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Rasbora
Silver rasbora (Rasbora argyrotaenia)
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Cypriniformes
Family: Danionidae
Subfamily: Rasborinae
Genus: Rasbora
Bleeker, 1859
Type species
Rasbora cephalotaenia
Bleeker, 1852
Species

over 80, see text

Synonyms[1]

Rasbora is a genus of fish in the family Danionidae.[1] They are native to freshwater habitats in South and Southeast Asia, as well as southeast China.[2] A single species, Rasbora gerlachi, is only known from an old specimen that reputedly originated from Africa (Cameroon), but this locality is considered doubtful.[3] They are small, up to 17 cm (6.7 in) long, although most species do not surpass 10 cm (4 in) and many have a dark horizontal stripe.[2]

Several species are regularly kept in aquariums. As a common English name, "rasbora" is used for many species in the genus Rasbora, as well as several species in genera Brevibora, Boraras, Megarasbora, Metzia, Microdevario, Microrasbora, Rasboroides, Rasbosoma, Sawbwa, Trigonopoma and Trigonostigma.[4] Some of these related genera were included in the genus Rasbora in the past. In a 2007 analysis, Rasbora was found to not be a monophyletic assemblage. However Boraras and Trigonostigma were determined to be monophyletic.[5]

Species

[edit]
Rasbora borapetensis
Rasbora einthovenii
Rasbora kalochroma
Rasbora trilineata
Rasbora vulcanus

Rasbora has the following valid species classified within it:[6]

References

[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Rasbora

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Rasbora is a genus of small to medium-sized freshwater fish in the subfamily Rasborinae of the family Danionidae, within the order Cypriniformes. It encompasses 89 recognized species, typically featuring slender bodies with lengths ranging from 2.5 to 20 cm, though most do not exceed 15 cm. These schooling fish are renowned for their varied patterns, including stripes and spots, and many species are staples in the ornamental aquarium trade owing to their peaceful temperament and vibrant hues. The derives its name from an Indian term for a type of , also adopted in the , reflecting its cultural significance in Asian regions. Taxonomically, Rasbora has undergone revisions, with the family previously classified under but now placed in Danionidae based on molecular and morphological evidence. is highest in , where the genus represents one of the most speciose groups in the family, with ongoing discoveries highlighting cryptic and regional . Rasbora species inhabit a variety of freshwater environments, including gently flowing streams, rivers, ponds, swamps, and marshy areas, often in vegetated, lowland habitats with soft substrates. Their distribution spans South and Southeast Asia—from and through , , and the to southeastern . Ecologically, they form shoals for protection and foraging, feeding primarily on , , and plant matter, and play roles in local food webs as prey for larger predators.

Taxonomy

Etymology and history

The genus name Rasbora originates from local names for small cyprinid fishes, derived from the Bengali term used by Francis Hamilton in his 1822 description of rasbora, and later adopted for similar in the and Indonesian regions. Dutch ichthyologist Pierre Bleeker formally established the in 1859, initially including four small-sized cyprinid based on specimens collected from freshwater habitats in , such as R. cephalotaenia (designated as the type species). In the early , the genus saw significant expansions through the work of Indian ichthyologists Sunder Lal Hora and K. C. , who described numerous new species from the and revised existing classifications to incorporate regional diversity in South Asian freshwater systems. Hora's contributions, spanning the 1920s to 1940s, included detailed studies of Rasbora morphology and distribution in areas like and the , while Jayaram's later syntheses in the mid- integrated these findings into broader cyprinid taxonomies. Key taxonomic milestones occurred in the mid-20th century when Maurice Robert Brittan conducted comprehensive revisions, proposing three —Rasbora, Rasboroides, and Megarasbora—and further dividing the nominotypical subgenus into eight species groups based on morphological traits like structure and scale patterns. This framework, outlined in Brittan's 1954 monograph, facilitated better organization of the growing number of described . However, a 2010 molecular phylogenetic analysis by Liao, Kullander & demonstrated that Rasbora as then defined was non-monophyletic, with several nesting outside the core alongside genera like Boraras and Trigonostigma, prompting subsequent reevaluations within the Rasborinae .

Current classification

The genus Rasbora Bleeker, 1859, is classified in the kingdom Animalia, phylum Chordata, class Actinopterygii, order Cypriniformes, family Danionidae, and subfamily Rasborinae. The type species is Rasbora cephalotaenia (Bleeker, 1852), originally described as Leuciscus cephalotaenia. Phylogenetic analyses have shown that Rasbora is polyphyletic, prompting significant taxonomic revisions within Rasborinae. A 2020 study using of subunit I (COI) genes analyzed 1,391 specimens from , revealing 166 operational taxonomic units compared to 61 morphologically recognized , and providing no support for the monophyly of traditional Rasbora groups. This revision disentangled the subfamily's genera, reducing Rasbora from over 100 nominal globally to approximately 89 valid , with many reassigned based on molecular and morphological . For instance, formerly in Rasbora have been transferred to genera such as Kottelatia (e.g., K. brittani, previously Rasbora brittani) and Brevibora. Monophyletic genera closely related to Rasbora within Rasborinae, such as Boraras and Trigonostigma, are frequently misidentified or labeled as "rasboras" in aquaria and popular literature due to superficial similarities, though they form distinct clades in phylogenetic reconstructions.

Description

Physical characteristics

Species of the genus Rasbora possess an elongated, cylindrical , characterized by a or normal profile that facilitates agile swimming in freshwater environments. They feature a single positioned midway along the body and a forked caudal for propulsion. The body is covered in scales, which are smooth and rounded, contributing to streamlined hydrodynamics; a is present, often nearly complete or extending to the anal fin origin, aiding in sensory detection. Fin ray counts are relatively consistent, with the typically bearing 7-9 soft rays and the anal fin 7-10 soft rays, though slight variations occur across . The head is relatively small, with a terminal or subterminal mouth suited for surface or mid-water feeding, and barbels are absent or rudimentary in most . Eyes are positioned laterally, providing wide-angle vision typical of schooling cyprinids. A common pigmentation pattern includes a prominent dark horizontal stripe running from the operculum to the caudal peduncle, which may broaden or narrow depending on the and serves as or schooling signal; additional markings, such as subdorsal or basicaudal blotches, vary but are often subdued.

Size and coloration

Species in the genus Rasbora exhibit a wide range of body sizes, with most reaching 5–10 cm in standard length (SL) as adults. Representative examples include R. sumatrana, which attains a maximum of approximately 11 cm SL, and smaller species like R. borapetensis, which typically grow to under 6 cm SL. Micro-endemic forms, such as certain populations in isolated habitats, may remain below 3 cm SL throughout their lives. Growth is rapid during the first year, often achieving 70–80% of maximum size within this period, influenced by environmental factors like and availability. Coloration in Rasbora is typically silvery or translucent on the body, providing in their stream habitats, with species-specific patterns enhancing or mate attraction. Common variations include longitudinal orange-red stripes in species like R. einthovenii, a prominent black wedge-shaped marking on the caudal peduncle in R. heteromorpha, and iridescent spots or reticulations across the flanks in others. These patterns can intensify during breeding or stress, reflecting underlying guanine-based pigmentation common to cyprinids. Sexual dimorphism is evident in body shape and coloration intensity. Females generally develop a larger, rounder , particularly when gravid, and may exceed males in overall size by 10–20%. Males often display brighter hues—such as enhanced reds or —and elongated rays during the reproductive season to attract mates. In the wild, Rasbora lifespan averages 3–5 years, limited by predation and instability, while captive individuals can reach 6–8 years with optimal conditions.

Distribution and habitat

Geographic range

The genus Rasbora is native to freshwater habitats across South and Southeast Asia, with its primary range extending from eastward to the in . Species occur in diverse regions including , , , , (encompassing islands such as , , , and ), the , and southeast , often associated with river basins like the , Chao Phraya, and Salween. The genus exhibits particularly high diversity in , a biogeographic region covering the and much of , where over 65 species have been documented, representing a significant portion of the 89 valid Rasbora species worldwide. Isolated populations are noted in peripheral areas, such as , where five species contribute to notable compared to the , and , primarily along the system. These distributions reflect historical connectivity via ancient river systems during Pleistocene low sea levels, though many species show restricted ranges due to geographic barriers. An anomalous record exists for Rasbora gerlachi, reported from in based on an aquarium specimen, but this locality is considered erroneous, with the species likely originating from (Malaya or ) given the genus's strict Asian affinity. Introduced populations of Rasbora remain rare and typically unestablished in outside their native range, though some, such as R. trilineata, have been disseminated globally via the aquarium trade and limited efforts. For instance, R. daniconius is cultured in facilities beyond its native South Asian distribution for ornamental and fisheries purposes.

Environmental preferences

Rasbora species inhabit freshwater environments characterized by soft to , with levels typically ranging from 6.0 to 7.0 and temperatures between 22°C and 28°C, reflecting their tropical origins in . These conditions support low to moderate water flow, often in systems with dissolved humic acids that contribute to slightly acidic profiles. The favors diverse microhabitats including slow-moving rivers, streams, floodplains, swamps, and paddies, where they occupy vegetated shallows or areas rich in leaf litter and submerged plants. These settings provide cover and foraging opportunities, with many species occurring in shallow waters stained by from decaying vegetation, known as blackwater systems, though some thrive in clearer streams. Rasbora exhibit adaptations to seasonal environmental changes, particularly tolerance to flooding, allowing them to migrate into inundated floodplains during wet periods and retreat to main river channels in drier seasons. This flexibility enables persistence in dynamic tropical ecosystems. The occupies lowlands to mid-elevations, generally up to 1,000 meters, encompassing a range of hydraulic conditions from stagnant pools to gently flowing brooks.

Biology

Diet and feeding

Species of the genus Rasbora are omnivorous, with diets comprising small invertebrates such as , , and worms, alongside , , and plant matter. For instance, in Rasbora argyrotaenia, the primary food source is , particularly diatoms (Diatomae) with an index of relative importance (IRI) ranging from 454% to 3197%, complemented by like Entomostraca and rotifers. Similarly, Rasbora lateristriata derives 68% of its diet from and 30% from during spawning migrations. Juveniles across species preferentially consume microcrustaceans and smaller planktonic organisms to support rapid growth. Rasboras employ schooling foraging strategies as mid-water feeders, often targeting suspended and while occasionally skimming the surface or benthic in species like Rasbora daniconius. Their small mouths and elongated intestines facilitate efficient filtration of particulate matter, enabling planktivory in lotic and lentic habitats. This behavior is enhanced by group coordination, where schooling reduces individual risk during opportunistic feeding bouts. Feeding activity in Rasbora is predominantly diurnal, with peaks during daylight hours when aids in locating prey, though some like R. lateristriata exhibit continuous plankton consumption day and night. They adapt opportunistically to seasonal prey availability, shifting emphasis between animal and vegetal components as environmental conditions change. As low-trophic-level consumers (typically 2.8–3.3), Rasbora species play a key role in aquatic food webs by on primary producers and microconsumers, thereby facilitating nutrient cycling in streams and . In R. daniconius, zoobenthos constitutes 29–77% of the diet in populations, underscoring their contribution to benthic-pelagic linkages.

Reproduction

Rasbora species exhibit , typical of the Danionidae, where females release eggs into the water and males simultaneously release to fertilize them externally. This process occurs without physical contact beyond displays, often in groups where schooling behavior aids mate location. Spawning habits vary by species and habitat but generally involve scatter-spawning over fine substrates such as plants, , or litter, with no provided post-fertilization. Clutch sizes range from 50 to 500 eggs per female per spawning event, depending on body size and environmental conditions; for example, Rasbora tawarensis produces 2,354–6,277 eggs per spawning event (batch), with fractional spawning occurring 2–11 days apart during reproductive peaks. In monsoon-influenced regions, spawning is seasonal and triggered by rainfall cues, as seen in R. tawarensis, which spawns three times annually with a peak in coinciding with heavy rains. Conversely, in stable tropical habitats, species like Rasbora argyrotaenia spawn year-round without clear seasonal patterns, reflecting adaptations to consistent environmental conditions. Egg development is rapid, with hatching typically occurring in 24–48 hours at temperatures of 25–28°C; for instance, yellow rasbora (Rasbora lateristriata) embryos hatch after 24 hours post-fertilization. Upon hatching, larvae are initially pelagic or adhesive, feeding on sacs before becoming free-swimming within 3–5 days and undergoing into juveniles over 1–2 weeks. Sexual maturity is reached at 6–12 months, varying by species size; smaller species like (Trigonostigma heteromorpha) mature in 6–9 months, while larger ones may take up to a year. Fecundity increases with female body size across the , allowing larger to produce more eggs per season; R. borapetensis, a smaller representative, demonstrates potential for repeated spawning in favorable conditions, contributing to higher overall reproductive output in stable environments.

Conservation

Threats

Rasbora face significant threats from habitat loss, primarily driven by , agricultural expansion, and in their native Southeast Asian ranges, particularly in and . Conversion of peat swamp forests and forested streams to oil palm plantations and other agricultural uses has fragmented and degraded essential and riverine habitats, leading to local population declines and increased risks for stenotopic dependent on these environments. Pollution from agricultural runoff and mining activities introduces and toxins into waterways, adversely affecting Rasbora health and reproduction. For instance, silver rasbora (Rasbora tornieri) populations near sites in exhibit chromosomal aberrations due to contamination by , , , and lead in water and sediments. Overfishing, often using destructive methods like or for use as bait and food, further exacerbates pressures on small-bodied species such as the yellow rasbora (Rasbora lateristriata). Invasive species pose competitive and predatory risks in altered ecosystems, where introduced fishes disrupt native Rasbora communities by competing for resources or preying on juveniles. In Lake Laut Tawar, , the endemic Rasbora tawarensis faces additional threats from alien species introductions alongside habitat degradation and harvesting. Climate change compounds these issues by altering rainfall patterns and water temperatures, which disrupt seasonal breeding cycles and suitability for Rasbora . These shifts can desynchronize reproduction with food availability, reducing recruitment success in floodplain-dependent populations.

Species status

The genus Rasbora comprises over 70 species, of which 71 have been assessed by the IUCN Red List as of 2025, with the majority classified as Least Concern (38 species) or Data Deficient (15 species) due to insufficient data on population trends and distributions. Approximately 8% (6 species) are Vulnerable, often owing to habitat fragmentation and degradation in Southeast Asian freshwater systems, while 5 are Near Threatened, 4 Endangered, and 2 Critically Endangered; one species is considered Extinct. For instance, Rasbora sumatrana is listed as Data Deficient, highlighting uncertainties in its status despite reports of declining populations from overexploitation and habitat loss. No species have been newly uplisted to higher threat categories in recent assessments, but ongoing evaluations emphasize the need for updated surveys to refine these classifications. High characterizes Rasbora in hotspots, where many are restricted to specific swamp forests, lakes, and river basins in and , rendering them susceptible to localized extinctions. Conservation efforts include protected areas such as Indonesia's Leuser Ecosystem and Malaysia's Kinabalu , which encompass habitats for several endemics and have helped stabilize populations of like Rasbora everetti through regulated access and habitat restoration. These designations under national and international frameworks, including agreements, provide legal safeguards against and pollution, though enforcement varies across regions. Research gaps persist, with incomplete ichthyological surveys leading to potential underestimation of threat levels and ; molecular studies have revealed cryptic species within the genus, such as undescribed lineages in the Rasbora lateristriata complex, necessitating and phylogenetic analyses for accurate and conservation prioritization. Overcollection for the international aquarium trade impacts even common like Rasbora heteromorpha (now Trigonostigma heteromorpha), which is globally Least Concern but experiences local population declines in source countries due to unregulated harvesting, prompting calls for sustainable programs.

Aquarium use

Among the most popular Rasbora species in the aquarium trade are the harlequin rasbora (Trigonostigma heteromorpha, formerly Rasbora heteromorpha), known for its reddish-copper body accented by a distinctive black triangular wedge-shaped marking on the rear half that extends toward the tail, typically reaching 4-5 cm in length. The lambchop rasbora (Trigonostigma espei, formerly Rasbora espei), features a bright orange body with a prominent black horizontal stripe resembling a lambchop, and grows to about 5 cm. The scissortail rasbora (Rasbora trilineata) stands out with its deeply forked tail fin marked by black bars, evoking scissors, and attains a size of up to 6 cm in aquariums. These species have been staples in the international aquarium trade since the , when Southeast Asian exporters began supplying European and American markets with live ornamental fish from regions like and . Traditionally, many specimens were wild-caught, including the borapetensis rasbora (Rasbora borapetensis) sourced from Thailand's swamp habitats, which can stress populations in sensitive ecosystems. However, captive-bred lines are increasingly available for species like the and scissortail rasboras, produced in facilities in and to meet demand without depleting wild stocks. Their appeal lies in their peaceful, shoaling nature, where groups of six or more exhibit that highlights vibrant colors and reduces stress, making them ideal for community tanks. To promote ethical sourcing, aquarists are encouraged to select captive-bred individuals, as this alleviates pressure on wild habitats and supports sustainable trade amid growing concerns over overcollection.

Care requirements

Rasboras are schooling that require a minimum size of 10 gallons or larger, depending on the , to accommodate groups of six or more individuals, allowing ample space for while providing a sense of security. Ideal setups include densely planted aquariums with dim lighting to replicate their natural shaded habitats, a fine sand or smooth gravel substrate to prevent injury to their delicate barbels, and abundant hiding spots such as , rocks, or broad-leaved like Amazon sword or fern. A gentle system, such as a sponge filter, is recommended to maintain water flow without creating strong currents that could stress these peaceful . Water parameters should mimic the soft, slightly acidic to neutral conditions preferred by most , with a pH range of , temperature of , and general of 4–12 °dH. Soft is essential, and weekly partial changes of 25% are crucial to simulate natural stream flow, remove , and keep and at 0 mg/L while nitrates remain below 20 mg/L. Regular testing with reliable kits ensures stability, as fluctuations can lead to stress or disease in these sensitive cyprinids. Feeding should consist of a varied omnivorous diet including high-quality flakes or micro-pellets as staples, supplemented with live or frozen foods like (artemia) or to promote health and coloration. Offer small amounts two times daily that the fish can consume within two to three minutes to avoid overfeeding and water quality issues, with slower-sinking or mid-water foods preferred to match their feeding behavior. Breeding Rasboras in captivity is challenging but feasible for many species, requiring conditioning adults with live foods like artemia or bloodworms to stimulate spawning. These fish are egg-scatterers, so provide spawning mops made of fine or Java moss in a separate with slightly softer, acidic water (pH 6.0–6.5) at 26–28°C to encourage egg deposition. Eggs hatch within 24–48 hours, and fry must be separated immediately to prevent by adults, feeding them or micro-worms until they can accept larger foods. Popular such as the (Trigonostigma heteromorpha) follow similar protocols but may yield larger clutches in optimized setups.

Species

Diversity

The genus Rasbora encompasses approximately 90 valid species as of 2025, though this number continues to grow due to ongoing discoveries and taxonomic refinements. In the biodiverse region, which spans parts of , , and , at least 65 species are recorded, underscoring the area's significance as a hotspot for rasborine diversification. Evolutionary dynamics within Rasbora are characterized by high rates, primarily resulting from geographic isolation in fragmented river basins across , which promotes allopatric divergence and localized adaptations. DNA-based analyses have uncovered cryptic species complexes, such as in where identified Rasbora adisi as a distinct lineage previously lumped with morphologically similar congeners. The genus exhibits pronounced distributional patterns, with major diversity centers in (hosting over 50 , many endemic to islands like and ), , and . Morphologically, form informal groups based on body patterning, including laterally striped forms (e.g., the R. lateristriata complex) and dorsally spotted variants (e.g., R. maculata group), reflecting adaptive radiations in varied aquatic habitats. Taxonomic reveals extensive synonymy from early over-lumping of superficially similar taxa, but recent integrative revisions using and have driven splits, thereby elevating the documented diversity.

Selected species

Rasbora borapetensis Rasbora borapetensis, a dwarf within the genus, inhabits peat swamp forests and associated slow-flowing waters in , particularly in areas like the Sirindhorn Peat Swamp Forest, as well as broader and Chao Phraya basins. It exhibits vibrant red fins, especially on the caudal and dorsal regions, set against a slender, silvery body marked by a prominent black . Reaching only about 2 cm in standard length, this thrives in vegetated, turbid environments like flooded fields and brooks, where it feeds on and small . Although globally assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, R. borapetensis faces vulnerability in due to ongoing habitat loss from and agricultural expansion in peat swamp ecosystems. Rasbora daniconius Rasbora daniconius, known as the slender rasbora, is widespread across and , extending from the Indus basin to the , inhabiting diverse freshwater systems including rivers, streams, ponds, and inundated fields. Characterized by its elongated, slender body that lacks prominent markings but features a subtle yellowish tint, this adaptable species can grow to 10 cm in total length, with a preference for sandy-bottomed streams and lowland wetlands. It is commonly encountered in the aquarium trade due to its peaceful nature and hardiness, though wild populations vary regionally. The IUCN classifies R. daniconius as Least Concern overall, but notes data deficiencies in population trends and specific threats like and in parts of its range. Rasbora vulcanus Rasbora vulcanus, endemic to the volcanic regions of , , particularly the foothills of Mount Talang, occupies clear, flowing streams in forested uplands influenced by volcanic activity. This species displays golden hues across its body, with iridescent scales and subtle red tinges on the fins, giving it a fiery appearance that inspired its name. Described in 1999, it represents a relatively recent addition to the documented Rasbora diversity, highlighting ongoing discoveries in Southeast Asian cyprinids. Growing to around 5 cm, R. vulcanus is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, though its restricted range in volcanic lake-adjacent habitats may pose risks from geological and human-induced changes.

References

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  68. https://aquariumbreeder.com/chili-rasboras-detailed-guide-care-diet-and-breeding-2/
  69. https://www.steenfottaquatics.com/blogs/news/chili-rasboras-a-comprehensive-guide
  70. https://fishbase.se/identification/SpeciesList.php?genus=Rasbora
  71. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jzs.12395
  72. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Rasbora-lateristriata_fig1_356419109
  73. https://ph02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/stej/article/view/246083/168827
  74. https://www.fishbase.se/summary/Rasbora-vulcanus.html
  75. https://www.seriouslyfish.com/species/rasbora-vulcanus/
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