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Volcanic lightning
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Volcanic lightning
Volcanic lightning during the January 2020 eruption of Taal Volcano
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Volcanic lightning is an electrical discharge caused by a volcanic eruption rather than from an ordinary thunderstorm. Volcanic lightning arises from colliding, fragmenting particles of volcanic ash (and sometimes ice),[1][2] which generate static electricity within the volcanic plume,[3] leading to the name dirty thunderstorm.[4][5] Moist convection currents and ice formation also drive the eruption plume dynamics[6][7] and can trigger volcanic lightning.[8][9] Unlike ordinary thunderstorms, volcanic lightning can also occur when there are no ice crystals in the ash cloud.[10][11]

The earliest recorded observations of volcanic lightning[12] are from Pliny the Younger, describing the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, "There was a most intense darkness rendered more appalling by the fitful gleam of torches at intervals obscured by the transient blaze of lightning."[13] The first studies of volcanic lightning were also conducted at Mount Vesuvius by Luigi Palmieri[14] who observed the eruptions of 1858, 1861, 1868, and 1872 from the Vesuvius Observatory. These eruptions often included lightning activity.[13]

Instances of volcanic lightning have also been reported above Alaska's Mount Augustine volcano,[15] Iceland's Eyjafjallajökull and Grimsvotn,[16] Mount Etna in Sicily, Italy,[17] Taal Volcano in the Philippines,[18] Mount Ruang in Indonesia,[19] and Volcán de Fuego in Guatemala.[20]

Charging mechanisms

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Ice charging

[edit]
1994 eruption of Mount Rinjani

Ice charging is thought to play an important role in certain types of eruption plumes—particularly those rising above the freezing level or involving magma-water interaction.[21] Ordinary thunderstorms produce lightning through ice charging[22] as water clouds become electrified from colliding ice crystals and other hydrometeors.[23] Volcanic plumes can also carry abundant water.[24] This water is sourced from the magma,[25] vaporized from surrounding sources such as lakes and glaciers,[26] and entrained from ambient air as the plume rises through the atmosphere.[6] One study suggested that the water content of volcanic plumes can be greater than that of thunderstorms.[27] The water is initially transported as a hot vapor, which condenses to liquid in the rising column and ultimately freezes to ice if the plume cools well below freezing.[28] Some eruptions even produce volcanic hail.[7][29] Support for the ice-charging hypothesis includes the observation that lightning activity greatly increases once volcanic plumes rise above the freezing level,[30][21] and evidence that ice crystals in the anvil top of the volcanic cloud are effective charge-carriers.[9]

Frictional charging

[edit]

Triboelectric (frictional) charging within the plume of a volcano during eruption is thought to be a major electrical charging mechanism. Electrical charges are generated when rock fragments, ash, and ice particles in a volcanic plume collide and produce static charges, similar to the way that ice particles collide in regular thunderstorms.[12] The convective activity causing the plume to rise then separates the different charge regions, ultimately causing electrical breakdown.

Fractoemission

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Fractoemission is the generation of charge through break-up of rock particles. It may be a significant source of charge near the erupting vent.[31]

Radioactive charging

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Although it is thought to have a small effect on the overall charging of volcanic plumes, naturally occurring radioisotopes within ejected rock particles may nevertheless influence particle charging.[32] In a study performed on ash particles from the Eyjafjallajökull and Grímsvötn eruptions, scientists found that both samples possessed a natural radioactivity above the background level, but that radioisotopes were an unlikely source of self-charging in the Eyjafjallajökull plume.[33] However, there was the potential for greater charging near the vent where the particle size is larger.[32] Research continues, and the electrification via radioisotopes, such as radon, may in some instances be significant and at various magnitudes a somewhat common mechanism.[34]

Plume height

[edit]

The height of the ash plume appears to be linked with the mechanism which generates the lightning. In taller ash plumes (7–12 km) large concentrations of water vapor may contribute to lightning activity, while smaller ash plumes (1–4 km) appear to gain more of their electric charge from fragmentation of rocks near the vent of the volcano (fractoemission).[30] The atmospheric temperature also plays a role in the formation of lightning. Colder ambient temperatures promote freezing and ice charging inside the plume, thus leading to more electrical activity.[35][33]

Lightning-induced volcanic spherules

[edit]

Experimental studies and investigation of volcanic deposits have shown that volcanic lighting creates a by-product known as "lightning-induced volcanic spherules" (LIVS).[36][37] These tiny glass spherules form during high-temperatures processes such as cloud-to-ground lightning strikes, analogous to fulgurites.[36] The temperature of a bolt of lightning can reach 30,000 °C. When this bolt contacts ash particles within the plume it may do one of two things: (1) completely vaporize the ash particles,[38] or (2) cause them to melt and then quickly solidify as they cool, forming orb shapes.[37] The presence of lightning-induced volcanic spherules may provide geological evidence for volcanic lightning when the lightning itself was not observed directly.[36]

References

[edit]
[edit]
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Volcanic lightning

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Volcanic lightning is an atmospheric electrical discharge that occurs within the ash plumes generated during volcanic eruptions, arising from the accumulation of due to collisions and fragmentation of volcanic particles. This , first documented during the eruption of in 79 AD, produces spectacular bolts of that can illuminate eruption clouds and pose hazards to and monitoring equipment. Unlike typical thunderstorm lightning, which primarily involves particle collisions, volcanic lightning is driven by interactions among , gas, and sometimes in the plume, making it a reliable indicator of intense eruptive activity. The electrification process begins with triboelectrification, where ash particles of varying sizes collide and rub against each other during rapid ascent, leading to and charge separation based on particle size and composition—larger particles often become positively charged while smaller ones gain negative charge. Additional mechanisms include fractoelectric charging, which generates charge during the mechanical breaking of particles in the volcanic conduit, and ice charging at higher plume altitudes where temperatures drop below freezing, mimicking processes by involving ice crystals. These charges build up within the turbulent plume, creating strong electric fields that eventually discharge as , typically in two phases: an initial eruptive phase near the volcano's vent from ejected positively charged material, and a subsequent plume phase downwind where convective currents further separate charges. Volcanic lightning is observed in nearly all explosive eruptions but is rarer in effusive ones, such as those at Hawaiian volcanoes like , where it was briefly noted in 2008 under unusually dry conditions. Prominent modern examples include the 2010 eruption of in , which disrupted air travel across , and the 2006 and 2009 eruptions of Mounts Augustine and in , where provided insights into plume dynamics; more recent instances occurred during the 2023 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption, the 2024 Mount Ruang eruption in Indonesia, and the 2025 Volcán de Fuego activity in . Beyond its visual drama, volcanic lightning serves as a valuable tool for eruption monitoring; networks like the World Wide Lightning Location Network detect associated radio emissions (sferics) in near real-time, enabling early warnings for hazards even in remote areas. Recent advances in detection and laboratory simulations continue to refine our understanding of these events, linking frequency to eruption intensity and plume height, with 2024 research highlighting how eruption styles modulate electrification signals and the role of volcanic lightning in during early Earth-like conditions.

Fundamentals

Definition and Characteristics

Volcanic lightning refers to electrical discharges that occur within volcanic plumes, driven by charge separation processes involving particles, crystals, and volcanic gases during eruptions. These discharges arise from the buildup of in turbulent ash clouds, analogous to but distinct from lightning, and are most commonly observed in explosive volcanic events with significant ejection. Key characteristics of volcanic lightning include a variety of flash types, such as intra-cloud discharges, cloud-to-ground strikes, and plume-internal bolts, which can extend from near-vent regions (tens to hundreds of meters) to higher altitudes in the developing plume. It typically manifests in eruptions producing high concentrations of fine ash particles (10⁴ to 10⁸ particles per cubic meter for 1–10 μm sizes), enabling sufficient charge accumulation. Intensities can rival or exceed those of severe thunderstorms; for instance, the 2022 Hunga –Hunga Ha'apai eruption produced peak rates exceeding 2,600 flashes per minute, the highest recorded for any lightning event. Peak currents in these discharges range from 2 kA near the vent to up to 100 kA in the plume. Formation requires highly turbulent plumes where particle collisions facilitate charge transfer, often enhanced by the presence of in cooler upper regions. Such conditions are prevalent in plumes rising to altitudes of 5–10 km or higher, where temperatures drop below freezing and promote additional charging via ice-ash interactions. Visually, volcanic lightning appears as bright, jagged flashes or pulsing glows illuminating dense ash clouds, sometimes manifesting as sheet lightning or . The associated thunder produces low-frequency crackling or rumbling sounds, often muffled or overshadowed by the dominant roar of the eruption itself.

Historical Observations

The earliest documented observations of volcanic lightning date back to ancient times, with providing one of the first written accounts during the catastrophic eruption of in 79 AD. In his letters to the historian , he described a massive plume accompanied by "gushing flames and great tongues of fire like much-magnified " tearing through the dark cloud, marking an early recognition of electrical activity within volcanic eruptions. Similar anecdotal references appear in Pliny the Elder's Natural History, where he noted intense associated with volcanic smoke, though these were based on prior reports rather than direct observation. Scientific interest in volcanic lightning emerged in the 18th century amid renewed activity at Vesuvius. British diplomat Sir William Hamilton documented vivid lightning discharges within the ash column during the 1767 eruption, describing "constant flashes of , shot from this black column" in his detailed letters and illustrations, which helped shift observations from to empirical records. These accounts, along with reports from the 1760–1761 eruptions, represent some of the first systematic eyewitness descriptions, often captured through sketches and diaries by European observers stationed near . Modern documentation advanced in the 1970s with the advent of photography and video, enabling visual capture of lightning within eruption plumes. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington state marked the first filmed instances, where eyewitnesses and early video recordings captured prolonged sheet lightning and St. Elmo's fire within the ash cloud, generating hundreds of flashes over hours. Subsequent events, such as the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption in Iceland, produced thousands of lightning strikes documented via ground cameras and radar, coinciding with widespread ash plumes that disrupted European air travel for weeks. The 2015 Calbuco eruption in Chile featured intense "dirty lightning" rings within the plume, photographed extensively and showing up to 200 flashes per minute during explosive phases. In 2022, the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai underwater eruption generated record-breaking lightning activity, with over 192,000 flashes in 11 hours peaking at 2,600 per minute, linked to atmospheric gravity waves and captured by global networks. Detection methods evolved from visual and ground-based optical observations to advanced post-2010. Early reliance on eyewitness reports and basic transitioned to satellite-based systems like the Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) on , launched in 2016, which provided continuous, hemispheric monitoring of flash rates and energy during eruptions such as Calbuco. sensors, deployed widely after 2010, complemented this by detecting eruption-related pressure waves correlated with onset, enhancing plume tracking in remote areas.

Charging Mechanisms

Collisional and Frictional Charging

Collisional charging represents a primary mechanism for charge separation in volcanic ash plumes, occurring through impacts between particles of varying sizes during turbulent transport. In this process, larger ash particles typically acquire a positive charge, while smaller particles gain a negative charge, a phenomenon known as size-dependent bipolar charging (SDBC). This separation arises from the transfer of during collisions, where the contact area and relative surface properties favor electron flow from smaller to larger grains. The resulting charge polarity leads to gravitational differentiation, with positively charged larger particles falling toward the plume base and negatively charged finer particles rising, enhancing overall charge buildup within the plume. Frictional, or triboelectric, charging complements collisional effects by generating through the rubbing of as ash fragments during eruption dynamics. This involves between contacting surfaces, driven by differences in material work functions even among chemically similar particles. In the volcanic conduit and near-vent regions, non-disruptive contacts during particle interactions amplify this charging, producing net charges that contribute to the electrostatic field in the plume. Quantitative models describe charge accumulation as q=k⋅vrel⋅ncollq = k \cdot v_{\text{rel}} \cdot n_{\text{coll}}, where qq is the total charge, kk is an efficiency factor accounting for transfer per collision, vrelv_{\text{rel}} is the relative velocity between particles, and ncolln_{\text{coll}} is the collision frequency. Experimental studies on volcanic ash show charge separations reaching up to 10-20 μC/g, with individual grains carrying approximately 10−1310^{-13} to 10−1210^{-12} C and surface charge densities up to 4.3×10−64.3 \times 10^{-6} C/m² under dry conditions. These values indicate sufficient electrification to initiate discharges, particularly as collision rates increase with plume expansion. This mechanism dominates in dry, ash-rich eruptions, where low limits charge dissipation, and is further enhanced by from eruption jets, which boosts relative velocities and collision frequencies in the proximal plume. Seminal experiments, such as those using natural ash samples, confirm that charging rates scale with energy input from plume dynamics, reaching steady states in minutes and supporting initiation near the vent.

Ice and Mineral-Based Charging

Ice charging within volcanic plumes operates through mechanisms similar to those in thunderstorms, where hydrometeors such as crystals and collide in regions of the plume rich in condensed . During these collisions, charge separation occurs via the non-inductive charging process, influenced by the Bergeron-Findeisen mechanism, in which crystals grow by sublimation from surrounding supercooled droplets, leading to differential charging. particles typically acquire a negative charge while crystals become positively charged, particularly effective at temperatures below -10°C where the over is lower than over liquid water. This process is most prevalent in eruptions involving glaciated volcanoes or those with significant magmatic water content, such as the 2010 eruption in , where plume observations indicated that ice-based charging contributed substantially to overall electrification, analogous to thundercloud dynamics. In such hydrometeor-laden plumes, the rapid ascent through mixed-phase levels promotes ice nucleation and subsequent particle interactions, enhancing charge buildup in the upper plume regions. Recent studies (as of 2024) indicate that explosive eruption styles can modulate electrification signals, with ice nucleation enhancing charge buildup and in plume evolution phases. Mineral-based charging arises from the fracturing of like and during ash particle fragmentation in the volcanic conduit or plume. This fracture-charging, or fractoemission, releases charged ions and electrons from newly formed crack surfaces due to differences in among components, resulting in positive charge accumulation on protruding edges and negative charge on smoother faces. experiments simulating plume conditions have shown that this mechanism generates significant charge separation, with fragments (rich in and ) exhibiting net positive charges up to several thousand elementary charges per particle. In mixed plumes containing both ash and ice, these mineral and ice processes interact, with lab simulations of ice-ash mixtures under controlled turbulence demonstrating enhanced charge transfer comparable to natural plume dynamics. Such charging is particularly relevant in wet or ice-influenced eruptions, where mineral fracturing complements ice collisions to drive overall plume electrification.

Other Processes

Fractoemission refers to the emission of electrons and ions from freshly exposed fracture surfaces of rocks during the explosive fragmentation in volcanic eruptions. This process occurs as and surrounding lithic materials break apart near the vent, generating charged particles through the release of trapped charges or micro-discharges at crack tips. Studies have measured charge yields from such events, contributing to initial plume before other mechanisms dominate. Radioactive charging arises from the ionization of volcanic plumes by decay products of gas, a common emanation from . decay produces alpha particles and subsequent ions that create free electrons, which attach to particles, enhancing their charge. This mechanism provides a minor contribution to overall plume in magmas enriched with and , where higher radionuclide concentrations amplify rates. Observations from eruptions like confirm elevated ion densities attributable to , though its role remains secondary compared to collisional processes. Plume height effects amplify charge separation through vertical transport in rising eruption columns. As the plume ascends, gravitational settling differentiates particles by size and density, with lighter, negatively charged fines carried higher while heavier, positively charged particles descend, fostering dipole structures over 10-20 km altitudes. This segregation generates substantial potential gradients in mature plumes, sufficient to initiate discharges. Analysis of eruptions such as Eyjafjallajökull reveals how plume rise enhances these gradients, with charge centers shifting altitudes based on eruption vigor and atmospheric stability. Hybrid models integrate multiple charging processes into numerical simulations to predict plume electrification. These approaches compute total charge density as ρ=∑(qi⋅ni)\rho = \sum (q_i \cdot n_i), where qiq_i is the charge per particle type and nin_i its number density, aggregated across fractoemission, radioactivity, and collisional terms. Such simulations, often using multiphase flow codes like ATHAM, reproduce observed lightning patterns by coupling particle dynamics with electrostatic fields. For instance, three-dimensional models of turbulent plumes demonstrate how hybrid electrification sustains potential differences leading to ring-shaped lightning.

Associated Phenomena

Lightning Discharges

Volcanic discharges primarily occur within the eruptive plume, with intra-plume flashes being the most common type, accounting for over 50% of observed events as they neutralize charge separations generated by particle collisions in the turbulent ash cloud. Plume-to-ground discharges are rare but pose significant hazards due to their potential to strike or personnel near the , often exhibiting negative polarity early in eruptions and shifting to positive later. Upward , triggered by the strong from plume charges, can propagate from the volcanic vent toward the , bridging the charged plume to upper atmospheric layers. These discharges exhibit varied behaviors, including discrete strokes typical of rapid charge neutralization and continuous currents that sustain lower-level electrical flow for extended periods within the plume. Radial charge distributions in expanding clouds can produce ring-like or halo patterns of activity, driven by turbulence-induced particle clustering that concentrates charges in annular structures. Individual flash durations typically range from 0.1 to 1 second, with complex branched structures spanning several kilometers. Peak currents in volcanic lightning discharges vary widely, often reaching 7–100 kA, though extremes up to 800 kA have been recorded during intense events like the 2022 Hunga eruption. These intensities are modulated by the plume's electrical conductivity, which is altered by ionized gases and ash particles, as well as interactions with global electromagnetic fields such as excited by the discharges themselves. Charge buildup from collisional processes in the plume provides the necessary separation for these discharges to initiate. Detection of volcanic lightning relies on multiple signatures: optically, they appear as bright blue-white flashes illuminating the ash plume, captured by high-speed video and . Radio emissions in the (VLF) range, around 3–30 kHz, are emitted during the rapid breakdown processes and can be monitored globally for remote eruption tracking. Additionally, the associated thunder produces seismic coupling, generating ground vibrations detectable by seismometers as low-frequency signals correlated with flash intensity.

Induced Spherules and Particles

Volcanic lightning induces the formation of spherules through the intense heating of particles within eruptive plumes. The electrical discharges generate plasma channels with temperatures exceeding 30,000 K, which locally melt surrounding particles at temperatures above 1,500–1,850°C, causing them to fuse and round into glassy microspheres due to . These lightning-induced volcanic spherules (LIVS) form rapidly, often in milliseconds, as molten droplets solidify upon cooling and ejection into the atmosphere as fine aerosols. The resulting spherules typically range from 1 to 100 μm in diameter, with averages around 50 μm, and are composed primarily of silica-rich containing iron, aluminum, , calcium, and other elements derived from the original minerals such as feldspars, pyroxenes, and oxides. High-temperature fusion in the plasma environment leads to heterogeneous textures, including smooth surfaces, internal vesicles, cracks, or dendritic crystals, particularly in iron-rich variants from melting. These features arise from premelting cation disordering and incomplete mixing of diverse components during the brief heating phase. Evidence for LIVS originates from ash-fall deposits of explosive eruptions, such as the 2009 event in and the 2010 eruption in , where scanning electron microscopy and reveal distinctive amorphous glass signatures and crystalline inclusions absent in unmodified magmatic . These textures, including vesicle-rich aggregates and rounded morphologies, distinguish LIVS from magmatic spherules formed by slower cooling processes, confirming their origin through comparison with laboratory simulations using high-voltage arcs on ash simulants. LIVS occur in low abundances, comprising less than 5% of examined deposits, yet their presence implies widespread particle modification in plumes, potentially altering distal ash fall characteristics by contributing fine, spherical aerosols that enhance atmospheric transport.

Impacts and Applications

Environmental and Chemical Effects

Volcanic lightning plays a key role in atmospheric nitrogen fixation by dissociating molecular nitrogen (N₂) through high-energy discharges, forming nitrogen oxides (NOx) such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). These NOx species are subsequently oxidized to nitrates (NO₃⁻) in the presence of ozone (O₃) and other oxidants within the plume. This process enhances the acidity of volcanic plumes by contributing nitric acid (HNO₃), which reacts with water vapor to form acidic aerosols, potentially lowering plume pH and influencing downwind precipitation chemistry. When ash laden with these fixed nitrates deposits on land, it acts as a natural fertilizer, enriching soils with bioavailable nitrogen essential for plant growth and ecosystem recovery post-eruption. Interactions between volcanic lightning and atmospheric constituents also affect levels and dynamics. The reactive radicals generated by strikes, including hydroxyl (OH) and other , can deplete within the plume by catalyzing destructive , particularly in sulfur-rich environments where SO₂ oxidation competes for oxidants. This localized O₃ reduction contrasts with tropospheric NOx-driven production but aligns with observed plume depletions during major eruptions. Additionally, lightning-fused volcanic spherules—molten ash particles rapidly cooled into glassy beads—serve as effective (), promoting formation and altering cloud microphysics. These spherules contribute to minor negative by increasing , incoming solar radiation and exerting a subtle cooling effect on regional climate scales. In prebiotic contexts on , volcanic is hypothesized to have facilitated the synthesis of organic compounds and fixed critical for life's origins. During the eon, frequent eruptions on volcanic s likely produced that, in reducing atmospheres rich in H₂, CO, and H₂S, generated prebiotic molecules such as (HCN), (HCHO), and (e.g., and ) through radical-driven reactions. This fixed , in forms like nitrates and , would have provided essential building blocks for polymerizing into biomolecules, with wet-dry cycles in eruption-formed ponds enhancing concentration and reactivity. Recent 2023 studies modeling emphasize how rafts dispersed these compounds across oceans, seeding and supporting abiogenic pathways to life. Ecologically, the nutrient enrichment from lightning-fixed nitrogen in volcanic ash promotes post-eruption recovery by boosting and primary productivity in affected regions. For instance, nitrate deposition can increase vegetation growth rates, aiding and mitigating erosion. However, the electrified, conductive nature of volcanic plumes poses significant hazards to , as charged ash particles can induce static buildup on or trigger strikes, exacerbating risks beyond mechanical damage from ash ingestion.

Monitoring and Research Advances

Monitoring volcanic lightning relies on a combination of technologies to capture its occurrence and characteristics during eruptions. Satellite-based systems, such as the Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) aboard GOES satellites, detect optical pulses from flashes across large areas, providing flash rate data for plumes like that of the 2015 Calbuco eruption in , where thousands of flashes were recorded. Ground-based very high frequency (VHF) maps the three-dimensional structure of channels within volcanic plumes, as demonstrated during observations at volcano in , enabling plume electrification mapping at resolutions down to tens of meters. Acoustic arrays complement these by localizing thunder and infrasound signals from discharges, which proved effective in tracking during the 2016–2017 Bogoslof eruptions in , where arrays detected signals up to 200 km away. Recent research advances in the 2020s have integrated volcanic models with eruption dynamics, revealing how particle collisions and plume ascent drive generation. For instance, analysis of the 2020 Taal eruption in the used global lightning networks to link flash rates to plume , showing electrification peaks during rapid venting phases. A 2023 study in PNAS modeled electrification's role in plume processes during the 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption, incorporating charge separation into ash dispersal simulations. Additionally, data from 2009 to 2022 compiled via and ground networks have established correlations between volcanic and transient luminous events (TLEs) like sprites, analyzing 490 eruptions and identifying 135 TLEs, with 131 associated with volcanic activity from VEI ≥3. Volcanic lightning serves as a proxy for eruption intensity, with flash rates scaling positively with plume height and mass eruption rates. This relationship aids hazard forecasting; real-time GLM data can inform aviation alerts by predicting ash dispersal. Such monitoring supports community safety by integrating lightning signals with seismic data to anticipate explosive phases, reducing exposure risks in proximal areas. Future directions emphasize laboratory analogs, drone-based sensors, and AI-driven analysis to enhance real-time capabilities. Shock tube experiments simulating particle-laden jets have replicated lightning discharges under controlled conditions, validating models for fine ash fractions greater than 50%. Drone deployments with miniaturized gas and sensors, tested at active volcanoes like Etna, enable near-vent electrification measurements during plumes. As of November 2025, initiatives including the University of Hawai'i's involvement in a $25.6 million AI sensor network aim to monitor volcanic activity and natural disasters through advanced sensors, targeting improved eruption detection and forecasts.

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