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The so-called "female" and "male" mandrakes, from a 1583 illustration
The flowers of Mandragora officinarum
A mandrake root, 16th or 17th century.

A mandrake is one of several toxic plant species with "man-shaped" roots and some uses in folk remedies. The roots by themselves may also be referred to as "mandrakes". The term primarily refers to nightshades of the genus Mandragora (in the family Solanaceae) found in the Mediterranean region. Other unrelated plants also sometimes referred to as "mandrake" include Bryonia alba (the English mandrake, in the family Cucurbitaceae) and Podophyllum peltatum (the American mandrake, in the family Berberidaceae). These plants have root structures similar to members of Mandragora, and are likewise toxic.

This article will focus on mandrakes of the genus Mandragora and the European folklore surrounding them. Because these plants contain deliriant hallucinogenic tropane alkaloids and the shape of their roots often resembles human figures, they have been associated with magic rituals throughout history, including present-day contemporary pagan traditions.[2]

Nomenclature

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The English name "mandrake" derives from Latin mandragora, and while the classical name has nothing to do with either "man" or "dragon/drake", the English form made it susceptible to such a folk etymology.[3] The French form main-de-gloire ("hand of glory") has been held up as an even "more complete example" of folk etymology (cf. § Main-de-gloire).[4]

The German common name is Alraun, Alraune (cf. § Alraun below).[5] However, the Latin mandragora, misidentified by false etymology to have a -draco ("dragon") stem (as manifests in the English from "mandrake", above) has caused the plant and beast to be conflated into an Alraundrachen, in the sense of a household spirit.[6] This combined form is not well attested, but the house kobold is known regionally as either alraune[e] or drak (drak),[a] both classed as "dragon names" by Weiser-Aall (cf. § Alraun-drak).[7]: 68), 71) 

The mandrake-doll in German might be called Alraun Männlein ("mandrake manikin"), in Belgian (Flemish) mandragora manneken, or in Italian mandragora maschio.[8] In German, it is also known as Galgenmännlein ("little gallows man") stemming from the belief that they grow near gallows, also attested in Icelandic þjófarót "thieves' root".[9][10]

Certain sources cite the Dutch name pisdiefje (lit. "little urine thief"[b]) or pisduiveltje ('urine devilkin'), claiming the plant grows from the brains of dead thieves, or the droppings of those hung on the gallows.[11][12] The name "brain thief" for mandrake also occurs in English.[11]

Toxicity and pharmaceutical usage

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All species of Mandragora contain highly biologically active alkaloids, tropane alkaloids in particular. The alkaloids make the plant, in particular the root and leaves, poisonous, with anticholinergic, hallucinogenic, and hypnotic effects. Anticholinergic properties can lead to asphyxiation. People can be poisoned accidentally by ingesting mandrake root, and ingestion is likely to have other adverse effects such as vomiting and diarrhea. The alkaloid concentration varies between plant-samples. Clinical reports of the effects of consumption of Mediterranean mandrake include severe symptoms similar to those of atropine poisoning, including blurred vision, dilation of the pupils (mydriasis), dryness of the mouth, difficulty in urinating, dizziness, headache, vomiting, blushing and a rapid heart rate (tachycardia). Hyperactivity and hallucinations occur in the majority of patients.[13][14]

The root is hallucinogenic and narcotic. In sufficient quantities, it induces a state of unconsciousness and was used as an anaesthetic for surgery in ancient times.[15] In the past, juice from the finely grated root was applied externally to relieve rheumatic pains.[15] It was used internally to treat melancholy, convulsions, and mania.[15] When taken internally in large doses it was said to excite delirium and madness.[15]

Ancient Greco-Roman pharmacopoeia

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Mandrake illustration and text. Dioscorides De materia medica
―7th century manuscript., Biblioteca Nazionale, Naples.

Theophrastus (d. c. 287 BC) Historia Plantarum wrote that the mandragora needed to be harvested by following a prescribed ritual, namely, "draw three circles around [the root] with a sword, and cut it facing west"; then in order to obtain a second piece, the harvester must dance around it while speaking as much lewd talk about sex as he possibly can.[19] The ritual given in Pliny probably relies on Theophrastus.[16]

Dioscorides in De materia medica (1st century) described the uses of mandragora as a narcotic, analgesic, and abortifacient. He also claimed a love potion could be concocted from it.[20]

Euresis (Discovery) handing mandrake to Dioscorides. Note the tethered dog (Cf. Josephus)
―Vienna ms., early 6th century[21]

Dioscorides as a practicing physician writes that some in his profession may administer a ladle or 1 cyathus (45 ml (1.5 US fl oz)) of mandrake reduction, made from the root boiled in wine until it shrivels to a third, before performing surgery.[24] Pliny the Elder also repeats that a 1 cyathus dose of mandragora potion is drunk [c] by the patient before incisions or punctures are made on his body.[25][22] A simple juice (ὀπός) can be produced by mashing the root or scoring and leeching out, or a reduction type (χύλισμα, χυλός) made by boiling, for which Dioscorides provides distinguishing terms, though Pliny lumps these into "juice" (sucus). Just the stripped bark may be infused for a longer period, or the fruits can be sun-dried into a condensed juice, and so forth.[26] The plant is supposedly strong-smelling. And its use for eye remedy is also noted.[25]

Both authors acknowledge that there were male and female mandragora.[20] Pliny states there was the white male type and the dark female type of mandragora.[25] However, he also has a different book-chapter on what he presumes to be a different plant called the white eryngium, also called centocapitum, which also are of two types, those resembling the male and female genitalia, which translators note might also be actually referring to the mandragora (of Genesis 30:14).[29] If a man came into possession of a phallic mandrake (eryngium), this had the power to attract women.[29][20] Pliny contends that Phaon of Lesbos Island, by obtaining this phallic root was able to cause the poet Sappho to fall in love with him.[29]

A parallel has been noted between the lore of the mandrake harvested from a hangman, and the unguent which Medea gave to Iason, which was made from a plant fed with the body fluid from chain-bound Prometheus.[32][9]

The ancient Greeks also burned mandrake as incense.[33]

Biblical

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Two references to duḏāʾim (דּוּדָאִים "love plants";[34] singular: duḏā דודא) occur in the Jewish scriptures. The Septuagint translates דודאים as Koine Greek: μανδραγόρας, romanized: mandragóras, and the Vulgate follows the Septuagint. Several later translations into different languages follow Septuagint (and Vulgate) and use mandrake as the plant as the proper meaning in both the Genesis 30:14–16[35] and Song of Songs 7: 12-13.[34] Others follow the example of the Luther Bible and provide a more literal translation.[d]

The dud̲āʾim was considered an aphrodisiac[36] or rather a treatment for infertility,[37][35] as in Genesis 30:14. The anecdote concerns the fertility of the wives of Jacob, who engendered the Twelve Tribes of Israel headed by his many children. Though he had a firstborn son Reuben by Leah which was a marriage forced upon him, his favorite wife Rachel, Leah's younger sister, remained barren and coveted the dudaʾim. This plant was found by the boy Reuben who supposedly entrusted it to Leah, who would barter it in exchange for allowing her to spend a night in Jacob's bed.[39]

However, the herbal treatment does not seem to work on Rachel, and instead, Leah, who had previously had four sons but had been infertile for a long while, became pregnant once more, so that in time, she gave birth to two more sons, Issachar and Zebulun, and a daughter, Dinah.[40] Thus Rachel had to endure several more years of torment being childless, while her sister could flaunt her prolific motherhood, until God intervened, allowing for Rachel's conception of Joseph.[41][37]

The final verses of Chapter 7 of Song of Songs (verses 12–13), mention the plant once again:

נַשְׁכִּ֙ימָה֙ לַכְּרָמִ֔ים נִרְאֶ֞ה אִם פָּֽרְחָ֤ה הַגֶּ֙פֶן֙ פִּתַּ֣ח הַסְּמָדַ֔ר הֵנֵ֖צוּ הָרִמֹּונִ֑ים שָׁ֛ם אֶתֵּ֥ן אֶת־דֹּדַ֖י לָֽךְ׃ הַֽדּוּדָאִ֣ים נָֽתְנוּ-רֵ֗יחַ וְעַל-פְּתָחֵ֙ינוּ֙ כָּל-מְגָדִ֔ים חֲדָשִׁ֖ים גַּם-יְשָׁנִ֑ים דּוֹדִ֖י צָפַ֥נְתִּי לָֽךְ:

Let us get up early to the vineyards; let us see if the vine flourish, whether the tender grape appear, and the pomegranates bud forth: there will I give thee my loves. The mandrakes give a smell, and at our gates are all manner of pleasant fruits, new and old, which I have laid up for thee, O my beloved.

— the Bible, King James Version, Song of Songs 7:12–13[42]

Physiologus

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Elephants, mandrake, dragon.
―Bestiary, British Library, Sloane Ms. 178.[43]

In the Christian allegorical bestiary Physiologus, the chapter on the elephant claims that the male becomes minded to create an offspring, it leads its mate to the growing ground for the female to find the mandragora and come into estrous, the female then brings the root to the male which in turn become inflamed and they mate, making the female immediately pregnant.[44][45] The elephants are illustrated in e.g., Sloane 278.[43]

Philippe de Thaun's bestiary in Anglo-Norman verse has a chapter on the "mandragore", which states it consists of two kinds of roots, and must be extracted by the method of using a dog. He proports it to be a cure of all illnesses, save death[46][47]

Josephus

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Josephus (circa 37-100) of Jerusalem instructed on a method of using a dog as surrogate to uproot the dangerous herb used in exorcism. The herb has been equated to the mandragora in subsequent scholarship. According to Josephus, it was no easy task for the harvester, because it will move away from the hand which will grab it, and though it can be stopped by pouring a woman's urine or menstrual blood on it, touching it will cause certain death.[48][20] Thus in order to safely obtain it:

A furrow must be dug around the root until its lower part is exposed, then a dog is tied to it, after which the person tying the dog must get away. The dog then endeavours to follow him, and so easily pulls up the root, but dies suddenly instead of his master. After this, the root can be handled without fear.[34]

Here Josephus only refers to the plant as Baaras, after the place where it grows (in the valley Wadi Zarqa[21] covering the north side of Machaerus,[50] in present-day Jordan), and thinks the plant is a type of rue (of the citrus family)[48] however, it is considered to be identifiable as mandrake based on textual comparisons[51] (cf. § Alraun).

Folklore

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fol. 16r from University of Pennsylvania LJS 46: Herbal ... etc., from Italy and England, dated to ca. 1520

In the past, mandrake was often made into amulets which were believed to bring good fortune, cure sterility, etc. In one superstition, people who pull up this root will be condemned to hell, and the mandrake root would scream and cry as it was pulled from the ground, killing anyone who heard it.[2] Therefore, in the past, people have tied the roots to the bodies of animals and then used these animals to pull the roots from the soil.[2]

Magic and witchcraft

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Medieval depiction of mandrake excavation with dog.
―Medieval. Germanisches Museum, Nuremberg. Sketched by Edmund Oskar Lippmann (1894)[52]

According to the European folklore (including England[53]), when the root is dug up, it screams and kills all who hear it, so that a dog must be attached to the root and made to pull it out. This piece of lore goes back centuries to Josephus's described method of sacrificing the dog to procure his baaras,[54][55] as already described above.

It was a medieval embellishment that the root shrieked when extracted, and so was the lore that mandrake grew from the spots where criminals spilled their fluids. Neither of these were registered by the ancient Greek or Latin authors[e] The mandrake is represented as shining at night like a lantern, in the Old English Herbarium (c. 1000).[56]

Mandragora tied to a dog, from Tacuinum Sanitatis.
—Codex Vindobonensis Series nova 2644, fol. 40r. c. 1390. Austrian National Library, Wien.[f]

In medieval times, mandrake was considered a key ingredient in a multitude of witches' flying ointment recipes as well as a primary component of magical potions and brews.[58] These were entheogenic preparations used in European witchcraft for their mind-altering and hallucinogenic effects.[59] Starting in the Late Middle Ages and thereafter, some believed that witches applied these ointments or ingested these potions to help them fly to gatherings with other witches, meet with the Devil, or to experience bacchanalian carousal.[60][58]

Romani people use mandrake as a love-amulet.[61]

Alraun

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Alraun in its case
―Formerly owned by Karl Lemann, Wien. Now in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum collection, Nürnberg.
See also: Kobold § Mandrake root dolls

The German name for mandrake is Alraun, or female case Alraune as already stated, from MHG alrûne,[62] OHG alrûn (alruna.[63][66]).[5] The name has been connected to the female personal name OHG Al(b)rûn, Old English Ælfrūn, Old Norse Alfrún, composed of elements Alb/Alp 'elf, dream demon' + raunen "to whisper"; a more persuasive, though not clinching, explanation is that it derives from *ala- 'all' + *rūnō 'secret' hence "great secret".[5] Grimm explains that it passed from the original meaning of a prophetess type of evil-spirit (or wise woman[67]), into the mandrake or plant-root charm.[68]

The form allerünren (or allerünken[69]) is attested as the Dithmarschen dialect for standard diminutive alrünchen, and in the narrative, the doll is carefully locked in a box, since touching it will impart a power to multiply the dough many times over.[70][71]

The alraune doll was also known by names such as glücksmännchen[72] and galgenmännlein.[72][49] The doll, according to superstition, worked like a charm, bringing its owner luck and fortune.[49]: 319  The glücks-männchen might be a wax doll "ridiculously dressed up".[71] There is also the mönöloke, a wax doll dressed up in the name of the devil,[73] which is considered a parallel or variant of the alrun doll.[69][71]

Because true mandrake does not grow native in Germany, Alrun dolls were being made from cane-roots or false mandrake (German: Gichtrübe;[74] Bryonia alba of the gourd family), recorded in the herbal book by the Italian Pietro Andrea Mattioli (d. 1577/78). The roots are cut approximately to human-like shape, then replanted in the ground for some time. If hair is desired, the root is pockmarked using a sharpened dowel and millet grains pushed into the holes, and replanted until something like a head of hair grows.[75][78][g][h]

The root or rhizome of an iris, gentian or tormentil (Blutwurz) was also purposed for making Alraun dolls. Even the alpine leek (German: Allermannsharnisch; Allium victorialis) was used.[77][49]: 316  The doll formerly owned by Karl Lemann of Wien (cf. fig. right; purchased by Germanisches Nationalmuseum in 1876 where it now remains[81]) had been appraised in the past as having the head made of bryony root, and the body of an alpine leek.[82]

A pair of vintage alraune kept in the Austrian imperial and royal (now national) library, described as being untampered naturally grown roots, belonged to Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II (d. 1612).[83][84]

German sources repeat the recipe of harvesting the mandrake (Alraun) by sacrificing a dog, but demand a "black dog" should be used.[85][88][i] This has passed into German literature,[92][93][95] and into folklore, as compiled by the Brothers Grimm in Deutsche Sagen, No. 83 "Der Alraun".[97] The Grimm version has the black dog tied by the tail,[97] but this is not a constant reflected in all the sources, nor does it match the illustrated depictions show above.

German folklore assigns the alias name Galgenmännlein ("little man of the gallows") to the mandrake, based on the belief the plant springs from the ground beneath a hanged man where his urine or semen had dripped into ground.[9] A more elaborate set of condition had to be met by the hanged man to produce the magic herb in version given by the Grimms' Deutsche Sagen, which essentially amalgamates the formulae from two of its sources.[97]

According to one source, when the hanged man was a hereditary thief (Erbdieb), and the mother while carrying the child either stole or contemplated stealing before giving birth to him, and if died a virgin, then the fluids dripped down will cause a "Galgn-Mänl" to grow there (Grimmelshausen alias Simplicissimus's Galgen-Männlein, 1673).[98] It later states the plant is the product combining the arch-thief's (Erzdieb) soul and his semen or urine.[99][j] The other source states that when an innocent man hanged as a thief releases "water" from the pain and torture he endured, the plant with plantain-like[k] leaves like will grow from that spot. And collecting it requires only that it takes place on a Friday before dawn, with the collector stuffing his ears with cotton and sealing them with wax or pitch, and making the sign of the cross three times while harvesting (Johannes Praetorius, Satrunalia, 1663).[102]

The acquired alraun root needs to be washed with red wine, then wrapped in silk cloth of red and white, and deposited in its own case; it must be removed every Friday and bathed, and new white shirt be given every new moon, according to the Grimms' collated version,[97] but sources will vary on the details.[103]

If questions are posed to the alraun doll, it will reveal the future or secrets, according to superstition. In this way, the owner becomes wealthy. It can also literally double small amounts of money each night by placing a coin on it. It must not be overdone, or the alraun will be tapped of its strength and may die.[97][104] The owner, it is also said, will be able to befriend everybody, and if childless will be blessed with children.[102][105]

When the owner dies, the youngest son will inherit ownership of the doll. In the father's coffin must be placed a piece of bread and a coin. If the youngest son predeceases, then the right of inheritance passes to the eldest son, but the deceased youngest son must also receive his coin and bread in the coffin.[97]

Alraun-drak

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It has been noted that the household kobold may be known regionally as Alraun[e] or Drak, with the same etymological relationship,[106] The drak name does not descend [directly] from Latin draco ("dragon"), but from the mandragora, but folklore about fiery dragons then did get conflated with the notion of the house sprite, according to Heimito von Doderer (cf. also § Nomenclature)[6] Doderer provides commentary that "field dragons" (tatzelwurm) and mandrake fused with the folklore of the house kobold.[6]

Heinrich Marzell [de]'s entry in the HdA ventures that the alraun depicted as flying creature laying golden eggs is in fact a dragon,[49]: 47)  though the two Swiss examples, the animal is unidentified (Alräunchen, living in the woods at the foot of Hochwang near Chur),[107] or the alrune is a red-crested bird, which others rumored might generate a thaler coin each day for the owner.[108][110]

Main-de-gloire

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In France, there is also the tradition that the man-de-gloire (mandrake) is harvested from under a gibbet.[111]

There is testimony collected firsthand by Sainte-Palaye (d. 1781), in which a peasant claimed to have kept a man-de-gloire found at the base of a mistletoe-bearing oak. The creature was said to be a type of mole. It had to be fed regularly with meat, bread, etc., or suffer dire consequences (two who failed suffered death). But in return, whatever one gave to the man-de-gloire, a double amount or value was restored next day (even an écu of money), thus enriching its keeper.[113][114]

19th century esoterica

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An excerpt from Transcendental Magic: Its Doctrine and Ritual by nineteenth-century clergyman, occultist, and ceremonial magician Éliphas Lévi, suggests the plant might hint at mankind's "terrestrial origin:"

The natural mandragore is a filamentous root which, more or less, presents as a whole either the figure of a man, or that of the virile members. It is slightly narcotic, and an aphrodisiacal virtue was ascribed to it by the ancients, who represented it as being sought by Thessalian sorcerers for the composition of philtres. Is this root the umbilical vestige of our terrestrial origin? We dare not seriously affirm it, but all the same it is certain that man came out of the slime of the earth, and his first appearance must have been in the form of a rough sketch. The analogies of nature make this notion necessarily admissible, at least as a possibility. The first men were, in this case, a family of gigantic, sensitive mandragores, animated by the sun, who rooted themselves up from the earth; this assumption not only does not exclude, but, on the contrary, positively supposes, creative will and the providential co-operation of a first cause, which we have REASON to call GOD. Some alchemists, impressed by this idea, speculated on the culture of the mandragore, and experimented in the artificial reproduction of a soil sufficiently fruitful and a sun sufficiently active to humanise the said root, and thus create men without the concurrence of the female. Others, who regarded humanity as the synthesis of animals, despaired about vitalising the mandragore, but they crossed monstrous pairs and projected human seed into animal earth, only for the production of shameful crimes and barren deformities.[115]

The following is taken from Jean-Baptiste Pitois's The History and Practice of Magic (1870), and explains a ritual for creating a mandrake:

Would you like to make a Mandragora, as powerful as the homunculus (little man in a bottle) so praised by Paracelsus? Then find a root of the plant called bryony. Take it out of the ground on a Monday (the day of the moon), a little time after the vernal equinox. Cut off the ends of the root and bury it at night in some country churchyard in a dead man's grave. For 30 days, water it with cow's milk in which three bats have been drowned. When the 31st day arrives, take out the root in the middle of the night and dry it in an oven heated with branches of verbena; then wrap it up in a piece of a dead man's winding-sheet and carry it with you everywhere.[116]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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References

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Bibliography

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Mandrake

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from Grokipedia
The mandrake (), also known as the European mandrake, is a stemless in the nightshade family (), native to the Mediterranean region, including , the , and northern . It features a large, often forked that can reach up to 2 feet in length and resembles the , ovate dark green leaves arranged in a rosette, bell-shaped flowers ranging from yellow-green to bluish-purple, and small yellow fruits with a sweet apple-like scent. The plant is highly toxic due to its concentration of alkaloids, including , , and atropine, which have historically provided narcotic, , hallucinogenic, and anesthetic effects. Cultivated and wild varieties, such as M. officinarum (spring-blooming) and M. autumnalis (autumn-blooming), thrive in sunny, well-drained soils and have been documented since ancient times in Mesopotamian texts dating back to the 14th century B.C. In folklore and mythology, the mandrake holds profound symbolic value, often associated with fertility, magic, and danger; biblical references in Genesis (Chapter 30) and the Song of Solomon link it to aphrodisiac properties, while Greek legends, such as Circe's brew in Homer's Odyssey, portray it as a transformative agent. Medieval European traditions, influenced by the "Doctrine of Signatures," viewed its anthropomorphic root as a sign of its power to heal human ailments like infertility, insomnia, and pain, though uprooting it was believed to cause a fatal scream, necessitating rituals involving dogs or moonlight. Medicinally, the mandrake has been used since at least the A.D. by figures like Dioscorides for in tinctures combined with substances like and henbane, and it persisted in folk remedies through the despite the Catholic Church's condemnation of its magical associations. Its alkaloids remain influential in modern for treating conditions like and as precursors to synthetic drugs, though ingestion can lead to severe poisoning, including hallucinations, , and . The plant's cultural legacy extends to , appearing in works by Shakespeare (e.g., ) and Machiavelli's play The Mandrake Root, underscoring its enduring mystique as both a healer and a harbinger of peril.

Botanical Overview

Physical Characteristics

Mandrake in the genus Mandragora are stemless distinguished by their fleshy taproots and rosette-forming foliage. The roots are thick and often forked, exhibiting an anthropomorphic shape that resembles a figure, with the narrower end tapering like legs and the broader portion evoking a and head; typical lengths range from 30 to 60 cm, though some specimens can reach up to 120 cm. The tuberous roots have a rough, wrinkled texture and emit an earthy, musky when disturbed. The leaves emerge directly from the root crown in a basal rosette arrangement, forming a dense, circular cluster that lies flat against the ground as the matures. These leaves are large and ovate to oblong, measuring up to 30 cm in length and 10-15 cm wide, with a dark green coloration and slightly crinkled or wavy margins; M. officinarum leaves may appear lighter green, while those of M. autumnalis have a metallic sheen. Flowers arise singly or in small clusters from the rosette center on short stalks, blooming in spring. They are bell-shaped with five spreading lobes, typically 2-3 cm in diameter, and exhibit color variations across species, ranging from greenish-white with purple veining in M. officinarum to bluish-purple or in others like M. autumnalis. The fruits develop after as small, fleshy berries resembling tomatoes in shape, 1-2 cm in diameter, ripening to or orange hues with a sweet, apple-like scent. These berries are toxic if ingested, containing compounds that can cause severe physiological effects (see and ). Root texture and odor can vary by soil conditions and species, with drier environments yielding more fibrous exteriors.

Habitat and Distribution

Mandrake species, belonging to the genus Mandragora, thrive in Mediterranean climates characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. These plants prefer well-drained, rocky or sandy soils with a mildly acidic to neutral , which support their deep systems. Such conditions prevent and allow for the plant's adaptation to nutrient-poor substrates often found in their natural settings. The native distribution of Mandragora centers on the Mediterranean Basin, including countries such as , , , , , , and . It extends eastward into the , encompassing , , , , , and , while certain species reach the Himalayan region in areas like , , and . Overall, the genus spans , northern , and parts of , with discontinuous occurrences reflecting historical biogeographical patterns. These plants typically occupy scrublands, grasslands, and disturbed areas such as waste grounds, fallow fields, groves, ruins, and rocky slopes from to approximately 1,200 meters in elevation. They favor open, sunny or semi-shaded sites with minimal competition, contributing to their presence in coastal and inland stony habitats. Mandrake exhibits sensitivity to frost, tolerating only brief exposures down to about -15°C, and is highly susceptible to waterlogging, which can lead to damage in overly moist conditions. These environmental constraints, combined with specific and needs, result in limited wild populations, often confined to fragmented or specialized niches.

Taxonomy and Nomenclature

Species Classification

The genus Mandragora belongs to the family and is recognized as comprising four accepted species: M. autumnalis Bertol., M. caulescens C.B.Clarke, M. officinarum L., and M. turcomanica Mizg. These herbaceous are distinguished primarily by morphological and phenological traits, such as flowering time and morphology. For instance, M. officinarum typically flowers in spring and develops larger, thicker roots up to a meter in length, whereas M. autumnalis flowers in autumn and exhibits a smaller overall stature with relatively more modest systems. Phylogenetically, Mandragora forms part of the tribe Mandragoreae within and shows close affinity to other nightshade genera, including Atropa (as in belladonna), based on shared morphological and molecular characteristics like production and fruit structure. The taxonomic foundation of the genus was established by in his (1753), where he described M. officinarum as the , initially treating the genus as monotypic. Subsequent revisions, particularly Ungricht et al.'s 1998 comprehensive study and later molecular analyses using AFLP markers, plastid DNA regions, and the nuclear ITS , have refined species delimitations and confirmed the current four-species framework while resolving historical confusions in nomenclature.

Etymology and Historical Naming

The term "mandragoras" originates from ancient Greek, where it first appears in the writings of Theophrastus in his Historia Plantarum around the 4th century BCE, describing the plant's narcotic properties and forked root structure. Etymological analysis suggests the name derives from "mándra," meaning a stable or fold, combined with "agora," referring to a gathering place, possibly alluding to locations where the plant was commonly found or to the clustered form of its roots. Alternative derivations propose connections to non-Indo-European roots or Persian "mardum-giyah" (man-plant), emphasizing the root's anthropomorphic resemblance, which influenced its linguistic identification across cultures. In Hebrew, the plant is known as "duda'im," a term appearing in biblical texts and translating to "love apples" or "love-plants," reflecting associations with and qualities derived from its fruits and roots. This name, rooted in the Semitic dud (love), entered Aramaic as "yabrouḥ" and influenced variants in and other Near Eastern languages, highlighting the plant's role in ancient medicinal and symbolic contexts without direct ties to later narratives. The Latin "mandragora" adopted form directly, serving as the basis for its transmission into European languages during the Roman era and medieval period. In , it appeared as "mandragora," evolving into the "mandrake" by the 14th century through , where the suffix "-dragora" was reinterpreted as akin to "drake" (dragon), evoking the plant's mythical despite no literal connection to serpents. This adaptation solidified "mandrake" as the term, emphasizing the root's human-like shape in popular . Regional variants proliferated across , adapting the core name to local linguistic and cultural lenses. In German, "Alraune" emerged from "al-rūna," combining "al-" (all) with "rūna" (secret or rune), implying "she who knows all" or a ruling sorceress, tied to the plant's perceived magical dominion and gendered root forms in . Slavic languages retained adaptations of "mandragora," such as "mandragula" or Russian "mandragora," often incorporating diminutives or morphological descriptors to denote the root's forked, human-like appearance, with over 15 variants documented in the region. By the , esoteric traditions in and beyond introduced evocative names like "Satan's apple" in English and German contexts, attributing demonic connotations to the plant's toxic fruits and hallucinogenic roots, as seen in literature and compendia that amplified its reputation. These namings, such as "devil's apple," reflected a blend of medieval fears and romanticized , positioning the mandrake as a of in alchemical and theosophical writings.

Chemical Composition and Toxicity

Key Compounds

The primary chemical constituents of the mandrake plant (Mandragora officinarum) are tropane alkaloids, including , , and , which are ester derivatives of tropic acid and , featuring a characteristic bicyclic ring structure. These alkaloids are biosynthesized primarily in the roots, where they accumulate to concentrations ranging from 0.2% to 0.6% of dry weight, with often predominant. , a of , and , an derivative of , contribute to the plant's pharmacological profile through their properties, though their exact ratios vary by species and environmental factors. In addition to tropane alkaloids, mandrake contains essential oils, , and steroidal as secondary metabolites. Essential oils from the leaves and fruits include sesquiterpenes such as β-caryophyllene, identified at levels up to 5.4% in related , providing volatile aromatic compounds with potential roles. , including glycosides like and derivatives, are present in the leaves and fruits, contributing activity, while steroidal such as solamargine occur in unripe fruits, adding to the plant's chemical diversity. These non-alkaloid components are generally found in lower concentrations than the tropanes and vary with plant maturity. The biosynthesis of tropane alkaloids in mandrake follows the canonical pathway in , initiating from the ornithine, which is decarboxylated to putrescine by . Putrescine is then methylated to N-methylputrescine and oxidized to 4-methylaminobutanal, which spontaneously cyclizes to form the ring precursor; subsequent steps involve incorporation of units and esterification with tropic acid to yield and its derivatives, with root tissues serving as the primary site of synthesis and storage. This pathway is conserved across Mandragora species, though genetic variations can lead to differences in production. Alkaloid concentrations exhibit significant variation across plant parts, with roots containing the highest levels (0.2–0.6% total tropanes of dry weight), while leaves and fruits contain lower amounts, reflecting the anthropomorphic root's role as the main . Non-alkaloid compounds like and show similar partitioning, with elevated flavonoid content in aerial parts compared to roots.

Human Health Effects

Mandrake () exerts significant toxicological effects on humans primarily through its alkaloids, including atropine and , which act as competitive antagonists at muscarinic receptors, producing a anticholinergic syndrome. This blockade disrupts functions, leading to symptoms such as pupillary dilation (), dry mouth (), blurred vision, , hallucinations, and . In cases of ingestion, initial gastrointestinal distress like and often precedes these central and peripheral effects, with onset typically within 1-6 hours. Toxicity manifests rapidly upon of the , where concentrations can reach 0.2-0.6% by dry weight, making even modest amounts hazardous. Symptoms can occur from as little as 3-5 grams of material. The estimated minimal fatal dose of atropine alone is approximately 10 mg in adults, though individual tolerance varies widely, with lower thresholds in children or sensitive populations; higher doses (up to 100 mg) have occasionally been survived with medical intervention. Severe poisoning progresses to agitation, , , seizures, and if untreated. Historical records document fatalities from mandrake overdose, often involving convulsions, progressive paralysis, and as terminal events. A notable case from involved a who ingested one teaspoonful (about 5 grams) of powdered root, mistaking it for a medicinal powder, resulting in severe vomiting, purging, drowsiness escalating to , and within 24 hours. Such outcomes underscore the plant's potent lethality, with circulatory collapse or central respiratory depression as common causes in overdoses exceeding 10-20 grams of root. The therapeutic window for mandrake's alkaloids is exceedingly narrow, with effective pharmacological doses (e.g., 0.5-1 mg atropine equivalents) closely approaching toxic thresholds, necessitating precise preparation in historical contexts to mitigate risks of overdose. This limited margin, compounded by variable content across plants, has historically contributed to accidental poisonings despite intentional use.

Historical Medicinal Applications

Ancient Greco-Roman Uses

In , mandrake () was documented in the for its sedative and properties, particularly when prepared as a or for treating , convulsions, and . For instance, in texts such as Places in Man and Fistulas, it was recommended as a warm for tendon issues or boiled in diluted wine to soothe rectal and fistulas, serving as an early form of local during procedures. These applications highlighted its role in calming troubled patients without specifying exact dosages, emphasizing empirical observation over precise measurement. Pedanius Dioscorides, in his De Materia Medica (1st century CE), provided detailed recipes for mandrake's use as a , reliever, and soporific, distinguishing between male and female varieties based on root and characteristics. The root juice, extracted by pressing fresh skins and stored in clay vessels, or the root boiled in wine and reduced to one-third volume, was administered orally at about 1 (approximately 45 ml) for surgical , , or relief; smaller doses of 2 obols (around 0.57 g) mixed with hydromel addressed and imbalances. Additionally, Dioscorides noted its effects when taken in moderation, alongside external applications like plasters for abscesses, though he warned that excessive intake could lead to speechlessness or death. Pliny the Elder, in Natural History (Book 25), echoed and expanded on these uses, describing mandrake as a potent for before incisions or cautery, typically in a dose of 1 , and for treating and ulcers through topical or ingested forms. He detailed harvesting rituals to mitigate risks, such as drawing three circles around the plant with a while facing west at dusk, reflecting beliefs in its perilous nature when uprooted. Pharmaceutical preparations included dried root powders ground for poultices and wine-based tinctures, with solid dosages generally around 1-2 g to avoid , as higher amounts could prove fatal. These Greco-Roman practices underscore mandrake's dual role as a valuable and a substance requiring careful handling due to its , as further detailed in discussions of human health effects.

Medieval and Renaissance Pharmacology

During the Islamic Golden Age, mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) played a significant role in pharmacology, building on earlier traditions while introducing refined applications. In his 11th-century Canon of Medicine, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) described mandrake root as a potent stupefacient for pain relief, less powerful than opium but effective alongside substances like hyoscyamus and hemlock. He recommended root powder mixed with vinegar for treating skin inflammations and pustules. Additionally, mandrake preparations were employed for psychological conditions, including melancholy or depression, due to its sedative properties derived from tropane alkaloids like scopolamine, reflecting its broader application in humoral medicine to balance cold and dry temperaments. In medieval and Europe, these Islamic influences were transmitted through translated herbals and integrated into local practices, evolving mandrake's role beyond ancient Greco-Roman uses. By the 17th century, English herbalist in his Complete Herbal (1653) highlighted mandrake's cooling leaves for ointments to soothe inflammations, including those associated with , and noted its purgative effects, which served as an to promote menstrual flow. European apothecaries prepared mandrake in various forms, such as ointments from leaves and barley for and abscesses. However, texts consistently warned of its , emphasizing risks of hallucinations, , and death from overdose due to its alkaloids, advising minimal doses and antidotes like nettle seed. Mandrake's prominence waned by the late 17th and early 18th centuries as safer alternatives emerged. The plant's unreliable effects, prone to variability and severe side effects, were overshadowed by derivatives for analgesia and, later, volatile anesthetics like and introduced in the 1840s. While isolated uses persisted, such as atropine extracted from related nightshades for prophylaxis, mandrake largely faded from standard pharmacopeias in favor of more predictable compounds.

Cultural and Religious Contexts

Biblical References

In the , mandrakes, known in Hebrew as duda'im, are prominently featured in Genesis 30:14-16 as symbols of . During the wheat harvest, , 's son, discovers mandrakes in the field and presents them to his mother, prompting —'s other wife, who remains childless at this stage—to request them in exchange for allowing to spend a night with . This underscores the plant's perceived power to aid conception in ancient Israelite society, reflecting broader Near Eastern beliefs in its reproductive efficacy. The mandrake reappears in the Song of 7:13, where the female lover declares, "The mandrakes send forth fragrance, and at our doors are all choice fruits, new and old, which I have laid up for you, O my beloved." Set within an intimate evoking sensual anticipation, this reference highlights the plant's aromatic yellow fruits and ties them to themes of erotic desire and romantic abundance. Botanical analysis identifies the biblical duda'im with , a of the family native to the Mediterranean and regions. In ancient Near Eastern contexts, this species was prized for its qualities, with its fruits and roots believed to stimulate and sexual potency due to their alkaloids. Archaeological corroboration of the mandrake's significance emerges from 18th Dynasty Egyptian tombs dating to the 15th century BCE, where wall paintings depict the plant in paradisiacal scenes symbolizing fertility and vitality. Notable examples include the of Nakht (TT52) at Thebes, featuring mandrakes alongside other flora, which align with textual descriptions in biblical narratives and affirm the plant's cross-cultural role in evoking love and procreation.

Early Christian Interpretations

In the early Christian text (2nd–4th century CE), the mandrake features in an allegorical tale involving , where the plant's fruit is consumed to induce and , symbolizing the and fall of in the , thereby representing humanity's entanglement with and carnal desire. This interpretation draws on the plant's biblical associations with love and reproduction, reframing its aphrodisiac properties as a cautionary emblem of moral vulnerability within a theological framework. Patristic writer (c. 185–254 CE) referenced the mandrake in his Commentary on the , viewing the mandrakes as symbols of the Church's good works, though he connected its reputed effects to broader themes of temptation and the consequences of . These views positioned the mandrake as a for the seductive pull of , inherited from the primordial disobedience, emphasizing restraint in the face of bodily appetites. By the medieval period, bestiaries expanded these allegories, portraying the mandrake as an of sorcery due to its root form and the deadly shriek it allegedly emitted when uprooted—a peril often illustrated through the use of a to pull it free, resulting in the animal's demise. This narrative reinforced church prohibitions against its magical applications, viewing the plant's "demonic" vitality as a threat to Christian and associating its harvest with forbidden practices that could invite madness or death. In texts like the St. Trudperter Hohelied (c. 1160), the mandrake was positively reinterpreted as a Christological symbol, with its root embodying the divine essence, its bark the , and its scream signifying God's judgment, thus transforming a perilous motif into a of redemption and eternal life. Conversely, Honorius Augustodunensis (c. 1126–1132) depicted it negatively as a "headless girl," linking its form to the and amplifying warnings against its use in sorcery. In illuminated manuscripts, such as those from the 12th–15th centuries, the mandrake appears in and illustrations as a , anthropomorphic figure—often forked like human legs, bearded, or bifurcated into male and female forms—evoking demonic connotations through its eerie resemblance to the and ties to rituals. These depictions, found in works like the Tractatus de Herbis and , heightened its symbolic role as a boundary-crossing entity between the natural and , underscoring early Christian efforts to demonize pagan lore while selectively endorsing its therapeutic value under oversight.

Folklore and Mythological Associations

European Folk Traditions

In pre-modern European peasant customs, mandrake harvesting was governed by profound taboos rooted in the belief that uprooting the caused it to emit a deadly scream capable of killing the harvester. To circumvent this peril, folk practitioners in German and English traditions during the 16th to 18th centuries commonly employed a as a surrogate: the animal was tied to the root with a and lured away with , pulling the plant free and absorbing the fatal cry in the process. This , documented across multiple vernacular names like "dog's apple" in Dutch, French, and German lore, highlighted the mandrake's integration into everyday superstitions as a hazardous yet essential element of rural life. Beyond harvesting dangers, mandrake roots served protective roles in communal folk practices, often carved into shapes to function as talismans warding off influences. These amulets were worn around the or carried by travelers for good fortune and safety on journeys, embodying the plant's reputed power to influence destiny and avert misfortune. Such customs, condemned by authorities yet persistent among peasants, drew from the root's anthropomorphic form, which amplified its symbolic potency in shielding against threats (see Physical Characteristics). The mandrake's deep ties to fertility motifs extended into agricultural rituals, where roots were placed in fields to invoke bountiful crop yields and vitality. This practice, reflective of broader efforts to harness natural symbols for prosperity, occasionally aligned with seasonal observances like solstice gatherings to ensure communal abundance. Regional variations enriched these traditions, notably in British where the "gallows mandrake" myth prevailed: the most efficacious roots were said to sprout under execution sites from the of hanged men dripping onto the earth. Prevalent in 16th- to 18th-century English rural communities, this grim belief infused mandrake lore with themes of and renewal, distinguishing it from continental customs while reinforcing its taboo-laden cultural significance.

Supernatural Attributes

In , the mandrake root was believed to emit a deadly shriek upon being uprooted, a sound so piercing that it could kill the hearer instantly or drive them to madness, necessitating indirect harvesting methods to avoid direct exposure. This "screaming root" legend, documented from the onward, persisted across cultures, with echoes in traditions from to , where the cry was tied to the plant's potency amplifying its terror. The mandrake's animistic qualities further elevated its mythical status, portraying the root as a living or miniature human, animated by forces and capable of independent agency. Its anthropomorphic shape, often forked or (as detailed in physical characteristics), reinforced this perception, leading to beliefs in forms distinguished by root morphology—thicker for males and slimmer for females—used symbolically in . These gendered variants were seen not merely as but as sentient beings, akin to talismans harboring a soul or spirit. Folklore ascribed potent magical powers to the mandrake, including the ability to reveal hidden treasures, as in German tales of "geldmännchen" (little money men) roots that guided seekers to buried wealth. It was also credited with warding off demons and spirits, preventing their entry into homes where the was kept, due to its perceived infernal associations and protective aura. Additionally, the plant's hallucinogenic compounds were mythologized as inducing prophetic visions or delirium, allowing users to glimpse otherworldly realms or divine secrets. In 19th-century Romantic literature, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe referenced the mandrake in Faust Part II, where it appears in discussions of folklore and superstition, perpetuating its mythical attributes. Goethe, who personally owned a preserved mandrake root, wove its lore into scenes of alchemical magic, underscoring the plant's power to bridge the human and ethereal worlds.

Magical and Occult Practices

Witchcraft and Rituals

In medieval witchcraft practices, mandrake roots were fashioned into anthropomorphic dolls, often carved or shaped to resemble human figures, and ritually bathed in infused liquids such as wine or herbal decoctions to invoke attraction and fertility in love spells. These rituals, documented in 15th-century European grimoires, aimed to empower the root as a sympathetic magic tool, drawing on its humanoid form to influence romantic bonds and conception. Mandrake featured in divination rituals among English cunning folk, where roots or dolls were used as talismans to facilitate or states for and locating lost items, leveraging the plant's hallucinogenic alkaloids. This practice, rooted in early modern folk magic traditions, drew on the plant's properties to induce . During the European witch hunts, mandrake possession was cited in accusations linking practitioners to demonic pacts and sabbath gatherings, as seen in the 1431 , where she was charged with carrying a mandrake root as proof of sorcery. The 1486 , a seminal witch-hunting manual, exemplified the era's broader paranoia by detailing infernal alliances, with mandrake often invoked in testimonies as a tool for maleficium during supposed witches' sabbaths. In contemporary , mandrake roots or their representations are incorporated into sabbat altars, particularly for grounding during earth-based rituals and providing protective barriers against negative energies. Modern practitioners, drawing from neopagan herbal traditions, place the root alongside candles and to anchor intentions of stability and warding, echoing its historical potency while emphasizing ethical, non-toxic adaptations.

Artifacts and Esoteric Items

In , particularly from the 16th to 19th centuries, mandrake roots were often carved into anthropomorphic figures known as Alraun (or for female forms), treated as protective talismans for . These artifacts, shaped to resemble small human dolls due to the root's natural bifurcated form, were dressed in clothing, placed in cradles or boxes, and periodically "fed" with milk, honey, or blood to sustain their supposed vitality and efficacy in warding off evil, promoting good luck, and revealing hidden treasures. The practice drew from medieval traditions but peaked in early modern , where the Alraun was regarded as a benevolent spirit akin to a , embodying principles for health and prosperity. Note that in , where true mandrake was scarce, substitutes like white bryony roots were commonly used to create these artifacts, mimicking the plant's humanoid form. The (main de gloire) represents a rarer, more sinister mandrake-derived artifact, where the root was sometimes substituted for or infused into candles made from the fat of hanged criminals to grant during theft. Documented in 18th-century European grimoires and , this item exploited the mandrake's associations—roots allegedly growing from the bodily fluids of executed individuals—to create a paralytic or cloaking effect on observers, emphasizing its role in criminal esotericism rather than domestic protection. During 19th-century occult revivals, figures like revitalized mandrake artifacts in ritual magic, describing carved root poppets as symbolic microcosms of humanity for and sympathetic workings. In works such as Transcendental Magic, Lévi portrayed the mandrake as a potent embodying terrestrial origins and magical potency, influencing later ceremonialists to craft and consecrate such items for personal empowerment and .

Modern Uses and Research

Contemporary Pharmacology

Mandrake (Mandragora spp.) contains alkaloids such as , , and atropine, which have been isolated and studied for their pharmacological properties similar to those derived from related plants. , present in mandrake roots and leaves, exhibits effects and is a key component in transdermal patches like Transderm Scop, approved for preventing and postoperative , though commercial formulations are typically sourced from other genera like or ; research on mandrake-derived analogs continues to explore their and in such applications. Recent studies in the 2020s have investigated mandrake's withanolides and saponin-like compounds for potential therapeutic roles, particularly in . Ethanolic extracts of leaves demonstrated anticancer activity against cell lines by inducing and inhibiting cell proliferation. models further supported these findings, showing reduced tumor growth in mice without significant toxicity at low doses. For neurological applications, alkaloids from mandrake have been examined for symptom relief in , leveraging their properties to alleviate tremors and rigidity, as evidenced by preclinical research on extracts modulating dopamine-acetylcholine balance. Direct use of mandrake extracts remains unapproved by major regulatory bodies due to their high toxicity profile, including risks of delirium and hallucinations from scopolamine overdose. In the United States, mandrake is not classified as a DEA Schedule I substance but is subject to general FDA oversight as a potentially hazardous botanical, with no approved new drug applications for its derivatives as of 2025. Similarly, the restricts its inclusion in medicinal products owing to narrow therapeutic indices and hallucinogenic potential. In , mandrake root preparations are occasionally marketed as herbal supplements for sleep induction, purportedly due to sedative alkaloids, but both the FDA and EMA issue warnings against their use, citing severe adverse effects like confusion, , and respiratory depression even at low doses. The American Herbal Products Association categorizes mandrake as a Class 3 herb, recommending it not for general retail sale and requiring professional supervision if used.

Cultivation and Conservation

Mandrake species, particularly , are propagated primarily through seeds or root division to support cultivation in controlled environments. Seeds require cold stratification for 1-3 months in moist sand at temperatures before in spring, typically ½ inch deep in well-draining sandy under full sun or controlled at 70-75°F; can take 8-12 months in a or to maintain consistent moisture without excess humidity. Root division involves separating rhizomes or taking cuttings from mature (3-4 years old) in fall or winter, planting them 2 inches deep in sandy and keeping them moist until new growth emerges, which promotes airflow and prevents rot. Commercial cultivation of mandrake remains limited, confined mostly to ornamental displays and research programs in botanical gardens due to its slow growth and toxicity concerns. Institutions like the Royal Botanic Gardens, , maintain M. officinarum in their collections for educational and conservation purposes, often in specialized alpine or Mediterranean-themed sections. typically reach maturity and produce flowers or fruit in 2 years under optimal conditions, requiring deep, sandy, slightly alkaline soil (pH 6.0-7.0) with minimal watering once established. Conservation efforts for are critical, as the species is classified as Endangered in by the IUCN due to historical overharvesting and habitat loss. It receives protection under the EU Habitats Directive, which mandates safeguards for its natural sites across the Mediterranean basin to prevent further decline. propagation techniques, such as seed germination protocols, are being developed to bolster and reduce pressure on wild populations. As of 2025, poses additional threats to Mediterranean mandrake populations through increased , rising temperatures, and alteration, potentially contracting suitable ranges as predicted by climate modeling. These impacts exacerbate vulnerability in regions like , prompting ongoing conservation initiatives focused on restoration and propagation for potential reintroduction.

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