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Monte Verde
Monte Verde
Monte Verde
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Monte Verde is a Paleolithic archaeological site in the Llanquihue Province[1] in southern Chile, located near Puerto Montt, Los Lagos Region. The site is primarily known for Monte Verde II, dating to approximately 14,550–14,500 calibrated years Before Present (BP).[2] The Monte Verde II site has been considered key evidence showing that the human settlement of the Americas pre-dates the Clovis culture by at least 1,000 years. This contradicts the previously accepted "Clovis first" model which holds that settlement of the Americas began after 13,500 cal BP. The Monte Verde findings were initially dismissed by most of the scientific community, but the evidence then became more accepted in archaeological circles.[3][4] The site also contains an older, much more controversial layer (Monte Verde I) suggested to date to 18,500 cal BP (16,500 BC), that lacks the general acceptance of Monte Verde II.[5][3]

Key Information

Monte Verde II represents a campsite with wooden tent-like structures that was later covered by a bog, sealing the site under a layer of anaerobic peat. The occupants of the site made rope and utilized animal skins, and consumed a variety of plant foods, including seaweed (despite the site being 60 kilometres (37 mi) from the ocean at the time), tubers, seeds, fruits and nuts. Remains at the site show that the occupants also butchered now extinct megafauna, including the gomphothere (elephant-relative) Notiomastodon and the llama Palaeolama.[2]

Paleoecological evidence of the coastal landscape's ability to sustain human life further supports a "coastal migration" model.[6] Dating of rock surfaces and animal bones suggests the coastal corridor was deglaciated and became habitable after 17,000 years BP.[7] Although testing coastal migration theories can be difficult due to sea level rise since the Last Glacial Maximum, archaeologists are increasingly willing to accept the possibility that the initial settlement of the Americas occurred via coastlines.[8][9]

History

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Discovery

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The site was discovered in late 1975 when a veterinary student visited the area of Monte Verde, where severe erosion was occurring due to logging. Prior to the logging, the site itself had been preserved well due to the favorable conditions created by the Chinchihuapi creek banks. The student was shown a strange "cow bone" collected by nearby farmers who had found it exposed in the eroded Chinchihuapi Creek.[10] The bone later proved to be from Notiomastodon, a gomphothere related to modern elephants.[11] Tom Dillehay, an American anthropologist and professor at the Universidad Austral de Chile at the time, started excavating Monte Verde in 1977.[10]

The site is situated on the banks of Chinchihuapi Creek, a tributary of the Maullín River located 36 miles (58 km) from the Pacific Ocean. One of the rare open-air prehistoric sites found so far in the Americas, Monte Verde was well preserved because it was located in an anaerobic bog environment near the creek. A short time after the site was originally occupied, the waters of the creek rose and a peat-filled bog formed that inhibited the bacterial decay of organic material and preserved many perishable artifacts and other items for millennia.

Radiocarbon dating of bones and charcoal in 1982 gave the site an average age of 14,800 BP (calibrated), more than 1,000 years earlier than the oldest-known site of human habitation in the Americas at that time.[3][12][13]

In the initial excavation, two large hearths and many small ones were found. The remains of local animals were discovered, in addition to wooden posts from approximately twelve huts. Scraps of clothing made of hide were also found. This led archaeologists to estimate the population was around 20–30 inhabitants. A human footprint was also observed in the clay, probably from a 70 kg (150 lb) adult.[14]

Stratigraphy

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The area consists of four distinct sites, Monte Verde I, Monte Verde II, Chinchihuapi I, and Chinchihuapi II.[15]

The Monte Verde site has two distinct levels. The upper level, MV-II, has been extensively characterized. Its occupation is reliably dated to sometime between 14,800 – 13,800 BP.[16]

The lower level, MV-I, is less well understood. It was more ephemeral, having come from ancient river sediments. Dillehay found charcoal scatters which may have been the remains of fireplaces next to stone and wood artifacts. These were dated to at least 33,000BP.[17] He acknowledges MV-I has issues, such as uncertain artifacts, doubtful radiocarbon dates, and unreliable contexts. He hesistates to accept this level without additional evidence, including sites of similar age in the Americas.[18][19]

Monte Verde I (MV-I)

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Monte Verde I is located under an outwash plain, which formed during the last glaciation.[5] It is not directly below MV-II.[1] It was first concluded to be a site of human occupation because of three clay-lined burned areas and 26 stones, 13 of which may have been modified by humans.[5] In 2013, Dillehay and his team returned to perform another excavation at Monte Verde due to the inadequate previous excavations.[5] In 2015, Monte Verde I was re-dated to around 18,500 to 14,500 BP.[5] Charcoal remains, charred animal bone fragments and several lithic artifacts, about 34% of which were derived from non-local sources, were discovered.[5] The older end of this range is controversial, however, as it is based on putative lithic tools which some have suggested are instead naturally occurring objects.[20]

Monte Verde II (MV-II)

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According to the most recent studies by Dillehay and Pino, Monte Verde II has been dated to around 14,550 calibrated years Before Present.[2]

The site is suggested to have been occupied by about twenty to thirty people. A twenty-foot-long tent-like structure of wood and animal hides was erected on the banks of the creek and was framed with logs and planks staked in the ground, making walls of poles covered with animal hides. Using ropes made of local reeds, the hides were tied to the poles creating separate living quarters within the main structure. Outside the tent-like structure, two large hearths had been built for community usage, most probably for tool making and craftwork.

Each of the living quarters had a brazier pit lined with clay. Around those hearths, many stone tools and remnants of spilled seeds, nuts, and berries were found. A 13,000-year-old specimen of the wild potato, Solanum maglia, was also found at the site; these remains, the oldest on record for any species of potato, wild or cultivated, suggest that southern Chile was one of the two main centres for the evolution of Solanum tuberosum tuberosum, the common potato.[21] Remains of forty-five different edible plant species were found within the site, over a fifth of them originating from up to 150 miles (240 km) away. This suggested that the people of Monte Verde either had traded on or traveled regularly in this extended network.

Other important finds from this site include human coprolites, a footprint, assumed to have been made by a child, stone tools, and cordage. Dr. Dillehay obtained the date for this site by radiocarbon dating charcoal and bone found within the site.

At Monte Verde II, seven partial carcasses of Notiomastodon, alongside remains single individual of the extinct llama Palaeolama show evidence of butchery, with some of these carcasses having preserved meat tissue still adhered to them.[2]

In the May 9, 2008 issue of Science, a team reported that they identified nine species of seaweed and marine algae recovered from hearths and other areas in the ancient settlement. The seaweed samples were directly dated between 14,220 and 13,980 years ago.[16][22]

Chinchihuapi I and Chinchihuapi II

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These sites, located approximately 500 meters upstream from the Monte Verde sites along the same river, have been dated to about 14,500 BP.[23] Similar materials, including burned areas and fragmentary scorched animal bones, along with small rock flakes, have been recovered.[5] Dillehay and his team conducted excavations between the sites, using test pits and core drillings. They discovered 12 small burned features directly associated with both burned and unburned animal remains, manuport stones, and anthropologically modified flakes, which were dated between 18,500 BP and 14,500 BP.[5] These findings likely indicate seasonal activities in the area.[5] Up until 2019, Dillehay has conducted two additional excavations at the Chinchihuapi site, revealing the presence of lithic tools and flakes, as well as burned features associated with burned animal and plant remains in CH-I.[23]

Interpretations

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Material evidence gathered at Monte Verde has reshaped the way archaeologists think about the earliest inhabitants of the Americas. Radiocarbon dating has provided a date of 14,000 BP and possibly 14,800-33,000 BP.[24] Previously, the earliest accepted site had been determined to be near Clovis, New Mexico, dating between 13,500 and 13,000 BP, over 1,000 years later than Monte Verde.[25][26]

The new dates supplied by Monte Verde have made the site a key factor in the debate over the first migration route from Asia to North America. Before the discovery of Monte Verde, the most popular and widely accepted theory was the overland route, which speculates that the first American inhabitants migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait and then spread throughout North America. However, the early dates associated with Monte Verde appear to weaken this theory. Prior to 13,000 BP, the Cordilleran Glacier (which covered much of present-day Canada) had not yet melted enough to reveal an ice-free corridor for people to reasonably journey by foot. The Monte Verde radiocarbon dates precede 13,000 BP, despite the fact that before the glacial melt, the vast, desolate, icy landscape of much of the Americas could not possibly have permitted enough vegetation to sustain traveling people or herded animals.[26][27]

The most prevalent theory today is the coastal migration hypothesis, which argues that people migrated from Asia down along the western coasts of North and South America.[28] Monte Verde is located 8,000 miles south of the Bering Strait. Such a considerable distance was probably unreasonable to trek by foot, especially on ice.[29] Furthermore, remains of 22 varieties of seaweed are referenced in regards to this theory. Modern native inhabitants of the regions use these particular local seaweed varieties for medicinal purposes. Using an ethnographic analogy, this suggests that the Monte Verde residents used these varieties for similar purposes, which further suggests an extensive knowledge of marine resources.[16][30] Together with a relative lack of stone tools, it appears that these first settlers were maritime-adapted hunter-gatherer-fishermen, and not necessarily big-game hunters like the Clovis. Therefore, it is feasible that they traveled along the coast by boat or along the shoreline, and could survive on marine resources throughout the voyage south.[31][32]

The presence of non-local items at Monte Verde, such as plants, beach-rolled pebbles, quartz, and tar, indicates possible trade networks and other sites of human habitation of similar age.[30]

Academic history

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Diffusion

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Awareness about Monte Verde among the international archaeology community was greatly increased in 1989 when Dillehay delivered a presentation on Monte Verde at a conference on settlement of the Americas at the University of Maine.[33] Archaeologist David J. Meltzer notes on that presentation:

The images Tom Dillehay was showing of the well-preserved remains at Monte Verde—wooden artifacts and house planks, fruits, berries, seeds, leaves, and stems, as well as marine algae, crayfish, chunks of animal hide, and what appeared to be several human coprolites found in three small pits—were unlike anything most of us, who long ago had learned to be used to stone tools and grateful for occasional bits of bone, had ever seen.[33]

Pre-Clovis controversy

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Because of the nature of the preservation of Monte Verde, it was one of the first Pre-Clovis sites to be accepted by the academic community. Dillehay, himself, doubted his dates due to the strong hold the Clovis First hypothesis had on the academic community.[1] Monte Verde was one of the most accepted Pre-Clovis sites, according to a survey done by Amber Wheat in 2012.[34] Out of 132 respondents (mainly archaeologists), approximately 65% of them confirmed Monte Verde as a Pre-Clovis site.[35] Still, the early date for the site was not widely accepted until 1997. It had hitherto been generally agreed that ancient people had entered the Americas using the Bering Strait Land Bridge, which was about 13,000 kilometers (8,000 miles) north of the Monte Verde site. Though the Monte Verde site does not disprove the Bering Strait theory, it does support the theory that, instead of going down the ice free corridor as previously hypothesized, people may have populated the Americas through a coastal route.[36] A group of 12 respected archaeologists revisited the site in 1997 and concluded that Monte Verde was an inhabited site and predated the Clovis culture. One of Dillehay's colleagues, Dr. Mario Pino, claimed a lower layer of the site is 33,200 years old, based on the discovery of burned wood several hundred feet to the south of Monte Verde. Radiocarbon dating established the wood as 33,000 years old.[37] Dillehay was cautious of this earlier date,[38] and as of 2007 it has not been verified or accepted by the scientific community.[39]

Comparison to other early Americas sites

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MV-I has been radiocarbon dated to 33,000 BP.[40][41] As with other sites that suggest extremely early dates, such as the Topper site in South Carolina and Pedra Furada in Brazil, this deeper layer remains controversial.

The only other archaeological site in Southern Chile comparable in age to Monte Verde is Pilauco Bajo, dated to 12,500–11,000 BP.[42] Researchers postulated that the two sites were complementary – Monte Verde would be a habitation site, and Pilauco Bajo would be a hunting and scavenging site.[43][44] Further south lies the Pali Aike Crater lava tube, dated to 14,000–10,000 BP.[45]

The Chinchorro culture, which was mostly a coastal culture of northern Chile and southern Peru, originated ca. 9,000 years BP, and was long lasting. Other sites on the coast, such as the Quebrada Jaguay, and Quebrada Tacahuay of Peru, seem to go back to ca. 13,000-12,000 BP.[46] Huaca Prieta in northern Peru was occupied as early as 15,000 BP.

See also

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Monte Verde

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Monte Verde is a prehistoric in south-central , situated along the margins of Chinchihuapi Creek in a peat bog environment within the temperate Valdivian rainforest, providing the earliest widely accepted evidence of human occupation in the at approximately 14,500 calibrated years (cal ). Discovered in 1976 by local workers and systematically excavated by archaeologist Tom Dillehay and his team from 1977 to 1987, with subsequent investigations continuing into the 2010s, the site challenges traditional models of Americas peopling by demonstrating pre-Clovis human presence south of the ice-free corridor. Its two primary components—Monte Verde II (MV-II), a semi-permanent settlement dated to around 14,500 cal , and Monte Verde I (MV-I), an earlier, transient layer potentially as old as 18,500 cal —reveal a sophisticated to the local by small groups of foragers. The exceptional organic preservation at Monte Verde, due to the waterlogged peat conditions, has yielded an unparalleled assemblage of artifacts and ecofacts that illuminate the daily lives of its inhabitants. Key finds from MV-II include the remains of a 20-meter-long, tent-like residential structure supported by wooden poles, communal hearths, and three human footprints preserved in clay, suggesting a population of 20 to 30 individuals living in a year-round camp. Artifacts encompass lithic tools such as pebble choppers, flakes, and bifaces for processing food and hides; wooden implements like mastodon-bone-tipped lances, digging sticks, and mortars; and diverse subsistence remains, including bones from hunted megafauna (e.g., gomphotheres and ground sloths) alongside gathered plants like seaweed, berries, and medicinal herbs from coastal and forest zones. Evidence of specialized activity areas, such as a possible ritual structure and food processing zones, points to organized social behaviors beyond simple nomadism. Monte Verde's significance lies in its role as a benchmark for early human dispersal, with radiocarbon and confirming human activity predating the (circa 13,000 cal BP) by at least 1,000 years and supporting theories of rapid migration along ice-free Pacific coastal routes during the . Designated a Chilean in 2008, the site continues to inform debates on pre-Clovis migrations, with ongoing research— including 2023 sediment core analyses—refining its chronological framework and emphasizing its status as a tentative World Heritage property for its testimony to ancient human resilience in southern .

Location and Environment

Geographical Setting

Monte Verde is situated in the of southern , within the , approximately 18 kilometers west of . The site occupies the banks of the Chinchihuapi Creek, a tributary of the Maullín River, in a lowland area that was historically associated with the margins of a former formed by postglacial sea-level changes and river dynamics. This positioning places Monte Verde in a transitional zone between the Andean foothills to the east and the coastal range to the west, facilitating its role in early human dispersal along southern Pacific coastal routes. The site's coordinates are approximately 41°30′S 73°12′W, with an elevation of around 10 to 20 meters above modern , characteristic of the surrounding sandur plains—flat, glaciofluvial deposits shaped by braided stream systems. Topographically, Monte Verde lies on a low terrace along the north bank of the Chinchihuapi Creek, overlooking adjacent bogs and shallow channels that form part of a broader complex. Today, the area is enveloped in a humid temperate Valdivian rainforest, dominated by softwood evergreen species such as and , with dense undergrowth and seasonal marshes contributing to the site's exceptional organic preservation conditions. Approximately 50 kilometers inland from the , the site's inland location underscores its accessibility via ancient coastal pathways, while the nearby Gulf of Reloncaví—about 20 kilometers to the south—provided additional marine resource proximity. As a designated protected archaeological zone, Monte Verde was inscribed on UNESCO's Tentative List of World Heritage Sites in 2004, recognizing its cultural significance and the need for ongoing conservation amid the region's dynamic fluvial and forested landscape.

Paleoenvironmental Context

The paleoenvironment of Monte Verde during its Late Pleistocene to early occupation reflected a transition from periglacial conditions to a warmer, wetter climate following the , characterized by around 14,100 calibrated years (cal ) and subsequent rising sea levels that reshaped coastal landscapes. This shift facilitated the expansion of forested ecosystems in south-central , with the site's location enabling access to diverse coastal resources amid these changes. Geological analyses confirm a periglacial setting at the time of occupation, with postglacial wetlands forming by 14,200–14,000 cal as ice retreated from the nearby Patagonian icefield. Vegetation in the region was dominated by (southern beech) and other evergreen species, indicative of cool temperate rainforests that supported a moist, forested landscape. Pollen cores from the site reveal a transition from patchy subantarctic parkland and tundra-like conditions around 20,000–17,600 cal BP to open North Patagonian forests by 17,600 cal BP, culminating in dense temperate rainforests by approximately 15,000 cal BP, with pollen comprising a significant portion of assemblages (e.g., up to high concentrations in samples dated 15,680–15,259 cal BP). These records, including dominant and associated wetland taxa like , underscore a wetter post-Last Glacial Maximum environment that promoted evergreen forest growth. Faunal resources available in the vicinity included such as gomphotheres, paleocamelids, extinct horses, mastodons, giant , and glyptodonts, alongside smaller mammals and deer, as evidenced by bone fragments in site sediments dating to 14,000–18,500 cal BP. Marine resources from the Pacific shoreline, including and sourced from estuarine environments, contributed to the ecological diversity, reflecting the site's proximity to both terrestrial and coastal habitats during this period.76:3<441::AID-AJPA1030760317>3.0.CO;2-8) The hydrological context featured an estuarine environment influenced by tidal actions from the Rio Maullín system, where the Chinchihuapi Creek—a braided drainage —provided freshwater and facilitated mixing with saltwater resources in nearby deltas and marshes. This creek, forming around 15,000 cal BP, bordered the site on sandy point bars and beaches, serving as a key water source and contributing to low-energy sediment deposition. The resulting waterlogged conditions in surrounding small bogs and floodplains enhanced site preservation by creating anaerobic environments that inhibited organic decay. accumulation post-occupation buried artifacts under turf layers, preserving wood, remains, and other organics due to constant saturation and oxygen deprivation.

Discovery and Excavation History

Initial Discovery

In 1976, local lumbermen in southern noticed large animal bones exposed along the eroding margins of Chinchihuapi Creek near , alerting the landowner who contacted Mario Pino, a at the Austral University of Chile. Pino visited the site and identified preserved wooden stakes and artifacts in the peat bog, recognizing their archaeological potential. He subsequently involved Tom D. Dillehay, an American archaeologist teaching at the university, who conducted initial test excavations in 1977 and confirmed the significance of the finds for early studies. These preliminary investigations uncovered evidence of tent-like structures supported by wooden poles and associated hearths, suggesting organized occupation and prompting Dillehay to organize a comprehensive excavation starting in 1979. The project's funding came from the , Dillehay's primary affiliation, in collaboration with Chilean institutions including the Austral University of Chile and the . Early stratigraphic profiles indicated layered deposits preserved by the bog's anaerobic conditions, setting the foundation for further analysis. Initial publications in the early 1980s, such as Dillehay's 1982 report on in the Journal of Field Archaeology and his 1984 overview in , emphasized the site's antiquity and its implications for pre-Clovis migrations into the Americas. However, the remote location approximately 500 miles south of Santiago and the site's waterlogged environment presented logistical challenges, including difficult access, material degradation risks, and the need for specialized preservation techniques during early fieldwork.

Key Excavation Phases

The primary excavations at Monte Verde were conducted under the direction of archaeologist Tom Dillehay from 1977 to 1987 across seven field seasons, focusing initially on systematic trenching to expose the main occupation layers. During the early campaigns, approximately 1977–1982, teams employed grid-based excavation blocks measuring 5 by 8 meters, uncovering over 1,000 square meters of the site's MV-II horizon through careful stratigraphic control and water-sieving techniques to recover fragile organic remains from the waterlogged peat context. These efforts involved an interdisciplinary team of Chilean and international specialists, including sedimentologists and geologists, to analyze site formation processes alongside artifact recovery. Subsequent fieldwork from 1982 to 1986 expanded deeper probing into underlying and adjacent areas, targeting MV-I and surrounding locales with larger excavation units up to 6 by 15 meters, while incorporating advanced conservation methods for waterlogged , such as freeze-drying and chemical stabilization. This phase deepened stratigraphic profiling and included radiocarbon sampling from organic materials like and to establish chronological frameworks, with geologists contributing to for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. The international grew to over 60 specialists, enhancing logistical coordination for handling the site's anaerobic preservation conditions. In the and , re-excavations verified earlier findings and expanded investigations, including a pivotal 1997 site visit by a consensus panel of 12 prominent archaeologists who examined artifacts and to affirm the site's integrity. Later efforts featured core sampling for , such as the 2013 campaign with 54 cores and 25 test pits across approximately 20,000 square meters, coring in 2012 yielding 43 radiocarbon dates from overlying sediments, with results published in 2023 to refine the chronological and sedimentological contexts. Overall, these phases resulted in about 2,000 square meters of direct excavation, with the site now stabilized under protective coverings to prevent erosion and maintain organic preservation.

Stratigraphy and Dating

Monte Verde I (MV-I)

Monte Verde I (MV-I) represents the basal cultural horizon at the Monte Verde site, situated within the underlying Salto Chico Formation beneath approximately 4-6 meters of overlying deposits that characterize the upper stratigraphic sequence. This layer consists primarily of scattered, discrete features including 12 small hearths—each 1.0–2.8 cm thick and measuring about 33x42 cm—containing and , alongside lithic and other sparse remains indicative of ephemeral human activity. The horizon is embedded in strata MV-7 (gray sand) and MV-8 (bluish gray sand), reflecting deposition in a dynamic, braided fluvial environment. However, the and cultural attribution of MV-I remain subjects of among archaeologists. Chronological evidence from radiocarbon and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating places MV-I between 18,500 and 14,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP), based on a 2015 re-analysis that integrated multiple lines of interdisciplinary data to refine the site's early occupation timeline. Earlier claims of dates extending to around 33,000 BP have been dismissed due to contamination from modern organics and stratigraphic inconsistencies, with no verifiable evidence supporting pre-18,500 cal BP human presence in this layer. Artifacts are limited, featuring 39 lithic pieces such as bipolar cores and percussion flakes made from local basalt and limestone, along with possible mastodon bones bearing ambiguous cutmarks that suggest minimal processing but remain debated for their anthropogenic origin. The sedimentary context of MV-I comprises alluvial sands and gravels deposited by seasonal flows on a sandur plain, which provided a , non-glacial setting that limited organic preservation compared to the waterlogged of overlying layers like MV-II. Excavation of this deeply buried layer (reaching 0.90–1.50 m within the formation) faced significant challenges, including poor survival of perishable materials and potential post-depositional disturbances that have fueled ongoing discussions about the in-situ integrity of features.

Monte Verde II (MV-II)

Monte Verde II (MV-II) constitutes the principal occupation layer at the site, characterized by an upper horizon containing a dense array of features such as 12 brush huts, hearths, and specialized activity areas. This single-component layer reflects a short-term settlement episode in an open-air setting, with structural remains including wooden frames for tent-like dwellings and associated pits for fires and processing. The sedimentary context of MV-II involves waterlogged deposits (unit MV-5) overlying a sandy terrace (MV-7) within the Monte Verde Formation, which formed around 15,000 cal in a narrow creek valley. These conditions facilitated exceptional preservation of organics, with horizontal patterning delineating residential zones near the huts and workshop areas for tool production and resource processing. The layer is sealed by subsequent development, distinguishing it from underlying sterile sediments and overlying Chinchihuapi deposits. Chronological placement relies on over 70 radiocarbon dates derived from wood, seeds, bones, and other organics, analyzed via for precision and consistency across samples. Initial estimates spanned 14,800–13,800 , but integration of 43 new AMS dates from overlying cores refined the occupation to a mean of 14,550 , confirming a brief, synchronous use of the site. The MV-II occupation includes a central camp with clustered features and peripheral zones interpreted as activity areas based on artifact dispersion, distributed along the banks of the Chinchihuapi Creek. This linear layout aligns with the creek's banks, integrating residential and functional spaces within the paleovalley, covering an excavated area of approximately 1,000 square meters. Preservation at MV-II stems from anaerobic conditions in the peat bog, which inhibited bacterial decay shortly after abandonment, allowing rare survival of perishable materials like wood and fibers—exceptional for sites in the .

Chinchihuapi I and II

The Chinchihuapi I and II localities are adjacent archaeological sites within the Monte Verde complex, situated approximately 500 meters upstream from Monte Verde II along the south bank of Chinchihuapi Creek in south-central Chile's Valdivian rainforest. These sites represent phases of human occupation potentially contemporaneous with or predating MV-II, with evidence of intermittent use extending into the . However, the dating and cultural attribution of Chinchihuapi remain subjects of among archaeologists. Chinchihuapi I features lithic scatters and burned areas interpreted as hearths, indicative of seasonal camps occupied around 14,500 and 14,175–14,025 . Excavations have uncovered pebble flakes, scorched animal bone fragments, and a fragmented Monte Verde II-style point made from exotic , suggesting continuity in biface technology from earlier occupations. A later horizon in this locality, dated to around 10,660–10,620 , includes Paijan-like projectile points and drill fragments, reflecting technological adaptations in a post-Pleistocene environment. Chinchihuapi II, located nearby on the south side of the creek, shows evidence of occupation from about 18,500 to 14,500 cal , including knapped lithics and faunal remains associated with burned features, pointing to repeated short-term settlements. Stratigraphically, these sites overlie the sediments of Monte Verde II within the Salto Chico Formation, with fewer preserved organics due to exposure and following creek incision around 15,000 cal ; this shift highlights increased reliance on durable stone tools amid changing depositional conditions. The overall record at Chinchihuapi I and II demonstrates site reuse potentially bridging and Early Holocene adaptations in southern .

Artifacts and Site Features

Architectural Remains

The architectural remains at Monte Verde II primarily consist of a large tent-like measuring approximately 20 meters in length, divided into individual living spaces by planks and poles. These spaces were framed with wooden stakes and logs from local species, covered with poles and animal hides for walls, and secured with cordage made from reeds, with internal evidence of hearths and designated sleeping areas on a dirt floor with hide fragments. Construction involved anchors for stability, while the site's layout suggests organized pathways and peripheral areas. A secondary wishbone-shaped , likely used for communal or non-residential purposes, featured wooden uprights embedded in a and gravel foundation hardened with . The site's reflects a central residential zone with the main dwellings connected by pathways, surrounded by peripheral refuse pits that contained tools and , indicating organized settlement layout. Associated tools, such as adzes, were likely employed in the of these features. Exceptional preservation of organic elements, including wooden stakes up to 3 meters long, stems from the site's rapid in an anaerobic , which inhibited decay through oxygen deprivation and constant moisture. This rare intact wood allows direct comparisons to ethnographic descriptions of semi-permanent camps among historic Patagonian indigenous groups, who used similar stake-framed, hide-covered, and thatched structures adapted to temperate forested environments. The overall scale of the remains supports a semi-permanent occupation by 20-30 individuals, evidencing a structured and enduring presence.

Tools and Material Culture

The lithic assemblage from Monte Verde II primarily consists of unifacial tools manufactured from local and exotic materials such as , , and . Key tool types include choppers, scrapers, and unifacial points, produced through percussion flaking and edge trimming, often utilizing bipolar reduction techniques on pebble cores. Concentrations of and shattered pieces indicate designated workshop areas within the for on-site tool production. No evidence of Clovis-style fluting has been found on tools from the site. Organic artifacts reveal advanced and fiber processing, including sharpened wooden digging sticks and points made from local species like Drimys winteri, bone awls fashioned from and remains, and braided cordage twisted from terrestrial plant s such as Gunnera chilensis. The site's exceptional preservation yielded a large number of specimens, encompassing these organics alongside lithics and ecofacts. Immunological confirmed mastodon blood residues on select tools. Marine imports underscore extensive resource procurement networks, featuring nine seaweed species—including ( pyrifera) and bull kelp ()—and conch shells (e.g., from Choromytilus chorus) sourced from Pacific coastal zones approximately 90 km distant during the . These materials, preserved in masticated cuds and bundled forms, were transported inland, with the seaweeds alone weighing about 125 g in dry residue. Herbal knowledge is evidenced by leaves (Peumus boldus) combined with 22 other plant species in a seaweed-wrapped bundle, likely for medicinal purposes based on ethnographic parallels. Some organic tools, such as wooden stakes, were used in nearby architectural contexts.

Interpretations of Occupation

Subsistence and Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Monte Verde exhibited an omnivorous subsistence strategy, with plant foods forming the bulk of their diet based on the identification of remains from 45 different , including wild potatoes (Solanum maglia), berries, seeds, and medicinal herbs from inland forests and wetlands. Analysis of botanical remains associated with hearths and residential features indicates heavy reliance on gathered resources, such as tubers and stalks, processed for consumption. Marine algae played a significant role, with nine recovered from site features, sourced from distant coastal environments more than 50 miles (80 km) away and used for both food and medicinal purposes. Animal protein supplemented the diet at approximately 20% based on faunal assemblages, primarily from small mammals, birds, , and obtained through coastal and inland pursuits, rather than dependence on large . Evidence from butchered bones and fishing implements points to opportunistic gathering along the and targeted collection in nearby wetlands and forests, reflecting a mobile yet localized resource exploitation pattern without dominance by . The site's layout, featuring 12 semi-subterranean wooden hut structures arranged in a wishbone-shaped residential camp covering several hundred square meters, suggests occupation by a multi-family group of 20–30 individuals organized cooperatively for resource procurement and shelter construction. Spatial distributions of tools, such as grinding stones near hearths and projectile points in peripheral areas, imply division of labor possibly aligned with roles, with processing activities concentrated in central living spaces. Diverse and stable resources from coastal, estuarine, and terrestrial zones supported potential year-round occupation, as indicated by the presence of non-seasonal alongside spring-to-fall seaweed collections. Hearth features throughout the site demonstrate routine use for cooking and animal foods, as well as providing warmth in the cool . skeletal remains are scarce, limiting direct health assessments, but inferred evidence from patterns and site activities points to a varied diet supporting physical resilience amid labor-intensive and processing tasks. Dental pathologies, potentially from fibers and tubers, suggest nutritional adequacy tempered by demanding manual work.

Cultural Implications

The discovery of marine resources such as at Monte Verde II supports the hypothesis of a coastal migration route for early human entry into the , where Pacific coastal environments provided reliable sources enabling rapid southward movement along the continent's western edge. The site's location on a of the Maullín River, approximately 60 kilometers inland from the at the time of occupation, indicates that migrants penetrated interior regions via fluvial pathways, facilitating access to diverse terrestrial and riparian ecosystems. Recent 2023 analyses of sediment cores have further confirmed the site's dating, reinforcing evidence for pre-Clovis coastal migration routes. This coastal strategy contrasts with the inland ice-free corridor between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets, which geological evidence shows did not become viable for human passage until around 13,000 calibrated years (cal ), well after Monte Verde's occupation dated to approximately 14,500 cal . Archaeological assemblages at Monte Verde reveal technological adaptations characterized by a flexible, opportunistic toolkit suited to heterogeneous environments, including unifacial tools, percussion-flaked implements, and unmodified manuports derived from local and exotic raw materials. This diverse array, lacking the specialized bifacial projectile points typical of later Clovis technologies, underscores an adaptive versatility that allowed small groups to exploit varied resources without reliance on a narrow corridor's more uniform habitats. Evidence of cultural complexity at the site includes human footprints preserved in clay near hearths and structural features, interpreted as potential indicators of or social behaviors among occupants around 14,500 cal BP, reflecting cognitive capacities akin to those of modern humans. These traces suggest intentional arrangements or ritualistic activities within domestic spaces, highlighting early expressions of group identity and environmental engagement. Demographic patterns inferred from the site point to small, mobile bands engaging in seasonal occupations, with the presence of exotic lithics comprising up to 34% of the assemblage implying long-distance procurement or exchange networks that connected coastal and inland populations by at least 14,500 cal . Such connectivity supports models of gradual population expansion across prior to 14,000 cal , driven by resource-rich migration corridors. However, gaps persist in genetic evidence, with no ancient DNA recovered from Monte Verde to date, though archaeological continuities suggest potential ancestral ties to modern indigenous groups in the of .

Academic History and Controversies

Early Academic Reception

The initial scholarly reports on Monte Verde emerged in the 1980s through publications by Tom D. Dillehay, who directed the excavations starting in 1977. In a 1984 article in Scientific American, Dillehay described the site's evidence for a late Ice Age settlement, including preserved wooden structures and tools, which challenged the dominant Clovis-first model of American colonization that posited human arrival no earlier than around 13,000 years ago. Further, a 1988 paper in Nature co-authored with Michael B. Collins presented early cultural artifacts, such as mastodon bones and plant remains, dated to approximately 13,000 radiocarbon years before present (yr BP) via radiocarbon analysis, prompting reevaluation of migration timelines. These works highlighted the site's stratigraphic integrity but encountered initial skepticism from the academic community, primarily due to its unusual organic preservation in peat bogs, which raised questions about possible post-depositional contamination or non-cultural origins of the materials. International awareness grew with the publication of Dillehay's 1989 , Monte Verde: A Late Pleistocene Settlement in Chile, Volume 1: Palaeoenvironment and Site Context, issued by the Press. This comprehensive volume integrated paleoenvironmental data, radiocarbon dates, and interdisciplinary analyses from nearly 80 specialists, establishing Monte Verde as a key benchmark for pre-Clovis research and gradually gaining traction despite the paradigm shift it implied. The book's detailed documentation of the site's context, including and faunal records supporting human activity, helped disseminate findings to a broader scholarly audience. A pivotal moment in early reception occurred in , when a delegation of 12 prominent North American archaeologists, including several former skeptics, visited the site and examined its collections. Their consensus affirmed the authenticity of the MV-II layer as a occupation dating to about 12,500 years ago, as reported in David J. Meltzer's accompanying in Science. This validation, building on Dillehay's ongoing work including the publication that year of Monte Verde: A Settlement in , Volume 2: The Archaeological Context, marked a turning point in acceptance. The spread of Monte Verde's implications faced hurdles, including restricted access to remote South American field sites for international researchers and language barriers in regional publications, which slowed integration into global discourse. Early advocates, such as David Meltzer, bolstered credibility by endorsing the site's pre-Clovis potential in his analysis, where he concluded after examination that the evidence supported genuine Pleistocene antiquity for MV-II.

Pre-Clovis Debate and Resolution

The discovery of Monte Verde in the 1970s and its initial publication in the 1980s challenged the prevailing Clovis-first paradigm, which posited that the Clovis culture, dated to around 13,000 years before present (BP), represented the earliest human occupation of the Americas. However, in the 1990s, prominent Clovis advocates, including David J. Meltzer, raised significant concerns about the site's dating and stratigraphy, arguing that periglacial conditions and post-depositional processes could have caused vertical displacement of artifacts, potentially mixing older sediments with later human materials. These critiques focused particularly on Monte Verde I (MV-I), the older component dated to approximately 18,500 calibrated years before present (cal BP), which was contested as lacking clear stratigraphic integrity and unambiguous human modification of artifacts. To address these challenges, an independent panel of 12 archaeologists, including skeptics like Meltzer, visited the site in and conducted a thorough review, ultimately concluding in a landmark publication that Monte Verde II (MV-II) represented a secure archaeological occupation predating Clovis by at least 1,000 years. Further independent verifications followed, including re-dating efforts in the early that confirmed the site's antiquity through additional radiocarbon assays on organic remains. Subsequent studies in provided new geoarchaeological evidence from exploratory excavations, solidifying the ~18,500–14,500 cal occupation of MV-I with in situ hearths and artifacts in undisturbed peat layers, countering earlier stratigraphic doubts. By the , the pre-Clovis status of Monte Verde gained widespread acceptance among archaeologists, marking a away from the Clovis-first model and paving the way for recognition of other early sites, such as the White Sands footprints in dated to 21,000–23,000 . A 2023 study analyzed 43 new radiocarbon dates from sediment cores adjacent to the site, confirming the integrity of the depositional context and further dispelling concerns about post-occupational disturbances. Despite this consensus, ongoing issues persist, including calls for to link Monte Verde's inhabitants to broader population histories, as current evidence relies primarily on and dating. The resolution of the Monte Verde debate has profoundly influenced models of to the , supporting theories of multiple waves of entry via coastal routes along the Pacific kelp highway rather than a single interior ice-free corridor, with evidence of maritime adaptations enabling rapid southward dispersal by at least 14,500 .

Comparisons to Other Sites

Pre-Clovis Parallels

The in , , dated to approximately 16,000 years (), shares key pre-Clovis characteristics with Monte Verde, including its status as a rock shelter containing hearths and lithic artifacts such as prismatic blades and unifaced tools. These features indicate early human occupation in a sheltered environment with evidence of fire use and basic production, paralleling the sparse artifact assemblages from Monte Verde's earliest layers. In , the site complex claims dates extending to around 20,000 BP or earlier, featuring quartzite tools, , and potential hearths that echo the limited organic and lithic evidence from Monte Verde I. However, these claims remain highly controversial, with recent studies (as of 2023) suggesting that similar quartzite lithics in the region were produced by capuchin monkeys and date to the rather than the Pleistocene, questioning their attribution to early humans. Excavations have uncovered pebble tools and painted rock surfaces, suggesting a cultural emphasis on simple stone working and symbolic expression in a semi-arid setting, much like the rudimentary technologies and environmental adaptations at Monte Verde. The in , , with occupations dated to about 16,500 BP, provides evidence of coastal migration routes similar to those inferred for Monte Verde, through artifacts like stemmed projectile points and microblades associated with maritime influences. This site's location along ancient riverine corridors hints at water-based travel and resource exploitation, aligning with broader patterns of early dispersal along the Americas' western edges. The site in , , preserves human footprints dated to 21,000–23,000 calibrated years (cal BP), as confirmed by multiple studies including quartz optically stimulated luminescence and of seeds and pollen up to 2025. These footprints, found in relict lakebed sediments, depict adults, children, and possible animal tracks, indicating small family groups navigating a wetland environment during the . This provides the earliest direct evidence of human presence in , supporting pre-Clovis migration models via Pacific coastal or interior routes and reinforcing Monte Verde's role in demonstrating early human adaptability south of the ice sheets. Across these pre-Clovis sites, common traits include non-fluted stone points, indicating diverse lithic traditions without the diagnostic fluting seen in later cultures, alongside subsistence strategies focused on a broad spectrum of resources rather than specialization. Organic materials, such as wood and artifacts, are often preserved in wet or anaerobic contexts, preserving perishable evidence of early technologies and daily life. In , regional patterns emphasize coastal adaptations, with sites like Monte Verde serving as a benchmark for dated occupations around 14,500 BP that highlight reliance on marine and riparian resources for rapid southward expansion. These adaptations reflect a pattern of exploiting highways and sheltered bays, facilitating human movement along ice-free Pacific routes during the .

Contrasts with Clovis Sites

Monte Verde, particularly its MV-II occupation layer, dates to approximately 14,500 calibrated years (cal ), predating Clovis sites by about 1,000 years, as Clovis occupations span 13,050–12,750 cal across . This temporal difference challenges the notion of Clovis as the earliest widespread culture, positioning Monte Verde as evidence of earlier human dispersal into . Geographically, Monte Verde's location in southern Chile's coastal region contrasts sharply with Clovis sites, which are concentrated in North America's and Southwest, often near water sources for hunting. This southern placement implies rapid migration routes along Pacific coastlines, bypassing the ice-free corridor favored in Clovis-first models. Material culture at Monte Verde features diverse, non-fluted stone tools such as edge-trimmed flakes, bifacial points, cores, grinding stones, and abundant organic artifacts including wooden digging sticks, bone tools, and cordage—none of which resemble the standardized, fluted lanceolate points central to Clovis assemblages. Clovis toolkits emphasize high-quality chert or flint for fluting and pressure flaking, optimized for spear points used in , with limited organic preservation due to dry, open-air contexts. Subsistence evidence from Monte Verde reveals a broad-spectrum adapted to a , incorporating marine resources like and , terrestrial such as bulbs and leaves, small game, and occasional like mastodons, as indicated by faunal remains and coprolites. In comparison, Clovis sites show a narrower focus on large Pleistocene mammals—mammoths, mastodons, and —with kill sites yielding concentrations of bones and points, and minimal botanical or marine evidence reflecting a mobile, specialized pattern. Settlement patterns further diverge: Monte Verde includes at least 12 semi-subterranean huts with wooden frames, stakes, and hide coverings, arranged in a linear fashion along a creek, suggesting semi-sedentary occupation and in a resource-rich environment. Clovis manifestations, conversely, consist of transient camps, caches, and kill sites without structural remains, aligning with high residential mobility and logistical across vast territories. These differences underscore Monte Verde's unique adaptation to coastal South American ecotones, distinct from Clovis's continental hunting adaptations.

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