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Late Triassic
Late Triassic
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Late/Upper Triassic
~237 – 201.4 ± 0.2 Ma
A map of Earth as it appeared 220 million years ago during the Late Triassic Epoch, Norian Age
Chronology
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Pz
Mesozoic
P
Triassic
J
Lopingian
ET
Middle
Late
Early J
Induan
Olenekian
Anisian
Ladinian
Carnian
Norian
Rhaetian
 
 
 
←
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Scleractinian
corals & calcified sponges[1]
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Coals return[2]
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Full recovery of woody trees[3]
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Subdivision of the Triassic according to the ICS, as of 2024.[5]
Vertical axis scale: Millions of years ago
Etymology
Chronostratigraphic nameUpper Triassic
Geochronological nameLate Triassic
Name formalityFormal
Usage information
Celestial bodyEarth
Regional usageGlobal (ICS)
Time scale(s) usedICS Time Scale
Definition
Chronological unitEpoch
Stratigraphic unitSeries
Time span formalityFormal
Lower boundary definitionFAD of the Ammonite Daxatina canadensis
Lower boundary GSSPPrati di Stuores, Dolomites, Italy
46°31′37″N 11°55′49″E / 46.5269°N 11.9303°E / 46.5269; 11.9303
Lower GSSP ratified2008[6]
Upper boundary definitionFAD of the Ammonite Psiloceras spelae tirolicum
Upper boundary GSSPKuhjoch section, Karwendel mountains, Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria
47°29′02″N 11°31′50″E / 47.4839°N 11.5306°E / 47.4839; 11.5306
Upper GSSP ratified2010[7]

The Late Triassic is the third and final epoch of the Triassic Period in the geologic time scale, spanning the time between 237 Ma and 201.4 Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Middle Triassic Epoch and followed by the Early Jurassic Epoch. The corresponding series of rock beds is known as the Upper Triassic. The Late Triassic is divided into the Carnian, Norian and Rhaetian ages.

Many of the first dinosaurs evolved during the Late Triassic, including Plateosaurus, Coelophysis, Herrerasaurus, and Eoraptor. The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event began during this epoch and is one of the five major mass extinction events of the Earth.[8]

Etymology

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The Triassic was named in 1834 by Friedrich August von Namoh, after a succession of three distinct rock layers (Greek triás meaning 'triad') that are widespread in southern Germany: the lower Buntsandstein (colourful sandstone), the middle Muschelkalk (shell-bearing limestone) and the upper Keuper (coloured clay).[9] The Late Triassic Series corresponds approximately to the middle and upper Keuper.[10]

Dating and subdivisions

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On the geologic time scale, the Late Triassic is usually divided into the Carnian, Norian, and Rhaetian ages, and the corresponding rocks are referred to as the Carnian, Norian, and Rhaetian stages.[11]

Triassic chronostratigraphy was originally based on ammonite fossils, beginning with the work of Edmund von Mojsisovics in the 1860s. The base of the Late Triassic (which is also the base of the Carnian) is set at the first appearance of an ammonite, Daxatina canadensis. In the 1990s, conodonts became increasingly important in the Triassic timescale, and the base of the Rhaetian is now set at the first appearance of a conodont, Misikella posthernsteini. As of 2010, the base of the Norian has not yet been established, but will likely be based on conodonts.[12]

The late Triassic is also divided into land-vertebrate faunachrons. These are, from oldest to youngest, the Berdyankian, Otischalkian, Adamanian, Revueltian and Apachean.[13]

Late Triassic life

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Main page: Category:Late Triassic life

Following the Permian–Triassic extinction event, surviving organisms diversified. On land, archosauriforms, most notably the dinosaurs became an important faunal component in the Late Triassic. Likewise, bony fishes diversified in aquatic environments, most notably the Neopterygii, to which nearly all extant species of fish belong. Among the neopterygians, stem-group teleosts and the now extinct Pycnodontiformes became more abundant in the Late Triassic.[14]

Carnian Age

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Main article: Carnian

The Carnian is the first age of the Late Triassic, covering the time interval from 237 to 227 million years ago.[11] The earliest true dinosaurs likely appeared during the Carnian and rapidly diversified.[15][16] They emerged in a world dominated by crurotarsan archosaurs (ancestors of crocodiles), predatory phytosaurs, herbivorous armored aetosaurs, and giant carnivorous rauisuchians, which the dinosaurs gradually began to displace.[17]

The emergence of the first dinosaurs came at about the same time as the Carnian pluvial episode, at 234 to 232 Ma. This was a humid interval in the generally arid Triassic. It was marked by high extinction rates in marine organisms, but may have opened niches for the radiation of the dinosaurs.[18][19]

Norian Age

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Main article: Norian

The Norian is the second age of the Late Triassic, covering the time interval from about 227 to 208.5 million years ago.[11] During this age, herbivorous sauropodomorphs diversified and began to displace the large herbivorous therapsids, perhaps because they were better able to adapt to the increasingly arid climate.[20] However crurotarsans continued to occupy more ecological niches than dinosaurs.[17] In the oceans, neopterygian fish proliferated at the expense of ceratitid ammonites.[21]

The Manicouagan impact event occurred 214 million years ago. However, no extinction event is associated with this impact.[22][23]

Rhaetian Age

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Main article: Rhaetian

The Rhaetian Age was the final age of the Late Triassic, following the Norian Age,[11] and it included the last major disruption of life until the end-Cretaceous mass extinction. This age of the Triassic is known for its extinction of marine reptiles, such as nothosaurs and shastasaurs with the ichthyosaurs, similar to today's dolphin. This age was concluded with the disappearance of many species that removed types of plankton from the ocean, as well as some organisms known for reef-building, and the pelagic conodonts. In addition to these species that became extinct, the straight-shelled nautiloids, placodonts, bivalves, and many types of reptile did not survive through this age.

Climate and environment during the Triassic Period

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During the beginning of the Triassic Period, the Earth consisted of a giant landmass known as Pangea, which covered about a quarter of Earth's surface. Towards the end of the period, continental drift occurred which separated Pangea. At this time, polar ice was not present because of the large differences between the equator and the poles.[citation needed] A single, large landmass similar to Pangea would be expected to have extreme seasons; however, evidence offers contradictions. Evidence suggests that there is arid climate as well as proof of strong precipitation. The planet's atmosphere and temperature components were mainly warm and dry, with other seasonal changes in certain ranges.[citation needed]

The Middle Triassic was known to have consistent intervals of high levels of humidity. The circulation and movement of these humidity patterns, geographically, are not known however. The major Carnian Pluvial Event stands as one focus point of many studies. Different hypotheses of the events occurrence include eruptions, monsoonal effects, and changes caused by plate tectonics. Continental deposits also support certain ideas relative to the Triassic Period. Sediments that include red beds, which are sandstones and shales of color, may suggest seasonal precipitation. Rocks also included dinosaur tracks, mudcracks, and fossils of crustaceans and fish, which provide climate evidence, since animals and plants can only live during periods of which they can survive through.

Evidence of environmental disruption and climate change[citation needed]

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The Late Triassic is described as semiarid. Semiarid is characterized by light rainfall, having up to 10–20 inches of precipitation a year. The epoch had a fluctuating, warm climate in which it was occasionally marked by instances of powerful heat. Different basins in certain areas of Europe provided evidence of the emergence of the "Middle Carnian Pluvial Event." For example, the Western Tethys and German Basin was defined by the theory of a middle Carnian wet climate phase. This event stands as the most distinctive climate change within the Triassic Period. Propositions for its cause include:

  • Different behaviors of atmospheric or oceanic circulation forced by plate tectonics that may have participated in modifying the carbon cycle and other scientific factors.
  • heavy rains due to shifting of the earth
  • sparked by eruptions, typically originating from an accumulation of igneous rocks, which could have included liquid rock or volcanic rock formations

Theories and concepts are supported universally, due to extensive areal proof of Carnian siliciclastic sediments. The physical positions as well as comparisons of that location to surrounding sediments and layers stood as basis for recording data. Multiple resourced and recurring patterns in results of evaluations allowed for the satisfactory clarification of facts and common conceptions on the Late Triassic. Conclusions summarized that the correlation of these sediments led to the modified version of the new map of Central Eastern Pangea, as well as that the sediment's relation to the "Carnian Pluvial Event" is greater than expected.

  • High interest concerning the Triassic Period has fueled the need to uncover more information about the period's climate. The Late Triassic Epoch is classified as a phase entirely flooded with phases of monsoonal events. A monsoon affects large regions and brings heavy rains along with powerful winds. Field studies confirm the impact and occurrence of strong monsoonal circulation during this time frame. However, hesitations concerning climatic variability remains. Upgrading knowledge on the climate of a period is a difficult task to assess. Understanding of and assumptions of temporal and spatial patterns of the Triassic Period's climate variability still need revision. Diverse proxies hindered the flow of palaeontological evidence. Studies in certain zones are missing and could be benefited by collaborating the already existing but uncompared records of Triassic palaeoclimate.
  • A specific physical piece of evidence was found. A fire scar on the trunk of a tree, found in southeast Utah, dates back to the Late Triassic. The feature was evaluated and paved the path to the conclusion of one fire's history. It was categorized through comparison of other modern tree scars. The scar stood as evidence of Late Triassic wildfire, an old climatic event.

Triassic–Jurassic extinction event[citation needed]

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Main article: Triassic–Jurassic extinction event

The extinction event that began during the Late Triassic resulted in the disappearance of about 76% of all terrestrial and marine life species, as well as almost 20% of taxonomic families. Although the Late Triassic Epoch did not prove to be as destructive as the preceding Permian Period, which took place approximately 50 million years earlier and destroyed about 70% of land species, 57% of insect families as well as 95% of marine life, it resulted in great decreases in population sizes of many living organism populations.

The environment of the Late Triassic had negative effects on the conodonts and ammonoid groups. These groups once served as vital index fossils, which made it possible to identify feasible life span to multiple strata of the Triassic strata. These groups were severely affected during the epoch, and conodonts became extinct soon after (in the earliest Jurassic). Despite the large populations that withered away with the coming of the Late Triassic, many families, such as the pterosaurs, crocodiles, mammals and fish were very minimally affected. However, such families as the bivalves, gastropods, marine reptiles and brachiopods were greatly affected and many species became extinct during this time.

Causes of the extinction

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Most of the evidence suggests the increase of volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction. As a result of the rifting of the super continent Pangea, there was an increase in widespread volcanic activity which released large amounts of carbon dioxide. At the end of the Triassic Period, massive eruptions occurred along the rift zone, known as the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, for about 500,000 years. These intense eruptions were classified as flood basalt eruptions, which are a type of large scale volcanic activity that releases a huge volume of lava in addition to sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide. The sudden increase in carbon dioxide levels is believed to have enhanced the greenhouse effect, which acidified the oceans and raised average air temperature. As a result of the change in biological conditions in the oceans, 22% of marine families became extinct. In addition, 53% of marine genera and about 76–86% of all species became extinct, which vacated ecological niches; thus, enabling dinosaurs to become the dominant presence in the Jurassic Period. While the majority of the scientists agree that volcanic activity was the main cause of the extinction, other theories suggest the extinction was triggered by the impact of an asteroid, climate change, or rising sea levels.

Biological impact

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The impacts that the Late Triassic had on surrounding environments and organisms were wildfire destruction of habitats and prevention of photosynthesis. Climatic cooling also occurred due to the soot in the atmosphere. Studies also show that 103 families of marine invertebrates became extinct at the end of the Triassic, but another 175 families lived on into the Jurassic. Marine and extant species were hit fairly hard by extinctions during this epoch. Almost 20% of 300 extant families became extinct; bivalves, cephalopods, and brachiopods suffered greatly. 92% of bivalves were wiped out episodically throughout the Triassic.

The end of the Triassic also brought about the decline of corals and reef builders during what is called a "reef gap". The changes in sea levels brought this decline upon corals, particularly the calcisponges and scleractinian corals. However, some corals would make a resurgence during the Jurassic Period. 17 brachiopod species were also wiped out by the end of the Triassic. Furthermore, conulariids became extinct.

References

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Sources

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Further reading

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Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Late Triassic

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The Late Triassic , the final subdivision of the Period in the Era, extended from approximately 237 to 201 million years ago and encompassed the , , and stages. This interval marked a pivotal transition in Earth's history, characterized by intensifying tectonic rifting of the , which initiated the separation of and along what would become the Atlantic Ocean , accompanied by widespread and mountain-building along continental margins. Climatically, the epoch featured a hot, arid global environment with vast deserts dominating the interiors of high-elevation continents, seasonal monsoons along coastal regions, low sea levels, and the absence of polar ice caps, though episodic pluvial events like the around 234–232 Ma introduced transient humid conditions that influenced ecological shifts. Biologically, the Late Triassic witnessed the recovery and diversification of life following the Permian-Triassic extinction, with terrestrial ecosystems dominated by flora including , ginkgos, cycads, and bennettitaleans, alongside ferns in wetter habitats, while Gondwanan regions featured distinctive seed ferns like Dicroidium. Fauna saw the rise of archosauromorph reptiles, including early crocodylomorphs, rauisuchians, aetosaurs, and phytosaurs, but the most notable development was the origin and initial radiation of dinosaurs around 231 Ma in the late , alongside the first pterosaurs and marine reptiles such as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs. Mammal-like reptiles (synapsids) and large amphibians persisted but began declining, setting the stage for dominance. The epoch concluded with the end-Triassic at approximately 201 Ma, one of Earth's five major mass extinctions, which eliminated about 23–34% of marine genera and up to 76% of species overall, including most large non-dinosaurian archosaurs like phytosaurs and aetosaurs, as well as significant such as , ammonoids, and reef-building organisms. This crisis was primarily driven by massive volcanic eruptions from the , which released enormous volumes of and other gases, inducing rapid global warming, , anoxia, and disrupted carbon cycles over several thousand years. The extinction profoundly reshaped ecosystems, eliminating competitors and allowing surviving lineages to diversify explosively into the , while also marking the onset of modern-style biogeographic patterns tied to .

Definition and Etymology

Definition

The Late Triassic, also known as the Upper Triassic, represents the final epoch of the Triassic Period within the Mesozoic Era. It spans approximately from 237 Ma to 201.4 ± 0.2 Ma. The base of the Late Triassic is defined by the lower boundary of the Stage, established at the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) in the Stuores Wiesen section near Stuore Siel (, ), dated to 237.77 ± 0.07 Ma based on U-Pb . The top boundary corresponds to the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, defined at the GSSP for the base of the Stage (Lowermost ) in the Kuhjoch section ( Mountains, ), with a radiometric age of approximately 201.3 Ma. This upper limit is marked by the end-Triassic extinction event, a major mass extinction that eliminated about 76-80% of terrestrial and marine . The broader Triassic Period extends from 251.902 ± 0.024 Ma to 201.4 ± 0.2 Ma and is subdivided into three epochs: (Induan and stages), (Anisian and stages), and Late Triassic (Carnian, , and stages). These divisions reflect global stratigraphic correlations and are formalized in the International Chronostratigraphic Chart maintained by the .

Etymology

The term "Triassic" was coined by German geologist Friedrich August von Alberti in 1834 to describe a unified stratigraphic sequence in central Europe, previously known as separate units by local miners. This nomenclature drew from the three prominent rock layers: the Bunter (or Bunten Sandstein), a lower sandstone formation; the Muschelkalk, a middle limestone unit rich in marine fossils; and the Keuper, an upper sequence of marls, clays, and evaporites. Alberti's publication, Beitrag zu einer Monographie des Bunten Sandsteins, Muschelkalks und Keupers, und die Verbindung dieser Gebilde zu einer Formation, integrated these into the "Trias" to highlight their continuity between the underlying Permian Zechstein and the overlying Jurassic, marking a key advance in recognizing Mesozoic stratigraphy during the early 19th century. The prefix "Late" in "Late Triassic" follows established geological nomenclature for subdividing periods into early, middle, and late portions, a convention formalized in the 19th century to denote temporal progression within systems like the and . This usage, analogous to "Late " or "Late ," specifies the final chronostratigraphic division of the , encompassing its uppermost stages and reflecting the era's evolving understanding of as developed by stratigraphers such as and . By the mid-1800s, such prefixes became standard in international geological surveys to facilitate correlation across continents amid rapid advances in mapping.

Stratigraphy and Geochronology

Dating Methods

, particularly uranium-lead (U-Pb) on crystals from beds (tuffs), has provided the most precise absolute ages for Late Triassic strata. This method involves analyzing the decay of isotopes to lead within resistant minerals, which are commonly preserved in ash layers interbedded with sedimentary rocks. For instance, U-Pb dating of zircons from ash beds in the has constrained the base of the stage, the onset of the Late Triassic, to approximately 237 Ma. Similarly, high-precision chemical abrasion-thermal ionization (CA-TIMS) U-Pb analyses of tuffs in the of the yield ages ranging from 232 to 215 Ma, enabling calibration of depositional timelines. Biostratigraphy relies on the vertical distribution of index fossils to establish relative ages and correlations across Late Triassic sections worldwide. Ammonoids, with their rapid evolutionary turnover and well-defined zonations such as the Trachyceras and Sirenites zones in the , serve as primary markers for marine successions. , microscopic phosphatic tooth-like elements from extinct marine vertebrates, provide finer resolution; zones defined by species like Metapolygnathus in the allow precise correlation between shallow-marine and pelagic environments. Palynomorphs, including spores and from terrestrial plants, facilitate correlations in continental deposits; assemblages dominated by Lunatisporites and Krakowia characterize the Late to in non-marine basins. These biotic markers are integrated to create a global biostratigraphic framework, though regional requires calibration with radiometric dates. Magnetostratigraphy uses patterns of Earth's magnetic polarity reversals recorded in sedimentary and volcanic rocks to correlate sections and refine . In Late Triassic sequences, hematite-bearing and volcanic flows preserve stable remanent magnetization, revealing chrons of normal and reversed polarity. For example, studies of the Chinle Group in identify a sequence of 12 magnetozones that align with the Newark Basin's astrochronostratigraphy, aiding boundary definitions like the Carnian-Norian transition. In the Germanic Basin, composite magnetostratigraphic records from boreholes span the full Carnian, showing reversals that correlate with volcanic sequences in the Wrangellia . This approach is particularly valuable for continental successions lacking datable volcanics, as polarity patterns provide a global template when anchored to U-Pb ages. Cyclostratigraphy examines rhythmic sedimentary cycles driven by Milankovitch orbital forcings—variations in Earth's eccentricity, obliquity, and —to achieve high-resolution age models. In Late Triassic records, such as lacustrine deposits in the Newark Basin, power spectral analysis of gamma-ray logs and reveals cycles with periods of ~100 kyr (short eccentricity) and ~2.4 Myr (long eccentricity), modulated by chaotic planetary dynamics. These cycles in the and European Alpine sections allow estimation of sedimentation rates and precise placement of stage boundaries, with floating timescales tuned to radiometric anchors. Orbital tuning has refined the Late Triassic duration, highlighting climate-driven facies changes without direct reliance on fossils. Despite these advances, dating Late Triassic rocks faces challenges from sedimentary reworking and diagenetic alterations. Reworking, where older fossils or zircons are redeposited into younger strata, can lead to mixed-age signals; for example, at the Triassic-Jurassic boundary, redeposited beds complicate palynomorph interpretations. Diagenetic processes, such as recrystallization and fluid-mediated alteration in sandstones of the Buntsandstein and Keuper formations, may reset isotopic systems in minerals or obscure primary magnetic signatures, reducing accuracy in U-Pb and paleomagnetic data. Integrated multi-proxy approaches mitigate these issues by cross-validating methods, ensuring robust geochronological frameworks.

Subdivisions and Stage Boundaries

The Late Triassic is subdivided into three stages: the Carnian at the base (approximately 237–227 Ma), followed by the Norian (227–206 Ma), and the Rhaetian (206–201 Ma). These durations are derived from integrated radioisotopic dating (U-Pb zircon), astrochronology, and biostratigraphic correlations, providing a framework for global chronostratigraphy. The base of the Late Triassic coincides with the base of the stage, formally defined by the Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) at the Prati di Stuores/Stuores Wiesen section in the of northeastern . This boundary, placed at the base of bed SW4 in the San Cassiano Formation (45 m above its base), is marked by the first occurrence of the ammonoid Daxatina canadensis, with supporting evidence from (Metapolygnathus polygnathiformis) and ; it corresponds to approximately 237 Ma. The -Norian boundary, at roughly 227 Ma, lacks a ratified GSSP but is delineated biostratigraphically by a pronounced turnover in marine faunas, including the extinction of late ammonoid genera (e.g., Tropites and Paratropites) and the influx of early taxa such as Staurites and Norites, within the transition from the Tuvalian substage to the Lacian substage. This event is correlated globally using biozonation, notably the last occurrence of Metapolygnathus species and the first appearance of Nadinopsis gulloi, as documented in candidate GSSP sections like Pizzo Mondello in , , where continuous pelagic carbonates facilitate precise integration with carbon isotope and radiolarian assemblages. The Norian-Rhaetian boundary, near 206 Ma, also awaits formal GSSP ratification and is provisionally defined by the first evolutionary appearance of the Misikella posthernsteini (s.s.), signifying a key faunal shift at the close of the Sevatian substage, accompanied by turnover in bivalves and radiolarians. Candidate sections include the Steinbergkogel site in the Northern Calcareous Alps of , emphasizing and ammonoid , and the Pignola-Abriola section in , where the boundary aligns with a negative carbon excursion and enhanced rates in hemipelagic limestones. These stage boundaries enable global correlations through a of biostratigraphic markers—primarily ammonoids and for Tethyan sections, supplemented by radiolarians and palynomorphs in epicontinental settings—anchored where possible by GSSPs and cross-validated with and cyclostratigraphy to resolve discrepancies across paleogeographic provinces.

Paleogeography and Tectonics

Continental Configurations

During the Late Triassic epoch (approximately 237 to 201 million years ago), the Pangea reached its maximum extent and configuration, forming a single landmass that encompassed nearly all of Earth's . This assembly positioned Pangea primarily along the , where its latitudinal alignment contributed to tensional stresses due to the planet's , setting the stage for early extensional features that preceded later fragmentation. Paleomagnetic reconstructions indicate that Pangea had migrated northward to a stable equatorial position by around 250 million years ago, with minimal relative motion among its blocks during the Late Triassic, supporting a unified model. Pangea consisted of two primary northern and southern components: in the north and in the south. Laurasia included the joined landmasses of and , along with Siberia and parts of , forming a contiguous block that extended from tropical to mid-northern latitudes. Gondwana, conversely, fused , , , , and into a southern superterrane, connected along their present-day margins such as the South Atlantic and coasts. This configuration allowed for widespread terrestrial connectivity across Pangea, facilitating biotic exchanges without major oceanic barriers. Paleolatitude estimates derived from paleomagnetic data place the majority of Pangea's landmasses within tropical to subtropical zones, between approximately 45°S and 45°N. For instance, central was situated near 9°N, while occupied 36–37°N, and parts of reached about 45°S; higher latitudes, such as at 43°N, marked the northern extent, but true polar regions (>60° ) were largely absent or ice-free. These positions reflect a compressed latitudinal range for , with limited high-latitude exposures compared to modern distributions. Evidence for this continental arrangement comes primarily from paleomagnetic studies of Late Triassic sedimentary and volcanic rocks, which yield consistent apparent paths across Pangea's blocks, reconciling data from and without requiring non-dipole field assumptions. Fossil distributions further corroborate the configuration, as shared terrestrial taxa—such as dinosaurs (e.g., early theropods and sauropodomorphs)—appear in Late Triassic strata across joined landmasses, from South American sites like to northern ones like , indicating unobstructed dispersal pathways.

Major Tectonic Events

The Late Triassic marked the incipient rifting of the Pangea, with initiating the separation of its components and forming precursor basins to the Central Atlantic. This process began in the stage, driven by mantle upwelling and along the Tethys , leading to the divergence of from and eastern from . A prominent example is the in eastern , comprising syn-rift sedimentary sequences up to several kilometers thick, deposited in fault-controlled basins that record the early tectonic extension between and . These rift basins, spanning the Late Triassic to , exhibit geometries and were filled with , evaporites, and lacustrine deposits indicative of arid, subsiding environments. Subduction zones were active along the margins of the Ocean, particularly the eastern (western ) and intra-oceanic segments, where oceanic was consumed beneath continental and arc terranes. Along the western margin of , from to , of plates generated volcanic arcs and accretionary wedges, contributing to the Sonoma orogeny in the Norian-Rhaetian. Intra- , evidenced by fossilized island arcs such as those in the Telkhinia region, formed ophiolitic complexes and chains that later accreted to continental margins, with activity peaking in the Late Triassic around 220-200 Ma. These processes built elongate magmatic arcs and facilitated the lateral translation of terranes toward Pangea's western edge. In , remnants of the Late Paleozoic persisted as elevated highlands and reactivated fault zones, influencing sediment dispersal and basin inversion during the Late Triassic. Concurrently, the Cimmerian orogeny commenced with the northward drift and collision of Cimmerian continental fragments—detached from northern —against the southern Eurasian margin, leading to the closure of the . This event, prominent in the Norian-Rhaetian, involved oblique convergence and suturing of blocks like Central and Qiangtang to , producing fold-thrust belts and granitic intrusions dated to circa 230-200 Ma. The Indosinian phase of this orogeny further consolidated Southeast Asian terranes with , marking a transition from to . Seismicity and faulting in Late Triassic rift basins were characterized by extensional and transtensional regimes, with normal faults bounding half-grabens and strike-slip systems accommodating oblique ing. In the basins, seismic activity is inferred from soft-sediment deformation structures and fault scarps within lacustrine shales, reflecting episodic basin subsidence. European rift systems, such as the and Central European Permian-Triassic rifts, displayed block rotations and dextral strike-slip faulting linked to Pangea's disassembly, with fault patterns indicating a propagating from Tethys toward the Atlantic. These faulting patterns facilitated rapid sediment accumulation and influenced local stress fields across the supercontinent.

Climate and Paleoenvironment

Climatic Patterns

The Late Triassic climate was characterized by predominantly hot and arid conditions across much of the supercontinent , driven by its vast continental extent and latitudinal positioning, which promoted intense solar heating and limited oceanic moderation. This configuration fostered a megamonsoonal circulation pattern, with strong seasonal winds drawing moisture from the Tethys and oceans into the continental interior during summer, while winter conditions remained dry and cool. Geologic evidence, including widespread eolian dune fields and paleowind indicators, supports this monsoonal regime reaching its peak intensity during the . Temperature proxies indicate elevated atmospheric CO₂ levels, ranging from approximately 2000 to 4500 ppm throughout the Late Triassic, as reconstructed from stable carbon isotopes in paleosols of the Newark rift basin. These high concentrations, corroborated by stomatal indices from leaves, contributed to a global greenhouse climate with mean annual temperatures likely exceeding 20–25°C in low to mid-latitudes. Such conditions amplified in equatorial regions, where rates outpaced outside of seasons. Precipitation exhibited marked seasonality, with intense monsoonal rains penetrating the continental interior—evidenced by fluvial and lacustrine deposits in basins like the —while coastal margins remained drier due to orographic barriers and . Abundant evaporites, such as and in the Germanic Basin and western , alongside red beds indicative of periodic wetting and drying, underscore these patterns of episodic aridity and buildup. Regional variations were notable, with higher latitudes experiencing greater , as suggested by measures and lush floras in Gondwanan and northern Pangaean sites, contrasting the subtropical deserts.

Environmental Disruptions

The Late Triassic was marked by significant environmental disruptions, most notably the (CPE), a transient climatic perturbation occurring approximately 234–232 million years ago during the early part of the period. This event involved a sudden shift toward increased and rainfall, interrupting the prevailing arid conditions and leading to enhanced global hydrological cycling. The CPE is widely attributed to massive volcanic activity from the Wrangellia (LIP) in western , which released vast quantities of CO₂ and other volatiles, driving global warming of 4–8°C and amplifying precipitation patterns, particularly in equatorial and higher-latitude regions. Although recent analyses indicate spatial heterogeneity in rainfall responses—with some continental interiors experiencing —the overall effect was a dramatic expansion of lacustrine and fluvial systems, of water bodies, and widespread sedimentological changes such as formation in previously dry basins. Associated with the CPE and other volcanic influences, episodes of oceanic anoxia disrupted marine environments across the and . During the late Julian substage of the , suboxic to anoxic conditions prevailed in deep-sea settings, as evidenced by elevated enrichment factors of (V_EF) and (U_EF) in pelagic cherts from the . In the Tethys realm, particularly in marginal basins like those in and the Northern Calcareous Alps, widespread deposition of black shales and organic-rich marls indicates intensified organic carbon burial under low-oxygen conditions. These sediments reflect localized euxinic (sulfidic) waters, where sulfide production in anoxic bottom waters led to the preservation of and trace metal anomalies, such as molybdenum (Mo) enrichments signaling restricted circulation and buildup. Such anoxic events, though not globally synchronous, contributed to ecological stress in shallow-shelf and epicontinental seas, exacerbating the climatic instability of the CPE. Sea-level fluctuations further compounded these disruptions through repeated transgressive-regressive (T-R) cycles, driven by a combination of eustatic variations, tectonic , and climatic forcing. In Tethyan and Boreal basins, multiple T-R sequences are documented, with transgressions facilitating marine inundations and regressions exposing vast continental shelves, altering distributions and deposition. For instance, early regressions are linked to tectonic uplift along Pangean margins, while transgressions correlate with thermal expansion from LIP-induced warming. These cycles, often on scales of 10^5 to 10^6 years, resulted from interplay between global eustasy—possibly influenced by storage and ice-free thermal effects—and regional , leading to pulsed expansions and contractions of epicontinental seas that stressed coastal ecosystems. Carbon isotopic excursions provide geochemical signatures of these perturbations, particularly during the CPE, where multiple negative shifts in δ¹³C (up to -4‰ in ) reflect injections of isotopically light carbon from volcanic and release, disrupting the global . These excursions, including a pre-onset shift of ~1.2‰ and a main event of 3–4‰, are recorded in both marine carbonates and terrestrial organics across Tethys and , indicating rapid atmospheric CO₂ rise and . Similar, though less pronounced, δ¹³C perturbations occurred later in the and , linked to ongoing and anoxic episodes, underscoring recurrent instabilities in the carbon reservoir throughout the Late Triassic.

Biodiversity and Biota

Flora

The Late Triassic flora was dominated by gymnosperms, which formed the backbone of terrestrial vegetation across Pangea, with , cycads, ginkgophytes, and seed ferns comprising the majority of preserved assemblages. , such as the voltzialean genus Voltzia, were particularly widespread in arid to semi-arid environments, often accounting for up to 80-90% of foliage in European floras like those from Seefeld in . Cycads and bennettitaleans contributed diverse fronds in more humid settings, while ginkgophytes like Ginkgoites and seed ferns such as Lepidopteris added to the structural complexity of forests and open woodlands. The Bennettitales underwent significant radiation during the Late Triassic, diversifying into a prominent component of vegetation, with foliage taxa like Pterophyllum and Otozamites reaching abundances of 35-50% in some Norian-Rhaetian assemblages from regions like the Donbass. Within this order, the family Williamsoniaceae exemplified this expansion, featuring shrubby growth habits with divaricate branching that suited low-growing forms in open or habitats. These , often around two meters tall with slender, profusely branched stems bearing pinnate leaves, likely occupied roles in nutrient-poor soils, contributing to layered in deltaic and coastal ecosystems. Pteridosperms, including peltaspermalean seed ferns, experienced a marked decline through the Late Triassic, diminishing from dominance in earlier assemblages to rarity or absence in Norian-Rhaetian floras of eastern subprovinces, possibly due to competitive exclusion by advancing and bennettitaleans. In response, ferns—such as marattiaceans (Danaeopsis) and mesophytic groups like Matoniaceae and —proliferated as opportunistic colonizers in disturbed areas, including fire-prone or erosion-affected landscapes, where they formed thickets in pioneer communities. Late Triassic floras exhibited distinct provincialism, with the Euramerican province encompassing northern and western Pangea (Laurussia), characterized by peltasperm-dominated assemblages in the Middle Asian subprovince and conifer-fern mixtures elsewhere, the Cathaysian province in eastern featuring dipteridacean ferns and cycadocarpidiacean conifers without peltasperms, and the Gondwanan province in southern Pangea dominated by seed ferns of the Dicroidium flora. These patterns, inferred from both macrofossil and palynological , reflect latitudinal and climatic gradients influencing plant distributions.

Fauna

The Late Triassic witnessed a marked increase in terrestrial vertebrate diversity, with archosauriforms emerging as the dominant group following environmental perturbations like the (CPE), which facilitated their radiation and the decline of earlier synapsid and non-archosaurian competitors. By this , reflecting a shift toward archosaur-dominated ecosystems that set the stage for terrestrial faunas. This diversification included the rise of key lineages, such as early dinosaurs, crocodylomorphs, and pterosaurs, which occupied diverse ecological niches from small forms to apex predators. Among archosauriforms, early dinosaurs appeared in the early Late Triassic, with fossils like those of from the preceding hinting at their evolutionary roots, while undisputed forms such as herrerasaurs and early sauropodomorphs proliferated by the mid-to-late stages, adapting to varied herbivorous and carnivorous roles. Crocodylomorphs underwent a significant radiation during the Late Triassic, evolving slender, agile terrestrial forms like Terrestrisuchus that contrasted with the bulkier rauisuchians they eventually supplanted, marking the onset of their success. Pterosaurs, the first powered flyers among vertebrates, originated around 220 million years ago in humid Late Triassic environments, with basal taxa like exhibiting elongated finger bones supporting wing membranes and adaptations for aerial predation or scavenging. Marine reptile faunas reached a diversity peak in the Late Triassic, with ichthyosaurs achieving global distribution and morphological variety as streamlined open-ocean predators, exemplified by genera like that grew to over 20 meters in length. Thalattosaurs, long-snouted coastal swimmers, and nothosaurs, versatile piscivores with flexible necks, also peaked in abundance and endemicity, particularly in Tethyan seas, before declining toward the epoch's end. These groups contributed to a rich trophic structure in shallow marine settings, preying on abundant and ammonoids. Invertebrate communities showed pronounced diversification, particularly among mollusks, with ammonoids exhibiting a burst in morphological innovation and genus richness during the Late Triassic, recovering from earlier bottlenecks to include coiled forms like the trachyceratids that served as key index fossils. Freshwater bivalves of the order Unionida, such as the genus Silesunio from the Carnian rift lake deposits at Krasiejów, Poland, emerged as significant components of continental ecosystems, with thick-shelled, infaunal species adapting to riverine and lacustrine habitats amid increasing humidity. This invertebrate radiation paralleled terrestrial trends, supporting food webs that interacted with the rising biota.

Stage-Specific Developments

Carnian Stage

The Carnian Stage spans approximately 237 to 227.3 million years ago, marking the earliest division of the Late Triassic Epoch. Key terrestrial fossil sites include the in , , which preserves a diverse assemblage of early archosaurs, therapsids, and the oldest known dinosaurs in a fluvial-lacustrine environment. This formation, dated through U-Pb , exemplifies the continental depositional settings that captured the initial diversification of vertebrate faunas during this interval. A pivotal event within the Carnian was the (CPE), a brief interval of increased global humidity and temperature around 234–232 Ma, linked to massive volcanism from the Wrangellia . This climatic perturbation drove significant floral turnover on land, shifting from drought-tolerant gymnosperms toward hygrophytic communities dominated by lycophytes and horsetails in wetland environments, as evidenced by palynological and macrofloral records from European and North American sections. Faunally, the CPE triggered extinctions among incumbent herbivores such as non-archosaurian archosauromorphs and therapsids, creating ecological opportunities that favored the radiation of archosaurs, including pseudosuchians and early dinosaurs. This macroevolutionary shift is documented in assemblages worldwide, where archosaurian lineages increased in abundance and disparity post-CPE. Early dinosaur records from the include primitive saurischians resembling lunensis in the of northwestern , dated to around 231 Ma via ash bed radiometry. These basal forms, characterized by small size and carnivorous habits, represent the initial phase of dinosaurian evolution amid the broader archosaurian rise. Recent 2025 discoveries include an equatorial dinosaur-bearing assemblage from the mid-late Popo Agie Formation in , , representing the oldest known in the , and Huayracursor jaguensis, an early sauropodomorph from ~230 Ma in , highlighting rapid diversification. In marine realms, the Hallstatt facies of the western hosted deep-water pelagic environments with exceptionally high , particularly among ammonoids, as seen in fossil-rich limestones from Austrian and Italian localities. These successions, including red nodular wackestones, preserve diverse assemblages that reflect a peak in pelagic productivity before the CPE-induced disruptions to carbonate platforms.

Norian Stage

The Norian Stage, spanning approximately 227.3 to 205.7 million years ago, constitutes the middle subdivision of the Late Triassic and is marked by significant continental deposition across Pangea. This interval, lasting about 21.6 million years, preserves key stratigraphic records in non-marine settings, with the in the serving as a primary site for understanding Norian paleoenvironments and biota. Exposed in areas like in , the Chinle Formation yields abundant fossils and detrital zircons that constrain its age to predominantly Norian, reflecting fluvial and lacustrine systems in a subsiding basin. The sedimentary record of the emphasizes widespread fluvial , formed in river-dominated landscapes that signal seasonal and episodic flooding. In the , these deposits include red mudstones, sandstones, and conglomerates, often with pedogenic features like calcretes, indicating prolonged dry intervals interspersed with wetter phases that supported vegetation and animal life. pigmentation in these beds further tracks a trend toward increasing over the stage, aligning with broader Pangean climatic drying. Norian faunal assemblages highlight the rise of early theropod dinosaurs amid a landscape dominated by pseudosuchian archosaurs. bauri, a slender bipedal carnivore reaching up to 3 meters in length, exemplifies this diversification, with mass bone beds in the revealing its role as a swift predator in floodplain ecosystems. These theropods coexisted with herbivorous aetosaurs and dicynodonts like , forming diverse communities adapted to semi-arid conditions. A notable event within the was the formation of the Manicouagan impact crater around 214 million years ago in present-day , , resulting from a 5-kilometer-diameter strike. This 100-kilometer-wide structure likely caused localized disruptions to biota, including seismic shocks and that may have triggered short-term extinctions among nearby terrestrial and marine organisms, though global effects were limited. Evidence from deep-sea sediments suggests distal impact layers influenced regional environmental stability without broader mass extinction.

Rhaetian Stage

The Stage, the final subdivision of the Late Triassic, spans approximately 205.7 to 201.4 million years ago, marking a duration of about 4.3 million years. Its base lacks a formal Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), though candidate sections include Steinbergkogel in the , where and define the Norian- boundary. The stage is named after the in and , where classic exposures of marine carbonates and shales record the initial Rhaetian transgression—a widespread marine incursion that flooded continental margins across the Tethys region. This transgression reflects early rifting along the Pangean margins, contributing to the stage's transitional character between stable supercontinental conditions and the impending . Sedimentary patterns during the Rhaetian exhibit clear shifts toward heightened marine influence, with incursions from the Tethys Sea overriding earlier arid continental deposits. In European sections, such as those in the and , lagoonal limestones, shales, and bone beds overlie regressive mudstones, indicating episodic flooding that reached depths of tens of meters in some basins. cycles, prominent in the underlying with thick and layers, diminished markedly, as climatic warming and sea-level rise curtailed hypersaline conditions and promoted open-marine sedimentation. These changes underscore environmental stress, including fluctuating and oxygenation, that preceded the Triassic-Jurassic boundary. Biotic assemblages in the highlight a pivotal transition in terrestrial ecosystems, with the final appearances of non-dinosaurian dinosauromorphs such as lagerpetids and silesaurids, which had persisted as small, agile forms since the . Fossil sites in and , including the and fissure fills in , document these last records, after which dinosaurs achieved ecological dominance. Concurrently, sauropodomorph dinosaurs underwent a notable rise in diversity and abundance, exemplified by basal forms like in European localities, which adapted as medium- to large-bodied herbivores in environments. This shift reflects opportunistic exploitation of vegetated landscapes amid declining competitors. Signs of pre-extinction stress emerged in the , including dwarfing trends in select lineages that indicate ecological strain. nannofossils, for instance, show a systematic size reduction starting in the lower , potentially linked to nutrient perturbations or acidification in marine settings. Such patterns, observed in Tethyan sections, suggest broader biotic compression under rising environmental volatility, setting the stage for the end-Triassic crisis.

Triassic-Jurassic Extinction Event

Causes

The primary driver of the Triassic-Jurassic extinction event, dated to approximately 201.3 Ma, was the voluminous eruptions of the (CAMP), a associated with the initial rifting of the supercontinent . These eruptions, occurring in short pulses lasting less than 100 years each over about 46,000 years, released an estimated 1,400 gigatons of CO₂ from lava flows alone, with total emissions potentially reaching 14,000 gigatons when including intrusive activity into carbon-rich sediments. Concurrently, (SO₂) emissions totaled around 63,000 megatons from the initial pulse, leading to atmospheric loading that initially caused short-term (volcanic winters), followed by prolonged greenhouse warming. The CO₂ emissions from CAMP drove significant global temperature increases, with models indicating a rise of 2.5–5 °C, exacerbating environmental stress through hyperwarming. SO₂, meanwhile, contributed to via conversion to in the atmosphere, which acidified soils and freshwater systems, disrupting terrestrial ecosystems. Additionally, massive (CH₄) release—estimated at approximately 7,200 gigatons—from magma-sediment interactions in organic-rich basins amplified the , as is a potent short-term warming agent. Other proposed factors include asteroid impacts, such as the Rochechouart crater in (dated to ~206 Ma), which may have contributed localized disruptions like tsunamis but predates the extinction boundary by about 5 million years and lacks evidence for a global role. destabilization in ocean sediments, potentially triggered by initial warming, could have released additional CH₄, further intensifying perturbations, though direct evidence remains indirect and tied to volcanic priming. Oceanographic changes were profoundly influenced by CAMP volcanism, with expanded marine anoxia evidenced by excursions (δ²³⁸U) in sediments, indicating widespread oxygen depletion in bottom waters due to increased organic flux and reduced ventilation. occurred in pulses, driven by dissolved CO₂ and SO₂, lowering and hindering in marine organisms; boron isotope data confirm pH drops of up to 0.5 units during peak emissions. These conditions likely persisted for millennia, compounding the effects of surface warming. Synergistic models highlight how these abiotic stressors interacted: initial SO₂-induced cooling stressed photosynthesizing organisms, while subsequent CO₂- and CH₄-driven warming (totaling ~6–8 °C in integrated simulations) promoted anoxia and acidification, creating a cascade that overwhelmed global biogeochemical resilience. This combination, rather than any single factor, accounts for the event's severity, with CAMP as the unifying trigger.

Biological Impacts

The Triassic–Jurassic extinction event inflicted severe taxonomic losses across marine and terrestrial realms, with estimates indicating the disappearance of 23–34% of marine genera, particularly affecting groups such as corals, bivalves, brachiopods, and radiolarians. , eel-like marine vertebrates that had persisted through multiple prior extinctions, finally went extinct at this boundary. On land, approximately 76% of terrestrial species were lost, including many archosauromorph lineages such as rauisuchians, aetosaurs, and phytosaurs, which had dominated Late Triassic ecosystems. Surviving taxa exhibited strong survivor bias, with dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and early mammals largely unaffected and poised for rapid diversification in the , eventually dominating terrestrial niches. This selective survival allowed these groups to radiate into vacated ecological roles, marking a pivotal transition toward faunas. Ecosystems underwent profound disruption, including the collapse of intricate food webs driven by the loss of primary producers and basal consumers, which cascaded through higher trophic levels in both oceans and on land. Terrestrial recovery initiated with a prominent fern spike, where fern spores dominated palynological assemblages, reflecting opportunistic colonization by these resilient, generalist plants amid the wreckage of seed plant communities. Marine ecosystems displayed delayed recovery, requiring roughly 5–10 million years to restore pre-extinction diversity and functional complexity, hindered by prolonged anoxia and environmental instability.

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