aborted ) successfully landed on the between 1969 and 1972, enabling a total of 12 astronauts—six pairs from those crews—to conduct extravehicular activities, collect 382 kilograms of lunar samples, and perform scientific experiments that expanded knowledge of the Moon's geology and environment. The advanced orbital station technology with the program, launching in 1971 as the world's first , hosting crews for up to 23 days despite the tragic loss of the crew in 1971. A landmark in international cooperation was the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in July 1975, where American astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and docked with the Soviet Soyuz 19 spacecraft crewed by and Valery Kubasov, marking the first joint U.S.-Soviet space mission and symbolizing during the . Transitioning from lunar exploration to sustained orbital presence, the United States launched in May 1973 as its first , repurposed from a upper stage and serving as an orbital laboratory until 1974. Three crews of three astronauts each visited across missions lasting 28, 59, and 84 days, respectively, conducting over 270 experiments in fields such as , resources, and human adaptation to long-duration , while demonstrating repairs to the station's damaged solar arrays and micrometeoroid shield during the initial crew's arrival.

Modern Achievements and Records

The , operational from 1981 to 2011, marked a significant era in technology, conducting 135 missions that carried a total of 355 individuals into orbit. These flights facilitated the deployment of satellites, conducted scientific experiments, and supported the construction of the , with notable milestones including the first flight of an American woman, , aboard in 1983. Another highlight was the planned inclusion of as the first teacher in space on in 1986, though the mission ended tragically in . The (ISS), continuously inhabited since 2000 following its assembly beginning in 1998, has hosted 290 visitors from 26 countries as of November 2025, fostering unprecedented international collaboration in microgravity research. This era has seen records for long-duration stays, including Russian cosmonaut Valeri Polyakov's 437-day mission on the predecessor station from 1994 to 1995, which remains the longest single human spaceflight to date and informed ISS operations. Private sector advancements have democratized access to space since the , with 's Crew Dragon achieving its first operational crewed flight in May 2020 under NASA's , enabling routine astronaut transport to the ISS. Suborbital tourism emerged through Virgin Galactic's flights, starting with commercial passenger missions in 2023, and Blue Origin's , which conducted its inaugural crewed suborbital flight in July 2021. A pivotal orbital milestone was the mission in September 2021, the first all-civilian crewed flight to reach aboard a Crew Dragon, raising funds for pediatric research while demonstrating private capabilities for extended missions. Diversity in astronaut selection has expanded notably in modern spaceflight, with becoming the first African American in space on in 1983. Age records include John Glenn's return to space at 77 years old on in 1998, the oldest person to fly at that time, and Wally Funk's suborbital flight at 82 aboard Blue Origin's in 2021, setting the record for the oldest woman in space. Regarding LGBTQ+ representation, was posthumously identified in 2012 as the first known LGBTQ+ astronaut, having flown in 1983, though public acknowledgment during active careers has grown in the 2020s. In terms of distance, the mission in 1970 achieved the farthest human venture from at approximately 400,000 km, a record contextualized in modern efforts to push boundaries further. The ongoing aims to return humans to the lunar surface, with Artemis III targeted for a landing in 2027, building toward sustainable presence on the and preparation for Mars.

Selection and Preparation

Candidacy Criteria

Candidacy criteria for astronauts vary by space agency but generally emphasize citizenship, advanced in science, , , or (STEM) fields, relevant professional experience, and rigorous physical and medical fitness to ensure safe performance environments. These requirements have evolved since the earliest selections, such as NASA's group of military test pilots, to include more diverse professional backgrounds while maintaining high standards for mission success. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration () requires candidates to be U.S. citizens with a in a STEM field from an accredited institution, or equivalent qualifications such as two years toward a doctoral program, a , or completion of a school program. Applicants must also demonstrate at least three years of related professional experience following the degree or accumulate 1,000 hours of pilot-in-command time in , with medical residents counting residency toward experience. Physically, candidates must pass NASA's long-duration flight astronaut physical, including distant and near correctable to 20/20 in each eye and not exceeding 140/90 in a sitting position. Russia's Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities sets similar educational and experiential thresholds for cosmonauts, requiring Russian citizenship, a higher education degree in engineering, sciences, aviation, or related fields, and relevant professional experience in the specialty. Candidates must be no older than 35 years at application and undergo comprehensive medical evaluations emphasizing physical fitness, with a focus on engineering proficiency to support spacecraft operations. The (ESA) mandates citizenship of an ESA member or associated state, along with a minimum in natural sciences, , , mathematics, or computer sciences, followed by at least three years of professional experience such as or clinical work. Fluency in English and knowledge of another language are essential for international collaboration, with physical fitness demonstrated via a equivalent to a private pilot license or higher; the maximum age at application is 50. China's National Space Administration (CNSA) prioritizes advanced degrees, preferably a or PhD in or related STEM disciplines, drawing from diverse backgrounds including scientists, physicians, and engineers to support missions like the . Multilingual capabilities, particularly in English, aid potential international engagements, though selections often favor military pilots with technical expertise. Private space programs, such as those operated by , apply less rigid criteria compared to government agencies, prioritizing technical skills, adaptability, and problem-solving over formal . For missions like or flights, selections have included civilians from business, science, and engineering fields, with opportunities for self-funded participation to broaden access beyond traditional prerequisites. Selection processes are highly competitive, with typically choosing 10–12 candidates every few years from over 8,000–12,000 applicants; for instance, the 2021 class selected 12 from 12,000, while the 2025 class chose 10 from more than 8,000. Recent selections reflect a shift toward greater inclusivity, exemplified by 's 2025 astronaut candidate class, where women outnumbered men for the first time (six women and four men), aligning with broader efforts to diversify the corps.

Training Regimens

Astronaut training regimens typically commence immediately following selection as candidates, marking the beginning of an intensive multi-year preparation process designed to equip individuals with the technical, operational, and survival skills necessary for . At agencies such as , basic training lasts approximately two years and is conducted primarily at the in , where candidates learn core competencies including systems operations, handling, and extravehicular activities (EVAs), also known as spacewalks. This phase emphasizes hands-on instruction in the intricacies of vehicle controls, life support systems, and robotic manipulators like the Canadarm2 used on the (ISS), ensuring astronauts can perform complex tasks in isolated environments. Training incorporates simulations of mission scenarios to build proficiency in EVA procedures, where candidates practice donning spacesuits and maneuvering in simulated microgravity to repair or assemble orbital structures. Specialized simulations form a critical component of astronaut preparation, replicating the physical and environmental challenges of spaceflight to enhance safety and performance. The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory at , a 6.2-million-gallon pool, allows astronauts to train for zero-gravity conditions during EVAs by suspending full-scale mockups of and station components underwater, providing realistic practice for tasks lasting up to eight hours. Centrifuge facilities simulate the high G-forces encountered during launch and reentry, with astronauts experiencing up to 8 Gs to acclimate to acceleration stresses and maintain cognitive function under duress, a practice reinstated for crews in recent years. Additionally, wilderness survival training, conducted over three days in remote areas like forests in or deserts in , teaches candidates essential skills such as building shelters, sourcing water, and signaling for rescue in the event of an off-nominal landing. For multinational missions like those to the ISS, cross-training at accommodates partners from agencies including , ESA, , and CSA, fostering interoperability through shared simulations and joint exercises. Astronauts undergo language instruction at the 's Language Education Center, where personnel achieve conversational proficiency in Russian—essential for Soyuz operations—while international counterparts learn English, supplemented by cultural modules to address communication nuances and team dynamics in diverse crews. This collaborative approach ensures seamless coordination during long-duration flights, with training emphasizing conflict resolution and shared protocols. In contrast, preparation for private astronauts, particularly through companies like , is more condensed, often spanning several months and totaling 700 to 1,000 hours focused on safety protocols, basic vehicle operations, and emergency response rather than exhaustive technical depth. For suborbital flights, such as those offered by commercial providers, training emphasizes passenger safety briefings and physiological adaptation over extended simulations, aligning with shorter mission profiles. By 2025, these programs have evolved to incorporate updates for emerging commercial orbital flights, including enhanced integration with Crew Dragon systems for missions like Axiom's Ax-4. Mission-specific tailoring further refines regimens to align with unique objectives, such as geological field training for lunar explorations under NASA's . Astronauts participate in analog missions in volcanic regions like Arizona's or Norway's lunar-like terrains, learning to identify samples, map craters, and document surface features to support scientific return during landings targeted for the late . This hands-on instruction, ramped up since 2023, equips crews to maximize sample collection efficiency while navigating extraterrestrial hazards.

Operational Roles

Mission Duties

Astronauts undertake a range of critical responsibilities during space missions, encompassing vehicle operations, scientific research, and extravehicular activities to ensure mission success from launch through landing. These duties are divided among crew roles such as commander, pilot, and mission specialists, with the commander holding overall authority for crew safety, vehicle management, and mission objectives. In the pre-launch phase, astronauts perform final systems checks, including leak verifications on the and suits, while reviewing procedures and checklists to confirm readiness for ascent. During in-flight operations, pilots and commanders operate controls for navigation, orbital maneuvers, and rendezvous with targets like the (ISS), where they monitor automated docking or intervene manually if required. procedures involve rapid response protocols, such as abort sequences or contingency maneuvers, to mitigate risks like system failures. Reentry duties include executing de-orbit burns, monitoring descent trajectories, and piloting the vehicle through atmospheric interface for a safe landing. Science officers and mission specialists conduct experiments in microgravity, focusing on fields like fluid physics—where phenomena such as behave differently without gravity—and , including studies on growth or protein crystallization to advance and . They also handle payload deployment, such as releasing small satellites from the ISS via systems like the Kaber deployer or , enabling orbit insertion for or technology demonstrations. Extravehicular activity (EVA), or spacewalks, forms a core duty for maintenance and repairs outside the , with astronauts donning suits capable of supporting 6 to 8 hours of activity in the vacuum of space. As of November 2025, the ISS has hosted 277 such EVAs since 1998, totaling over 1,800 hours, primarily for tasks like installing solar arrays, replacing power regulators, and upgrading communication systems. For emerging missions, astronauts adapt duties to new environments; in NASA's , crew members will pilot the to descend to and ascend from the lunar surface, conducting surface operations during approximately 6.5-day stays on the as part of a ~30-day mission. In Mars analog simulations like the Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA), participants perform operational tasks such as simulated surface walks, vegetable cultivation in controlled habitats, and robotic arm operations to mimic planetary exploration. These roles build on rigorous training to prepare for extended deep-space operations.

Ground and Support Functions

Astronauts play a vital role in pre-mission planning by developing experiment protocols, mission timelines, and contingency plans to ensure and during spaceflights. These activities involve collaborating with engineers and to refine procedures for scientific , vehicle operations, and responses, often drawing on their prior flight to anticipate challenges. For instance, astronauts contribute to the integration of international payloads on the (ISS), customizing timelines to align with crew schedules and orbital constraints. A key ground support function is the capsule communicator (CAPCOM) role, traditionally filled by active-duty astronauts who relay critical information between mission control and crews in space. Positioned in the at NASA's , CAPCOMs provide real-time updates on technical data, weather conditions, and procedural adjustments, leveraging their expertise to interpret complex situations and maintain clear communication. This position, originating from the Apollo era, continues to be astronaut-exclusive to foster trust and shared understanding with orbiting crews. Astronauts also engage in extensive and efforts, inspiring in STEM through appearances, lectures, and programs. NASA's Astronaut Appearances Office coordinates these engagements, where astronauts speak at schools, universities, and public events to share mission insights and encourage careers in space . Post-flight, they participate in debriefs to analyze mission , documenting physiological effects, equipment performance, and operational lessons to inform future training and protocols. In reserve capacities, astronauts support analog missions and unmanned tests to simulate extraterrestrial environments and validate technologies. For example, they contribute to the NASA-funded HI-SEAS program on , , by providing expertise in habitat operations and psychological factors for Mars preparation, helping evaluate crew dynamics in isolated settings. Additionally, they assist in ground testing of , such as reviewing telemetry from Artemis missions to refine launch procedures. With the rise of commercial , astronauts on private missions, such as Axiom Space's Ax-4 in 2025, perform comparable duties while supporting commercial objectives alongside NASA goals. Many astronauts progress to leadership roles, transitioning from flight assignments to management positions within space agencies or the private sector. , for instance, served as ISS commander during her tenure before retiring in 2018 and becoming vice president of human spaceflight at , where she commanded private missions like in 2023 and Axiom Mission 4 in 2025 and continued executive oversight into late 2025. This evolution allows experienced astronauts to shape program strategies and mentor emerging candidates.

Health and Physiological Effects

Spaceflight Risks

Astronauts face significant physical hazards from microgravity during , which leads to rapid loss at a rate of 1-2% per month in bones such as the hips and spine. This demineralization occurs due to the absence of gravitational loading, mimicking accelerated and increasing fracture risk upon return to . also develops quickly, with losses of up to 20% in leg muscles after just weeks in orbit, as the body adapts by reducing muscle mass no longer needed for locomotion against . Additionally, fluid shifts toward the head in microgravity cause Spaceflight-Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS), resulting in vision impairment from edema and intraocular pressure changes affecting up to 70% of long-duration mission astronauts. Microgravity also contributes to cardiovascular deconditioning, including reduced blood volume, orthostatic intolerance, and diminished aerobic capacity, which can lead to fainting or exercise limitations upon return to Earth. Exposure to space radiation poses another major threat, primarily from galactic cosmic rays—high-energy particles from outside the solar system—and solar particle events from flares, which penetrate spacecraft shielding due to the lack of Earth's atmospheric protection. These ionizing radiations damage DNA, elevating the lifetime cancer risk; for instance, a six-month stay on the International Space Station typically exposes astronauts to 80-160 millisieverts, corresponding to an approximate 0.5-1% increase in fatal cancer probability. NASA limits career exposure to maintain the risk of exposure-induced cancer death below 3% at the 95th confidence interval, yet deep-space missions amplify this hazard beyond low-Earth orbit levels. Launch and reentry phases introduce acute mechanical stresses, with astronauts enduring G-forces up to 3-4g during ascent and deceleration, straining the cardiovascular system and potentially causing disorientation or injury if tolerances are exceeded. Vehicle failures compound these risks, as seen in the 1986 Challenger disaster, where a joint failure caused an explosion 73 seconds after liftoff, killing all seven crew members. Similarly, the 2003 Columbia accident resulted from wing damage during launch leading to structural breakup during reentry, claiming another seven lives due to the intense thermal and aerodynamic loads. Psychological hazards arise from the isolation and confinement of environments, fostering stress, anxiety, and potential interpersonal conflicts within small crews over extended periods. Prolonged separation from and loved ones, combined with monotonous routines in enclosed habitats, can degrade mood and cognitive performance, with evidence from analog missions showing occasional team tensions that impair . For deep-space exploration, emerging risks include one-way communication delays of up to 20 minutes to Mars, complicating real-time support and increasing demands on crews during emergencies. Extravehicular activities on the or Mars also expose astronauts to toxic dust; lunar regolith's sharp, electrostatic particles can irritate and eyes, potentially causing inflammation similar to . Martian dust, rich in perchlorates and fine silicates, heightens respiratory risks, with leading to damage, systemic absorption, and elevated disease susceptibility due to its asbestos-like properties.

Countermeasures and Adaptations

Astronauts engage in structured exercise regimens to counteract the physiological deconditioning caused by microgravity, particularly the loss of muscle mass and . On the (ISS), crew members typically perform resistance and aerobic exercises for approximately 1.5 to 2 hours daily, six to seven days a week, using specialized equipment like the Advanced Resistive Exercise Device (ARED). This protocol includes high-intensity resistance training to target major muscle groups and cardiovascular workouts on treadmills or cycle ergometers, which have been shown to significantly mitigate and help preserve bone mineral density in key areas like the hips and spine. Medical interventions further support skeletal health and during spaceflight. Bisphosphonates, such as , are administered to astronauts to inhibit , with studies demonstrating their ability to help preserve mass when combined with exercise. Concepts for , including short-radius centrifuges, aim to simulate Earth's gravitational pull intermittently, allowing astronauts to exercise under 0.3-1g conditions to stimulate bone formation and cardiovascular function; prototypes have been evaluated for integration into future habitats like those for Mars missions. For radiation exposure, wearable shielding vests like the AstroRad, developed by StemRad and , provide targeted protection to vital organs using hydrogen-rich polymers, reducing deep-space radiation dose by up to 50% during solar particle events without restricting mobility. Nutritional strategies address deficiencies exacerbated by spaceflight, focusing on bone metabolism. Astronauts receive daily supplements of vitamin D (typically 800-1000 IU) and calcium (1000-1200 mg) to maintain serum levels and support calcium absorption, which drops to 20-25% in microgravity; this regimen has been effective in preventing severe vitamin D insufficiency during six-month ISS stays. Bone health is monitored through pre- and post-flight dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans, supplemented by in-flight quantitative ultrasound assessments of the tibia and calcaneus to track density changes non-invasively. Psychological countermeasures emphasize resilience and mental in isolated environments. Pre-mission team-building exercises foster cohesion and skills, drawing from NASA's behavioral protocols to simulate mission dynamics and reduce interpersonal conflicts. In-flight support includes real-time counseling via delayed communications with ground psychologists, often augmented by automated virtual therapists for confidential sessions addressing anxiety or adjustment issues. (VR) systems provide simulations, such as immersive nature scenes or social interactions, to alleviate isolation; headsets tested on the ISS have improved mood and cognitive performance by enabling restorative experiences during off-duty time. Technological advances in 2025 continue to enhance adaptability for deep-space missions. The program's next-generation spacesuits, including Axiom Space's AxEMU, incorporate articulated joints and flexible materials for greater mobility in lunar gravity, enabling extended extravehicular activities (EVAs) up to eight hours while supporting physiological monitoring. Emerging gene therapy research targets radiation resistance, with 's Translational Research Institute exploring CRISPR-based edits to upregulate genes like TP53, showing promise in rodent models for enhancing against galactic cosmic rays.

Daily Life and Logistics

Nutrition and Sustenance

Astronaut menus are meticulously planned to meet daily caloric needs ranging from 2,500 to 3,500 calories, depending on individual factors such as age, sex, body weight, and mission demands, while ensuring a balanced macronutrient profile and 100% of required vitamins and minerals. These diets incorporate a variety of preservation methods to combat spoilage in space, including thermostabilization (heating to kill pathogens), (via freeze-drying or air-drying), and (sterilizing with low-dose radiation), alongside freezing and moisture control for extended shelf life up to three years. The evolution of space food reflects advancements in technology and mission requirements, beginning with the Mercury program's simple offerings like applesauce in toothpaste-style tubes and bite-sized cubes or gels to minimize mess in early capsules. By the Space Shuttle era, freeze-dried foods became standard, allowing rehydration with hot water for improved palatability and variety, while Apollo missions introduced the first hot water dispensers. On the International Space Station (ISS), menus have expanded to over 200 items, including rehydratable entrees, thermostabilized pouches, and natural-form foods, with provisions for cultural preferences such as international crew members selecting items like tortillas from Mexico or borscht from Russia to enhance morale and dietary diversity. Microgravity presents unique nutritional challenges, including fluid shifts, , and loss, necessitating dietary adjustments such as increased protein intake—often 1.2 to 1.6 grams per kilogram of body weight daily—to support muscle maintenance and counteract protein breakdown. Food processing can diminish certain vitamins, like B and C, prompting the addition of supplements to restore nutritional completeness and address absorption alterations in . Dining in space requires specialized logistics to manage microgravity, with utensils and trays featuring Velcro patches, magnets, or springs to secure items against floating, and packaging designed to prevent crumbs—such as tortillas replacing or moist, surface-tension-held foods in . Hydration relies on advanced water reclamation systems that recover approximately 98% of moisture from , sweat, and humidity, purifying it through and for potable use, ensuring self-sufficiency on long-duration missions. Looking ahead, innovations aim to sustain crews on extended voyages, including 2025 experiments with hydroponic systems on the ISS, such as the Plant Water Management trials, which demonstrate passive, soil-less cultivation of crops like using recirculating nutrient solutions to provide fresh produce and reduce resupply dependence. Additionally, 3D-printed foods, including lab-grown meats like prototypes developed through , offer customizable, nutrient-dense options tailored for texture and taste in microgravity, supporting psychological well-being on Mars-bound missions.

Personal and Environmental Management

Astronauts maintain personal in microgravity without traditional showers, relying instead on -efficient methods to conserve resources and prevent droplets from floating freely. They use no-rinse shampoos, originally developed for hospital patients, to wash their hair by applying the product and towel-drying without . Wet wipes and dry shampoos supplement these practices for body cleaning, while involves standard toothbrushes and from personal kits, with astronauts spitting into a suction device or towel to manage waste. Shaving occurs with battery-powered razors, and all hygiene items are selected pre-mission to suit individual preferences. Waste management systems on the (ISS) employ vacuum toilets to handle bodily waste in zero , where natural expulsion is ineffective. The Universal Waste Management System (UWMS) features a suction-based that separates and using from integrated fans, with directed to processing units for 98% water recovery (as of 2025) through and . are collected in disposable hydrophobic bags within a canister, manually compressed to reduce volume, and stored for later return to or incineration upon reentry, ensuring containment and odor control via air rings and filters. Compact versions of these systems are adapted for smaller like Orion, prioritizing minimal crew time and 75% volume reduction compared to legacy designs. Environmental control and life support systems (ECLSS) on the ISS regulate cabin atmosphere to support human habitation, including (CO2) scrubbing to prevent buildup from crew respiration. Early missions used lithium hydroxide canisters for non-regenerative CO2 absorption, while the current Assembly (CDRA) employs regenerative beds that adsorb CO2 and desorb it for venting or processing, operating in four-bed cycles for continuous air purification. is maintained between 18–27°C through heat exchangers and radiators, with controlled at 40–65% via condensation removal and dehumidifiers to ensure comfort and equipment reliability. Sleep accommodations in space address microgravity challenges, where astronauts float without beds, using restraint bags—essentially zipped sleeping bags with straps—secured to walls or modules to prevent drifting and provide psychological security. These are housed in dedicated crew quarters on the ISS, offering privacy, lighting, and noise mitigation, though the 90-minute orbital cycle causes frequent 16 sunrises and sunsets daily, disrupting circadian rhythms and reducing average to about 6 hours despite scheduled 8-hour rest periods. Eye masks, earplugs, and controlled lighting help counteract these interruptions. In the , suborbital flights like those on Blue Origin's present minimal personal and environmental management needs due to their brevity, lasting about 11 minutes with roughly 4 minutes of , eliminating requirements for dedicated toilets or facilities as passengers remain seated in pressure suits. Cabin environmental controls focus on basic pressurization and temperature stability during ascent and descent, without advanced recycling systems.

Recognition and Legacy

Insignia and Honors

Astronauts are often distinguished by custom mission patches, embroidered emblems unique to each spaceflight that encapsulate the mission's goals, crew, and symbolic motifs. These patches, sewn onto spacesuits, flight suits, and displayed in mission control, trace their origins to NASA's early programs in the , where they fostered team identity and commemorated achievements. For instance, the patch depicts an American eagle descending toward the lunar surface with an in its talons, signifying peaceful lunar exploration during the 1969 . Agency-specific insignia further honor astronauts' qualifications and accomplishments. In the United States, presents a silver astronaut pin to candidates upon completing rigorous , featuring a central star encircled by an orbital wreath to symbolize preparation; this is upgraded to a pin following a successful mission. Russian cosmonauts receive the honorary title of Pilot-Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation, accompanied by a distinctive badge and medals like the Order of Gagarin, awarded for exceptional contributions to , as seen in presentations to crews returning from the . International honors recognize groundbreaking service on a national scale. The U.S. , authorized by Congress and presented by the President, salutes astronauts for meritorious efforts in space, with recipients including for his lunar steps and for his pioneering orbital flight. Similarly, early Soviet cosmonauts such as were bestowed the title immediately after their historic missions, marking them as national icons for advancing . Private sector recognitions include certificates and wings for commercial astronauts, such as the FAA's Commercial Astronaut Wings awarded to participants in licensed suborbital or orbital flights, including Crew Dragon crews like those on Demo-2. These honors extend to internal commendations for operational excellence in private missions. Mission patches and hold significant cultural value as collectibles, traded and displayed by enthusiasts worldwide, while post-mission ceremonies feature patch unveilings that celebrate collective efforts in lunar exploration.

Fatalities and Memorials

Astronaut fatalities have occurred during both spaceflights and ground-based training operations, highlighting the inherent risks of human . The first in-flight death took place on April 24, 1967, when Soviet cosmonaut perished aboard due to a failure during reentry, causing the capsule to crash at high speed into the ground. This incident marked the initial loss of life during an orbital mission, stemming from multiple technical malfunctions including solar panel deployment issues and control problems that plagued the flight from launch. Subsequent tragedies included the Soyuz 11 mission on June 30, 1971, where cosmonauts , Vladislav Volkov, and died from cabin depressurization caused by a faulty ventilation valve that opened prematurely during separation of the modules, leading to rapid loss of pressure at an altitude of about 168 kilometers. This event remains the only known instance of human deaths occurring in space itself, as the crew succumbed to asphyxiation before reentry. In the United States, the Space Shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after launch on January 28, 1986, killing all seven crew members—Francis R. Scobee, Michael J. Smith, Judith A. Resnik, Ronald E. McNair, Ellison S. Onizuka, Gregory B. Jarvis, and Christa McAuliffe—due to the failure of an O-ring seal in the right solid rocket booster, exacerbated by cold weather conditions. The shuttle disintegrated at an altitude of approximately 46 kilometers, scattering debris over the Atlantic Ocean. Similarly, the Space Shuttle Columbia broke apart during reentry on February 1, 2003, resulting in the deaths of its seven crew members—Rick Husband, William McCool, Michael P. Anderson, David M. Brown, Kalpana Chawla, Laurel Clark, and Ilan Ramon—from the catastrophic failure of the thermal protection system, caused by foam debris damaging the left wing during ascent. The orbiter disintegrated over Texas at Mach 18, with no possibility of survival. Training accidents have also claimed lives, most notably the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, during a launchpad test, where astronauts Virgil I. Grissom, Edward H. White II, and suffocated and burned in a pure-oxygen cabin environment ignited by an electrical spark and fueled by flammable materials. This pre-launch simulation at exposed vulnerabilities in spacecraft design and procedures. In the private sector, a 2014 test flight of Virgin Galactic's ended in disaster on October 31 near , when co-pilot was killed after the vehicle broke apart mid-flight due to premature unlocking of the feather mechanism, while pilot Peter Siebold survived with severe injuries. As of 2025, spaceflight history records 22 fatalities directly attributable to mission-related incidents, encompassing causes such as explosions, structural failures, parachute malfunctions, and decompression events during flights or associated preparations. These losses underscore the perilous nature of pushing human boundaries in space, with most occurring due to vehicle anomalies rather than external factors. Memorials honor these fallen explorers worldwide. The Space Mirror Memorial, a 15-meter-tall polished black granite monolith at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida, etches the names of 24 American astronauts lost in the line of duty, dedicated in 1991 by the Astronauts Memorial Foundation and designated a national memorial by Congress. Annual Day of Remembrance ceremonies at NASA centers, including Kennedy Space Center, commemorate the Challenger and Columbia crews through wreath-layings, moments of silence, and educational events focused on their legacies. Internationally, a 16-meter red granite stele shaped like an airplane wing marks the 1968 crash site near Kirzhach, Russia, where Yuri Gagarin and pilot Vladimir Seryogin died in a MiG-15 training flight, serving as a poignant monument opened in 1975. These tragedies prompted significant safety reforms. Post-Apollo 1, overhauled cabin materials, ignition sources, and hatch designs to prevent fires. The Challenger and Columbia investigations led to redesigned boosters, stricter launch weather protocols, and reinforced thermal tiles. Following , Soviet engineers modified capsule valves and added pressure suits for reentry. Modern vehicles like SpaceX's Crew Dragon incorporate integrated launch escape systems with engines, capable of rapidly separating the capsule from a failing at any flight phase, a direct evolution from lessons in prior abort system limitations during shuttle-era designs.

References

  1. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/European_Astronaut_Selection_2008/Job_European_Astronaut
  2. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/
  3. https://www.nasa.gov/specials/60counting/spaceflight.html
  4. https://www.nasa.gov/history/apollo-11-mission-overview/
  5. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/everyone-who-has-ever-been-to-space-charted/
  6. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/become-an-astronaut/
  7. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/astronaut-requirements/
  8. https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-visitors-by-country/
  9. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/astronaut-selection-program/
  10. https://www.nasa.gov/humans-in-space/astronauts/request-astronaut-appearance/
  11. https://www.faa.gov/media/27291
  12. https://www.faa.gov/space/human_spaceflight
  13. https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/outerspacetreaty.html
  14. https://www.etymonline.com/word/astronaut
  15. https://www.supercluster.com/editorial/the-history-and-future-of-the-term-astronaut
  16. https://www.etymonline.com/word/cosmonaut
  17. https://www.oed.com/dictionary/cosmonaut_n
  18. http://www.worldwidewords.org/tp-yuh1.html
  19. https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/taikonaut
  20. https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Human_and_Robotic_Exploration/mISSion_possible/font_size_2_Teachers_Note_font2
  21. https://en.[wiktionary](/page/Wiktionary).org/wiki/spationaut
  22. https://www.angkasawan.org.my/2008/07/malaysian-astronaut-delivers-space-talk/
  23. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/april-1961-first-human-entered-space/
  24. https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/Collections/EarthFromSpace/photoinfo.pl?PHOTO=STS001-8-230
  25. https://www.nasa.gov/history/60-years-ago-john-glenn-the-first-american-to-orbit-the-earth-aboard-friendship-7/
  26. https://www.nasa.gov/project-mercury/
  27. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/60-years-ago-alan-shepard-becomes-first-american-space/
  28. https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/whos_who_level2/tereshkova.html
  29. https://www.nasa.gov/mission/apollo-11/
  30. https://science.nasa.gov/moon/moon-walkers/
  31. https://www.nasa.gov/history/apollo-soyuz-test-project/
  32. https://www.nasa.gov/skylab/
  33. https://www.nasa.gov/history/50-years-ago-the-launch-of-skylab-americas-first-space-station/
  34. https://www.nasa.gov/space-shuttle/
  35. https://www.nasa.gov/challenger-sts-51l-accident/
  36. https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/valeri-polyakov-record-breaking-cosmonaut-dies-at-age-80/
  37. https://investors.virgingalactic.com/news/news-details/2023/Virgin-Galactic-Announces-Galactic-01-Crew-Onboard-the-First-Commercial-Spaceflight/default.aspx
  38. https://www.nbcnews.com/sciencemain/why-sally-ride-waited-until-her-death-tell-world-she-908942
  39. https://www.nasa.gov/blogs/missions/2022/11/26/artemis-i-flight-day-11-orion-surpasses-apollo-13-record-distance-from-earth/
  40. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/artemis/artemis-iii/
  41. https://www.esa.int/About_Us/Careers_at_ESA/ESA_Astronaut_Selection/Attributes_of_an_astronaut
  42. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/606877main_fs-2011-11-057-jsc-astro_trng.pdf
  43. https://tass.com/science/935408
  44. https://www.fromspacewithlove.com/roscosmos-cosmonaut-requirements/
  45. https://www.fromspacewithlove.com/cnsa-taikonaut-requirements/
  46. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2018-03/03/c_137013804.htm
  47. https://www.space.com/astronaut-requirements-changing-private-missions
  48. https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-selects-all-american-2025-class-of-astronaut-candidates/
  49. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/22/science/nasa-new-astronauts.html
  50. https://www.nasa.gov/virtual-reality-lab-doug/
  51. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/jsc-eva-systems/
  52. https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/neutral-buoyancy-laboratory/
  53. https://mynews13.com/fl/orlando/space/2023/08/24/mach-speeds-how-astronauts-prepare-for-the-velocity-of-rocket-launches
  54. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/astronaut-candidate-survival-training/
  55. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/630679main_back_astro_poster_hi.pdf
  56. https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax1
  57. https://science.nasa.gov/resource/preparing-for-artemis-nasas-geology-training-for-lunar-exploration/
  58. https://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/space_level2/astronaut.html
  59. https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-V/part-1214
  60. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/jsc-operations/
  61. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/jsc-rendezvous-prox-ops-docking-subsystems/
  62. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19650027172/downloads/19650027172.pdf
  63. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/13227/chapter/4
  64. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/station-science-101-research-in-microgravity-higher-faster-longer/
  65. https://airandspace.si.edu/stories/editorial/microgravity-science-experiments
  66. https://www.nasa.gov/smallsat-institute/sst-soa/integration-launch-and-deployment/
  67. https://www.nasa.gov/suits-and-rovers/spacesuits/
  68. https://www.nasa.gov/international-space-station/space-station-spacewalks/
  69. https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-iii/
  70. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/analog-field-testing/chapea/nasa-announces-chapea-crew-for-year-long-mars-mission-simulation/
  71. https://www.nasa.gov/johnson/frontdoor/capabilities/mission-planning-execution/
  72. https://www.nasa.gov/history/alsj/apollo.capcoms.html
  73. https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/about-the-job/capcom.asp
  74. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19950010335
  75. https://www.hi-seas.org/
  76. https://www.nasa.gov/analog-missions/
  77. https://www.axiomspace.com/missions/ax4
  78. https://www.nasa.gov/former-astronaut-peggy-whitson/
  79. https://www.axiomspace.com/team/peggy-whitson
  80. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006291X25007697
  81. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/counteracting-bone-and-muscle-loss-in-microgravity/
  82. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8302614/
  83. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/risk-of-spaceflight-associated-neuro-ocular-syndrome-sans/
  84. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/risk-of-reduced-cardiorespiratory-and-musculoskeletal-fitness/
  85. https://www.nasa.gov/hrp/hazard-space-radiation/
  86. https://abc7.com/post/how-radiation-starliner-astronauts-may-have-been-exposed-waiting-come-home/15270382/
  87. https://three.jsc.nasa.gov/articles/astronautradlimitsfc.pdf
  88. https://space.stackexchange.com/questions/7829/launch-accelerations-values-history
  89. https://www.nasa.gov/remembering-columbia-sts-107/
  90. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/hhp/team-risk/
  91. https://www.quora.com/How-long-is-the-communication-delay-between-Mars-and-Earth-How-do-engineers-overcome-this-delay-time-when-flying-the-helicopter-on-Mars
  92. https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/esdmd/hhp/risk-of-adverse-health-performance-effects-of-celestial-dust-exposure/
  93. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11815326/
  94. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/astronaut-exercise/
  95. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/ochmo-tb-030-bone-loss.pdf
  96. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11352369/
  97. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/risk-of-spaceflight-induced-bone-changes/
  98. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20110023521/downloads/20110023521.pdf
  99. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4470275/
  100. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-020-00112-w
  101. https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/products/astrorad---what-you-wear-in-space-could-save-your-life.html
  102. https://issnationallab.org/upward/astrorad-vest-lockheed-martin/
  103. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/human_adaptation_2021_final.pdf
  104. https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/4/12/2047
  105. https://journals.physiology.org/doi/pdf/10.1152/physiol.00011.2021
  106. https://www.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/content/techdigest/pdf/V25-N03/25-03-Charles.pdf
  107. https://www.evona.com/blog/mental-health-in-space/
  108. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11499717/
  109. https://home.dartmouth.edu/news/2014/10/houston-we-have-problembut-no-worries-our-virtual-therapist-it
  110. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0094576525002024
  111. https://ivrha.org/first-virtual-reality-headset-for-mental-health-in-space-will-be-sent-to-iss-to-treat-astronauts-during-mission/
  112. https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/virtual-reality/articles/10.3389/frvir.2023.1180165/full
  113. https://www.axiomspace.com/axiom-suit
  114. https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/axiom-space-designs-the-most-advanced-spacesuit-for-artemis-iii
  115. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20250004252/downloads/Book%2520Chapter.pdf
  116. https://www.bcm.edu/academic-centers/space-medicine/translational-research-institute/research
  117. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/167750main_fs_spacefood508c.pdf
  118. https://www.nasa.gov/stem-content/have-food-will-travel/
  119. https://blogs.esa.int/orion/2022/08/18/astronaut-food/
  120. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/20000085938
  121. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2214552425000574
  122. https://science.howstuffworks.com/nasa-space-food-research-lab.htm
  123. https://www.nasa.gov/history/space-station-20th-food-on-iss/
  124. https://science.howstuffworks.com/space-food1.htm
  125. https://www.asc-csa.gc.ca/eng/astronauts/living-in-space/eating-in-space.asp
  126. https://www.vivifystem.com/blog/2024/eatinginspace
  127. https://www.rsdjournal.org/rsd/article/view/48970
  128. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41526-025-00490-z
  129. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2590157523003188
  130. https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/tray-meal-shuttle/nasm_A20120256000
  131. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20100026032/downloads/20100026032.pdf
  132. https://www.space.com/astronaut-pee-iss-water-recycling-98-percent-milestone
  133. https://newatlas.com/space/nasa-converts-pee-to-drinkable-water-on-international-space-station/
  134. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20250003852/downloads/ICES%25202025%2520PWM%25205%25206%2520submitted.pdf
  135. https://www.verticalfarmdaily.com/article/9734327/nasa-demonstrates-passive-hydroponics-in-microgravity-aboard-the-international-space-station/
  136. https://techport.nasa.gov/projects/16592
  137. https://aleph-farms.com/aleph-zero/
  138. https://www.businessinsider.com/meat-grown-in-space-with-3d-printer-2019-10
  139. https://www.nasa.gov/general/morning-routine-in-space/
  140. https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/iss-research/nasa-achieves-water-recovery-milestone-on-international-space-station/
  141. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20130011635/downloads/20130011635.pdf
  142. https://www.nasa.gov/reference/environmental-control-and-life-support-systems-eclss/
  143. https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/ochmo-tb-041-sleep-accommodations.pdf
  144. https://www.space.com/36423-what-blue-origin-space-tourists-can-expect.html
  145. https://www.blueorigin.com/new-shepard
  146. https://www.nasa.gov/gallery/human-spaceflight-mission-patches/
  147. https://www.collectspace.com/news/news-010620a-nasa-astronaut-pin-history.html
  148. http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/10914
  149. https://www.nasa.gov/history/congressional-space-medal-of-honor/
  150. https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/14-april-1961/
  151. https://www.faa.gov/space/human_spaceflight/recognition
  152. https://www.nasa.gov/image-article/artemis-ii-insignia-honors-all/
  153. https://www.wgbh.org/news/national/2023-02-24/every-space-crew-needs-a-mission-patch-this-company-has-designed-nasas-for-50-years
  154. https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/assets/tragic-tangle.pdf
  155. https://www.nasa.gov/history/50-years-ago-remembering-the-crew-of-soyuz-11/
  156. https://www.astronomy.com/space-exploration/remembering-the-crew-of-soyuz-11-the-only-astronauts-to-die-in-space/
  157. https://sma.nasa.gov/SignificantIncidents/
  158. https://spaceflightnow.com/2014/10/31/virgin-galactics-spaceshiptwo-suffers-anomaly-during-test-flight/
  159. https://www.mcgill.ca/iasl/files/iasl/Session_4_Tomasso_Sgobba.pdf
  160. https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/kennedy-space-center-honors-day-of-remembrance/
  161. https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/kennedy/kennedy-space-center-honors-fallen-heroes-of-human-spaceflight/
  162. https://www.tourism33.ru/en/guide/places/kirzhach/memorial-gagarina/
  163. https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/spacex-demonstrates-astronaut-escape-system-for-crew-dragon-spacecraft
Add your contribution
Related Hubs
User Avatar
No comments yet.