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Job's tears
Inflorescences
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Subfamily: Panicoideae
Genus: Coix
Species:
C. lacryma-jobi
Binomial name
Coix lacryma-jobi
Synonyms[1]
  • Coix agrestis Lour.
  • Coix arundinacea Lam.
  • Coix chinensis Tod.
  • Coix chinensis Tod. ex Balansa nom. illeg.
  • Coix exaltata Jacq. ex Spreng.
  • Coix gigantea J.Jacq. nom. illeg.
  • Coix lacryma L. nom. illeg.
  • Coix ma-yuen Rom.Caill.
  • Coix ouwehandii Koord.
  • Coix ovata Stokes nom. illeg.
  • Coix palustris Koord.
  • Coix pendula Salisb. nom. illeg.
  • Coix pumila Roxb.
  • Coix stenocarpa (Oliv.) Balansa
  • Coix stigmatosa K.Koch & Bouché
  • Coix tubulosa Hack.
  • Lithagrostis lacryma-jobi (L.) Gaertn.
  • Sphaerium lacryma (L.) Kuntze nom. illeg.
  • Sphaerium tubulosum (Warb.) Kuntze

Job's tears /dʒoʊbz/ (Coix lacryma-jobi), also known as adlay or adlay millet, is a tall grain-bearing perennial tropical plant of the family Poaceae (grass family). It is native to Southeast Asia and introduced to Northern China and India in remote antiquity, and elsewhere cultivated in gardens as an annual. It has been naturalized in the southern United States and the New World tropics. In its native environment it is grown at higher elevation areas where rice and corn do not grow well. Job's tears are also commonly sold as Chinese pearl barley, though true barley belongs to a completely different genus.

There are two main varieties of the species, one wild and one cultivated. The wild variety, Coix lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, has hard-shelled pseudocarps—very hard, pearly white, oval structures used as beads for making prayer beads or rosaries, necklaces, and other objects. The cultivated variety Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen is harvested as a cereal crop, has a soft shell, and is used in traditional medicine in parts of Asia.

Nomenclature

[edit]

Job's tears may also be referred to under different spellings (Job's-tears,[2][3] Jobs-tears[4]). The crop is also known by other common names in English, such as adlay or adlay millet.[5][6] Other common names in English include coix seed,[5][7] gromwell grass,[5] and tear grass.[5]

The seeds are known in Chinese as yìyǐ rén (薏苡仁),[8][7] where rén means "kernel", and also described in Latin as semen coicis or semen coicis lachryma-jobi in pharmacopoeic literature.[7][9]

Taxonomy

[edit]

The species, native to Southeast Asia,[10] was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753 with the epithet as a Latin translation of the metaphorical tear of Job. As of February 2015, four varieties are accepted by the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families:[11]

  • Coix lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi
Widely distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent to peninsular Malaysia and Taiwan; naturalized elsewhere. The involucres are ovoid, bony and glossy. It has hard shells and is used as beads in crafts.
  • Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen (Rom.Caill.) Stapf
South China to peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines.
The varietal name is eponymous after General Ma Yuen or Ma Yuan (馬援) who according to legend learned of the plant's use when he was posted in Cochin China (or Tonkin, in what is now Vietnam), and brought the seeds back to China to be cultivated.[12][13][14] The involucres are elliptical, striate and soft.
Assam to Yunnan (China) and Indochina. It is the smallest among the Indian species, with only 4mm in diameter of the seeds. It is used for ornament as well.
  • Coix lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa Oliv.
Eastern Himalayas to Indochina.

Job's tears—along with Coix in —was formerly placed in the Maydeae, now known to be polyphyletic.[Sch 1] It has cylindrical, longer than broad involucres. It is widely used as beads for ornaments.[15]

Morphology

[edit]

Job's tear is a monoecious grass which is broad-leaved, loose-growing, branched and robust. It can reach a height between 1.20 m to 1.80 m. Like all members of the genus, their inflorescences develop from a leaf sheath at the end of the stem and consist partly of hard, globular or oval, hollow, bead-like structures. Job's tear seeds differ in color, with the more soft-shelled seeds being light brown and the hard-shelled forms having a dark red pericarp.[16]

The hardened "shells" covering the seeds are technically the fruit-case or involucre (hardened bract),[17] with the bract also referred to as "capsule-spathe"[18] or "sheathing bract" by some past botanical works.[2]

These shells cover the bases of the flowers (inflorescences) which are male and female racemes/panicles; the male racemes project upright and consist of overlapping scale-like spikelets, with yellow stamens that pop out in-between, and there are one or two yarn-like stigmas drooping from the base.[19][20]

Proteins

[edit]

Job's tears – as with Coix in general – produces its own variety of α-zein prolamins. These prolamins have undergone unusually rapid evolutionary divergence from closely related grasses, by way of copy-number changes.[Sch 2]

History

[edit]

Job's tears is native to Southeast Asian countries, namely India, Myanmar, China, and Malaysia.[21] Residue on pottery from a Neolithic (late Yangshao Culture) site in north-central China[a] shows that Job's tears, together with non-native barley and other plants were used to brew beer as early as ca. 3000 BC.[b][22]

Job's tears were already introduced to Japan (and probably cultivated alongside rice) in the Early Jōmon Period, corroborated by finds in Western Japan (Chūgoku region), e.g., from studies of phytoliths in the Asanebana Shell Midden (朝寝鼻貝塚) (ca. 4000 BC) in Okayama Prefecture.[24][25] And further east in Japan, the plant has been found at the Toro site, Shizuoka Prefecture dating to the Yayoi Period.[26]

Remains of Job's tears have been found in archaeological sites in northeastern India, dating to around 1000 BC. It was introduced to the subtropical area in India from the east Himalayan belt.[27] A number of scholars support the view it has been in cultivation in India in the 2000–1000 BC period.[28][29] The wild varieties have hard-coated seeds. Job's tear was one of the earliest domesticated crops. Domestication makes the seed coat become softer and easier to cook.

In China, the current cultivation of Job's tears mainly occurs in Fujian, Jiangsu, Hebei, and Liaoning provinces.[30] The cultivation of Job's tears spreads out to temperate areas in North and Northeast China.[citation needed] The shelled grains exported from China were erroneously declared through customs as "pearl barley",[31] and "Chinese pearl barley" remains an alternate common name so that the grains are sold under such label in Asian supermarkets, even though C. lacryma-jobi is not closely related to barley (Hordeum vulgare).[32][33]

The name "Job's tears" is a calque of Arabic دموع أيوب (dumūʿ ʾAyyūb), the name used by Arab merchants who introduced the plant to Europe in the Middle Ages. They used the pseudocarps for misbaha (prayer beads) and associated them with the account of the suffering of Job (Ayyub) in the Quran, which is derived from the portrayal of Job in the Hebrew Bible's Book of Job.[34][35]

Uses

[edit]

Crafts

[edit]
Job's Tears used for traditional medicine.

The hard, white grains of Job's tears have historically been used as beads to make necklaces and other objects. The seeds are naturally bored with holes without the need to artificially puncture them.[18]

Strands of Job's tears are used as Buddhist prayer beads in parts of India, Myanmar, Laos, Taiwan, and Korea according to Japanese researcher Yukino Ochiai who has specialized on the ethnobotanic usage of the plant.[36] They are also made into rosaries in countries such as the Philippines and Bolivia.[36]

East Asia

[edit]
Japan
[edit]

In Japan, the grains growing wild are called juzudama (数珠玉) ‘Buddhist rosary beads’), and children have made playthings out of them by stringing them into necklaces.[37] However, juzu-dama was a corruption of zuzu-dama according to folklorist Kunio Yanagita.[37] A type of Buddhist rosary called irataka no juzu, which were hand-made by the yamabushi ascetics practicing shugendō training, purportedly used a large-grain type known as oni-juzudama (鬼数珠玉) ‘oni(ogre) rosary beads’.[38][39] Although this was published as a separate variety, C. lacryma jobi var. maxima Makino,[38] it is now regarded as synonymous to C. lacryma jobi var. lacryma-jobi according to taxonomical databases (World Checklist of Selected Plant Families).[40]

It was contended by Edo Period scholar Ono Ranzan that the soft-shelled edible type called shikoku-mugi was not introduced into Japan until the Kyōho era (1716–1736), as opposed to a hard-shelled edible type called chōsen-mugi (lit. ‘Korean wheat’) which needed to be beaten in order to crack and thresh them.[41][c] This type has been published as a separate species, C. agrestis in the past,[43] but this is now recognized also as a synonym of C. lacryma jobi var. lacryma-jobi.[44][d] Thus Japanese consumption of the crop attested in pre-Kyōho literature presumably used this hard-shelled type in the recipe.[45][e]

Yanagita contended that the use of the beads predated the introduction of Buddhism into Japan (552/538 CE).[f][37] And the plant has not only been found at sites dating to approximately this period at the Kuroimine Site,[46] but in Jomon period sites dating to several millennia BC.[24]

Ocean Road hypothesis
[edit]

Yanagita in his Ocean Road hypothesis argues that the pearly glistening seeds were regarded as simulating or substituting for cowrie shells, which were used as ornaments and currency throughout Southern China and Southeast Asia in antiquity, and he argued both items to be part of cultural transmission into Japan from these areas.[47][g]

Later scholars have pursued the validity of the thesis. Yanagita had reproduced a distribution map of the usage of ornamental cowries throughout Asia (compiled by J. Wilfrid Jackson),[48] and Japanese ethnologist Keiji Iwata [ja] alluded to a need for a distribution map of ornamental Job's tears, for making comparison therewith.[49][50]

Mainland Southeast Asia

[edit]
Thailand and Myanmar
[edit]

The Akha people and the Karen people who live in the mountainous regions around the Thai-Myanmar border grow several varieties of the plant and use the beads to ornament various handicraft.[h][51] The beads are used strictly only on women's apparel among the Akha, sewn onto headwear, jackets, handbags, etc.; also, a variety of shapes of beads are used.[52][i] The beads are used only on the jackets of married women among the Karen, and the oblong seeds are exclusively selected,[54] some example has been shown from the Karen in Chiang Rai Province of Thailand.[52]

Strands of job's tears necklaces have also been collected from Chiang Rai Province, Thailand[55] and it is known the Karen people string the beads into necklaces,[53] such necklaces in use also in the former Karenni States (current Kayah State of Burma), with the crop being known by the name cheik (var. kyeik, kayeik, kyeit) in Burmese.[56][54] Job's tears necklace has been collected also from Yunnan Province, China,[55] which has a population of Akha-Hani people and other minorities, but the Wa people of Yunnan also used the plant seeds (tɛ kao; lit. ‘fruit-Coix’) sewn onto fabrics and bags, etc.[57]

The Wa people and other minorities like the Taungyo ethnic group use the beads in apparel in Shan State, Myanmar.[58]

Insular Southeast Asia

[edit]
Borneo
[edit]

Various indigenous Bornean tribes such as the Kelabit people of Sarawak state (and North Kalimantan, Indonesia), the Kadazandusun people and Murut people of Sabah state all use the plant beads as ornament.[53] In the Kadazandusun language, the plant is called dalai.[59] The Kayan of Borneo also use job's tears to decorate clothing and war dress.[60]

Philippines
[edit]

Job's tears (Tagalog: tigbí) are otherwise known by many local names in the Philippines (e.g. Bikol: adlái in Visaya Islands).[61][62] The beads strung together have sometimes been used as rosaries,[61][36] or made into bead curtains[61] (e.g. the Tboli people on Mindanao[63]), or woven into baskets and other vessels.[61]

Americas

[edit]

The plant was known as calandula in Spanish, and the hards seeds were strung together as beads or into rosaries in parts of New Spain, e.g., Puerto Rico.[64][65]

In both the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians and the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, the beads of Job's tears are called "corn beads" or "Cherokee corn beads" and have been used for personal adornment.[citation needed]

Food

[edit]

Throughout East Asia, Job's tears are available in dried form and cooked as a grain. Job's tears grains are widely eaten as a cereal.[66] The cultivated varieties are soft-shelled, and can be easily cooked into gruels, etc.[67] Among the Zomi in Southeast Asia, miim festival (Job's tears festival) was held annually to pay tribute to the departed souls.[68]

Some of the soft-shelled types are easily threshed, producing sweet kernels.[67] The threshed (and polished[69][70]) "kernels" or ren (Chinese: 薏苡仁; pinyin: yiyi ren; Wade–Giles: i i jen) are used in traditional Chinese Medicine[71] (see infra).[j]

The threshed grains are generally spherical, with a groove on one end, and polished white in color.[72] In Japan unpolished grains are also sold, and marketed as yūki hatomugi (‘organic job's tears’).[72]

In Cambodia, where it is known as skuay (ស្គួយ), the seeds are not much used as a grain,[73] but used as part of herbal medicine and as an ingredient in desserts. In Thailand, it is often consumed in teas and other drinks, such as soy milk.[citation needed]

It is also a minor cereal crop and fodder in Northeastern India.[74]

The grains of Job's tear can be used the same way as rice. It can be eaten cooked or even raw, as it has a slightly sweet taste. Further, the grains can be used for the production of flour. Job's tear grains can be processed in the same machine as rice. For the soft hulls, it is enough to press them over a sieve. The advantage of Job's tear over rice is that the grains do not need to be polished, as is the case with rice. Through this process, the rice loses its vitamins. This makes Job's tear a valuable food for undernourished populations in rural areas.[16]

Beverages and soups

[edit]

In Korean cuisine, a thick drink called yulmu cha (율무차, literally "Job's tears tea") is made from powdered Job's tears.[72] A similar drink, called yi ren jiang (薏仁漿), also appears in Chinese cuisine, and is made by simmering whole polished Job's tears in water and sweetening the resulting thin, cloudy liquid with sugar. The grains are usually strained from the liquid but may also be consumed separately or together.[citation needed]

In Japan, the roasted kernels are brewed into hatomugi cha (ハトムギ茶), literally a "tea".[75] This is drunk for medicinal value and not for enjoyment, as it does not suit the average consumer's taste, but a more palatable brew is obtained by roasting seeds that have been germinated, which reduces the distinctive strong odor.[75][k]

In southern China, Job's tears are often used in tong sui (糖水), a sweet dessert soup. One variety is called ching bo leung in Cantonese (Chinese: 清補涼; pinyin: qing bu liang), and is also known as sâm bổ lượng in Vietnamese cuisine.[72][75] There is also a braised chicken dish yimidunji (Chinese: 薏米炖鸡=薏米燉鷄).[77]

Alcoholic beverages

[edit]

In both Korea and China, distilled liquors are also made from the grain. One Korean liquor is called okroju (옥로주; hanja: 玉露酒), which is made from rice and Job's tears. The grains are also brewed into beers in northeast India and other parts of southeast Asia.[28]

Traditional medicine

[edit]

Job's tears are used with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine[78] or folk medicine.[79]

The plant is noted in an ancient medical text Huangdi Neijing (5th–2nd centuries BCE) attributed to the legendary Huangdi (Yellow Emperor), but fails to be noticed in the standard traditional materia medica reference Bencao Gangmu (本草綱目)(16c.).[9]

Cultivation requirements

[edit]

Soil and climate requirement

[edit]

It is generally grown in sunny, fertile, well-drained fields with sandy loam soil.[80] Adlay likes mild, cool and humid climate. It does not adapt to hot and muggy climate, has low cold tolerance, and is very intolerant of drought. Black-shelled adlay is suitable for planting in areas with altitudes of 800 to 1,000 m; dwarf adlay varieties are suitable for planting in low altitude areas.[80]

Seedbed requirements and sowing

[edit]

Soaking seeds with disinfectant has a positive influence on germination rate.[81]

Planting can be done when the ground temperature is above 12 °C. And if it is not frost, sowing should be done as early as possible to lengthen the required days to emergence and days to anthesis.[82] Adlay sowing is divided into strip sowing and hole sowing. The strip sowing refers to the uniform sowing of seeds in trenches with a spacing of about 50 cm and a depth of 4–5 cm. Hole sowing refers to sowing seeds in holes 3–5 cm deep, with 3-4 seeds per hole.[83]

Cultivation management

[edit]

Control the number of seedlings per hole when the seedlings have 3–4 true leaves, and leave 2–3 well-grown plants in each hole.

Tillage at least 3 times during the whole crop growth. The 1st tillage is to be done when the seedlings are 5–10 cm high and needs to be cleaned of weeds to promote tillering. The second tillage is done when the seedlings are 15–20 cm high. The third plowing is done when the seedlings are 30 cm high, combined with fertilizer and soil cultivation to promote root growth and prevent collapse.[83]

Production

[edit]

Growth and development

[edit]

It is an annual crop but it can be a perennial when allowed to develop ratoon. Adlay is propagated by seeds at the start of rain. The germination occurs as early as 7 days after sowing. It takes 5 to 5.5 months to flower and mature. The average height can reach over 90 cm at harvest.[84] The application of N fertilizer can significantly improve the yield of adlay.[85]

Drought is a major stress for adlay growth and development. The lack of moisture will cause impaired germination and poor establishment. During the growth and maturation stage, water deficits will reduce the leaf area index and lead to barrenness,[86] which negatively affects photosynthesis and dry matter production.

Harvest and post-harvest operations

[edit]

When nearly 80% of adlay grains turn brown, the panicle will be harvested by cutting the stems and leaving three nodes above the ground. The harvest period varies with the different varieties and local environment.[87] Because of the uneven height and grain distribution, the use of machines for harvesting is limited and harvesting has been done by hand in many regions in Southeastern Asia.[88] Then the harvested panicles are threshed by hand or using a treadle thresher. For manual threshing, it is normally used when the harvested grains are at lower moisture content and easily shatter. Threshed grains are sun dried or placed in drying facilities where they utilize forced warm air to gradually reduce the moisture content to 14%[89] suited to storage before the adlay moves to the milling process. The adlay can be consumed as grains and flour after being milled through corn and rice mill. The milling recovery is about 60%[87] depending on the cultivars.

The yield is harvested in early October and is easily influenced by the weather. If there is dry and hot wind in the initial phase, the pollen loses its vitality, therefore can’t be pollinated. This leads to hollow seeds, which results in yield reduction in light cultivars and zero yield in heavy cultivars.[90] Early maturing varieties are sown in early March, middle maturing varieties are sown from late March to early April, and late maturing varieties are sown from late April to early May. Sowing should be early rather than late. If sowing is too late, it will affect the yield and even the seeds can not mature after autumn.[16]

Nutritional value

[edit]

The seeds of Job's tears are protein-rich and nutrient-dense. High in dietary fibre, zinc and calcium.[21] They contain micronutrients like thiamine, riboflavin, vitamin E, and niacin.[citation needed] They cover 8 types of amino acids for human consumption.

Nutrients Percentage by mass
Carbohydrates 65%
Protein 14%
Fat 5%
Crude fiber 3%
Calcium 0.07%
Phosphorus 0.242%
Iron 0.001%

Starch and protein

Job's tears contain high amount of starch (58%).[91] The seeds are used as ingredients to make soup, porridge, flour and pastries. It is common to grind seeds into powder form to make pastries. Two major methods are used to isolate starch: alkaline steeping method and steeping with sodium metabisulfite (Na2S2O5), an antioxidant and antimicrobial agent. Job's tears also contain edible protein (14.8%), which can be extracted through an alkaline extraction method and a salt extraction method.[91]

Fatty acids

Job's tears contain mostly unsaturated fatty acids.[30] The four main fatty acids, (oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, and stearic acid) are extracted via three methods: solvent processes, supercritical fluid extraction and ultrasonic-assisted extraction.[91]

Pests

[edit]

Job's tear is less subject to attacks of locusts than rice and corn.[16] Insect pests include:[92]

It is susceptible to leaf blight.[93]

[edit]
  • An unripened head of Job's Tears
    An unripened head of Job's Tears
  • C. lacryma-jobi plant with flowers and fruit in Nepal
    C. lacryma-jobi plant with flowers and fruit in Nepal
  • Job's tears grains
    Job's tears grains
  • Yulmu-cha (Job's tears tea) from Korea
    Yulmu-cha (Job's tears tea) from Korea
  • Yulmu-bap (Job's tears rice) from Korea
    Yulmu-bap (Job's tears rice) from Korea
  • Illustration of Coix lacryma-jobi from the Japanese encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)
    Illustration of Coix lacryma-jobi from the Japanese encyclopedia Seikei Zusetsu (1804)
  • C. lacryma-jobi seeds in a necklace prepared in the Zulu tradition
    C. lacryma-jobi seeds in a necklace prepared in the Zulu tradition
  • Coix lacryma-jobi - MHNT
    Coix lacryma-jobi - MHNT

Explanatory notes

[edit]

References

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Job's tears

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Coix lacryma-jobi, commonly known as Job's tears, is a tall, tropical grass species in the Poaceae family, native to Southeast Asia, characterized by its robust culms growing 1–2 meters high, broad leaves, and distinctive ovoid, tear-shaped seeds with a hard, glossy shell. It exists in wild varieties with inedible hard seeds used for beads and jewelry, and cultivated varieties with softer, edible seeds valued as a cereal grain. The plant has been utilized for over 6,000 years in East Asia for food, medicine, and ornamentation, with major production centered in China. Job's tears thrives in moist, well-drained soils in full sun, tolerating wet conditions during growth but preferring drier soil as seeds mature, and is propagated easily from seeds sown in spring after the last frost. Hardy in USDA zones 8–11, it is grown as a in tropical regions and as an annual elsewhere, often naturalizing in southern parts of the and other subtropical areas. Botanically related to , it features monoecious flowers and wind , with seeds ripening in late summer to fall. The seeds are nutritionally rich, containing approximately 15% protein, 6% fat, and 65% carbohydrates per 100 grams, making them suitable for cooking into porridges, soups, or ground into for and as a rice substitute. In traditional cuisines, particularly in , , and , they are boiled, steamed, or fermented into beverages like . Culturally significant among indigenous communities such as the Kuki in , , where it is harvested in December and celebrated in festivals, the plant also holds spiritual importance tied to agricultural myths. Medicinally, Job's tears has a long history in traditional Chinese and Indian systems, where seeds and roots are used for their , , and properties to treat conditions like , urinary disorders, and . Scientific studies have explored its potential anticancer effects, with compounds like kanglaite oil from the seeds showing promise in clinical applications in , alongside , immunomodulatory, and anti-diabetic activities in animal models. However, while traditional uses are widespread, further clinical evidence is needed for many purported benefits. As an ornamental, the plant's attractive, pearly seeds in , add value in gardens, borders, and containers, though it can become invasive in wet, disturbed habitats. Its versatility underscores its enduring role in , culture, and health across and beyond.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

Taxonomy

Job's tears, scientifically known as Coix lacryma-jobi L., is classified within the kingdom Plantae, phylum Tracheophyta, class Liliopsida, order Poales, family Poaceae, genus Coix, and species lacryma-jobi. This placement situates it among the grasses, a diverse family that includes major cereals like and . The encompasses four accepted varieties, distinguished primarily by characteristics and uses: var. lacryma-jobi, featuring hard-shelled, ornamental pseudocarps suitable for beads and jewelry; var. ma-yuen, with softer, shells commonly cultivated for ; var. puellarum, noted for its distribution in subtropical regions; and var. stenocarpa, characterized by narrower fruits and found in Himalayan and Indo-Chinese areas. These varieties reflect adaptations to different ecological niches and human utilization patterns within the . Within the genus Coix, which comprises a small number of closely related species native to and , C. lacryma-jobi is the most widespread and economically significant; other species, such as C. aquatica Roxb., differ in habitat preferences, with the latter favoring aquatic environments and lacking the prominent bead-like seeds. The binomial name Coix lacryma-jobi was established by in 1753, with the specific epithet "lacryma-jobi" derived from Latin, translating to "tear of Job," alluding to the biblical figure Job and the tear-shaped seeds that resemble drops of sorrow.

Nomenclature

The common English name "Job's tears" for the plant Coix lacryma-jobi derives from the tear-shaped, hard seeds that resemble the tears shed by the biblical figure Job, known for his profound suffering in the Old Testament. This allusion highlights the plant's distinctive glossy, bead-like grains, which have long been used in crafts and jewelry. In various regions, the plant bears diverse local names reflecting its cultural and culinary significance. In the Philippines, it is commonly called adlay or adlai, a term rooted in indigenous Visayan and Mindanao languages, where it serves as a staple grain. In Japan, it is known as hato mugi, meaning "pigeon barley," emphasizing its use in traditional beverages and teas. Korean speakers refer to it as yulmu, often featured in desserts and health foods. In Chinese medicine, it is termed yi yi or coix seed, valued for its purported therapeutic properties, and sometimes called Chinese pearl barley in English contexts. Spelling variations of the English name include "Job's-tears," "Job's tear," and "adlay millet," the latter drawing from Southeast Asian nomenclature to denote its grain-like qualities. Cultural naming contexts extend to indigenous traditions in the Americas and . Among the people, the seeds are known as "corn beads" due to their resemblance to miniature corn kernels and are used in personal adornments and rituals, reflecting a legacy of ornamental and spiritual applications. In , local names like adlay underscore its role as an ancient cereal crop in indigenous farming systems across the and neighboring areas.

Description

Morphology

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) is a robust, erect grass that typically grows to a height of 1 to 3 meters, forming tufted clumps with a cespitose habit. It can exhibit either an annual or perennial growth pattern, depending on climatic conditions, and features freely branching culms that are solid, medullous, and up to 10 mm in diameter, with more than 10 nodes. The consists of fibrous that provide anchorage and support upright growth in a variety of environments. Leaves are cauline and linear-lanceolate, measuring 20–60 cm in length and 1–5 cm in width, with glabrous sheaths shorter than the internodes, a rounded or cordate base, scabrous margins, and an acuminate apex; the is 2–3 mm long and . The is a terminal or axillary of racemes, with a central axis 5–10 cm long bearing 2–5 lateral racemes each 3–10 cm in length. It includes unisexual spikelets arranged in pairs: sessile female spikelets at the base, enclosed within a subspherical, bony, and often glossy or tuberculate cupule 7–15 mm long, and pedicellate male spikelets above. As a monoecious , Job's tears bears both male and female flowers on the same , with male spikelets 5–7 mm long featuring three yellow anthers 3–5 mm in length, and female spikelets globose, up to 5 mm, with a membranous lemma and palea. The caryopses are ovoid to tear-shaped, approximately 6 mm long, sulcate, and enclosed in the persistent pericarp; in wild varieties, they are hard, polished, and bead-like, while cultivated forms produce softer, seeds.

Varieties

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) encompasses several recognized varieties, distinguished primarily by seed characteristics and utility. The wild variety, C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi, features hard-shelled pseudocarps that are pearly white, oval, and durable, making them suitable for ornamental purposes such as beads. This variety grows as an erect grass up to 1-3 meters tall, with robust culms and insignificant flowering spikelets, and its grains are approximately 5 mm in diameter with a shiny dark brown to gray-black hull. Edible varieties, in contrast, have softer shells that facilitate grain processing for consumption. C. lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen is the primary cultivated form for use, characterized by a soft seedcoat that is easily removed, enabling higher yields of nutritious rich in protein and essential fatty acids. This variety is widely grown in as a crop, with seeds harvested for their dietary and medicinal value. C. lacryma-jobi var. stenocarpa is another wild variety producing more compact seeds with a hard shell, primarily used for ornamental purposes such as beads. Modern breeding efforts focus on enhancing disease resistance, yield, and adaptability through genetic mapping and selection. For instance, the Indonesian Watani Wado, derived from var. ma-yuen, has been developed and studied for improved growth responses to fertilizers and , demonstrating potential for higher yields as a substitute in tropical conditions. These developments leverage high-density genetic maps constructed from large-scale markers to target traits like yield stability and pest tolerance. Research from 2016 to 2025 has assessed genetic diversity across C. lacryma-jobi accessions to support breeding for nutritional and pharmacological enhancements. Studies on 11 Chinese germplasms revealed varying fatty acid profiles and anticancer properties in seed oils, with inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers identifying clusters based on nutritional content. Further evaluations of 20 Vietnamese accessions using morphological traits and SSRs highlighted morphological diversity, including seed characteristics, informing selections for higher bioactive compound yields. Global analyses of 79 Chinese lines confirmed moderate genetic variation, emphasizing core collections for pharmacology-focused breeding.

Origins and distribution

History

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), a tropical grass species, is native to , with evidence suggesting its domestication occurred around 3000 BCE in regions including present-day , , and southern . Archaeological records indicate early cultivation as a minor cereal crop, valued for its edible seeds and ornamental beads, with and starch grain analyses from sites in confirming human exploitation dating back to at least 4000–3000 BCE. This domestication likely began in the River basin or adjacent tropical lowlands, where wild progenitors were gathered before for larger, more palatable grains. Recent archaeological findings from 2025 have provided definitive evidence of C. lacryma-jobi var. lacryma-jobi use during the (206 BCE–220 CE) in , through phytolith identification in burial contexts from sites in northern and central regions. These remains, extracted from tomb offerings and pottery residues, reveal the plant's role in funerary rituals and daily sustenance, with cross-shaped phytoliths uniquely distinguishing the cultivated variety from wild forms. Earlier Neolithic evidence from water-logged sites further supports continuous use, highlighting methodological advances in phytolith analysis that resolved prior ambiguities in identifying Coix remains. The plant spread early to via ancient overland and maritime routes, becoming integrated into local agriculture by the late , and from there to through Indian Ocean trade networks by the first millennium CE. Its introduction to the occurred later, primarily via European colonial exchanges in the , though pre-Columbian traces remain unconfirmed. In Western nomenclature, the common name "Job's " derives from a biblical allusion in the , evoking the tear-like shape of its hard, pearly seeds as symbols of suffering and resilience, a tradition rooted in (dumūʿ ʾAyyūb, "tears of Job") adopted during medieval botanical exchanges.

Geographic distribution

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), a grass species in the family, is native to , with its origin traced to the Eastern Himalayan region and Northern Indochina, encompassing parts of modern-day , , , , , , , , , the Philippines, and . The plant thrives in wet places within grasslands and disturbed areas in these tropical and subtropical habitats. The species has naturalized widely beyond its native range, particularly in tropical and warm temperate regions globally. In , it occurs as a naturalized species in open humid areas such as marshes and forest edges across many countries, including (Transvaal and Cape provinces) and occasionally in like . In , naturalized populations are reported in subtropical and tropical zones, including where it invades wet areas. In the Americas, it has established in the , notably and , as well as and other tropics. Cultivation of Job's tears is concentrated in , where it serves as a minor crop. is the leading producer, with an annual output of approximately 220,000 tons as of 2023, primarily from provinces like . Significant cultivation also occurs in the , , and other Southeast Asian countries such as and . In , cultivation remains limited but is emerging in select areas, such as , to support initiatives due to the plant's nutritional value. While generally not highly aggressive, Job's tears exhibits invasive potential as an occasional in wet tropical environments, outcompeting native in disturbed, humid sites like riverbanks and wetlands. It is considered potentially invasive in the (, Réunion, and ).

Cultivation and production

Cultivation requirements

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) thrives in tropical and subtropical climates, where it benefits from hot and humid conditions during the rainy season. It requires abundant rainfall, typically exceeding 1500 mm annually, though it can tolerate a broad range from 610 to 4290 mm depending on varietal adaptations. The plant is commonly cultivated from up to altitudes of 2000 m. Temperature preferences align with warm environments, with an optimal annual average of 21.5°C and tolerance for ranges between 9.6°C and 27.8°C. For successful , ideally require a of 25°C, where occurs in 3–4 weeks. Once established, the plant maintains growth across 20–30°C, showing resilience to moderate fluctuations but sensitivity to . Soil conditions should be fertile and rich in to support robust development, with well-drained y or clay textures preferred to balance moisture retention and . The adapts to a wide pH spectrum from 4.5 to 8.4, though neutral to slightly acidic levels (5.5–7.0) yield the best results. It performs adequately in marginal or acidic soils but requires good drainage to prevent prolonged waterlogging, despite some tolerance for temporary wet conditions. Water needs are moderate, with consistent moisture essential during early growth stages to promote seedling establishment, after which the plant demonstrates drought tolerance. Full sun exposure is critical for optimal photosynthesis and seed production, providing at least 6 hours of direct sunlight daily, though partial shade is survivable in cooler zones. Certain varieties exhibit adaptations to drier or higher-altitude conditions, enhancing overall versatility.

Production practices

Major production of Job's tears is centered in , with over 200,000 tons annually as of the early 2020s, followed by and parts of ; typical yields range from 1 to 3 tons per under good management. Job's tears is typically sown directly in the field using methods such as line sowing or , with s planted at a depth of 5-7 cm to ensure proper . Due to the hard seed coat, seeds are soaked in for 8-24 hours prior to to enhance rates. The recommended rate ranges from 20-40 kg per , depending on the method, with line sowing at 30-40 cm row spacing and 15-60 cm between plants or hills. Planting occurs at the onset of the rainy season, often in spring or early summer in temperate regions, to align with adequate moisture availability. Crop management involves regular weeding, typically 1-2 hand weedings at 20-45 days after sowing to control competition from weeds. Fertilization practices include basal application of organic matter such as farmyard manure at 2-12 tons per hectare, followed by inorganic NPK fertilizers at ratios like 80:40:40 kg/ha (nitrogen:phosphorus:potassium), with half the nitrogen applied at planting and the remainder after early growth stages. Irrigation is minimal due to the crop's drought tolerance, but supplemental water every 15-20 days is provided in dry periods to maintain yields. A 2024 study showed that combined applications of phosphate fertilizer (total 200 kg/ha applied once to thrice) and paclobutrazol (2000 ppm applied once to thrice) can enhance growth and yield in the Watani Wado variety, particularly in the rainy season by improving tillering and seed production. The growth cycle of Job's tears lasts 120-160 days from sowing to maturity, during which the plant develops robust stems and panicles under moderate temperatures and rainfall. Intercropping with legumes or cereals such as maize and sorghum is common to optimize and improve through . Harvesting occurs when 80% of the grains have hardened and turned brown, typically by manual cutting of stems at about 30 cm above ground or using mechanical methods for larger fields. Post-harvest processing involves or smashing the panicles to separate grains, followed by sun-drying to 14% moisture content for storage and to prevent spoilage. Stored grains can maintain viability for extended periods under cool, dry conditions.

Uses

Crafts and ornamentation

The hard, glossy seeds of Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), featuring a natural through their ovoid structure, have long been prized for bead crafting in various cultures due to their and aesthetic appeal. These seeds are polished and strung to create jewelry such as necklaces, bracelets, and earrings, as well as rosaries and rattles. In , particularly , where they are known as juzudama, the seeds are traditionally used to fashion Buddhist , symbolizing spiritual practice and meditation. In , including the , Job's tears seeds are incorporated into ornamental accessories and decorative items, often strung for clothing adornments or personal ornaments that highlight their earthy, marbled patterns. Among indigenous communities in the , such as the , the seeds—referred to as "corn beads"—are employed in crafting jewelry and textiles, carrying cultural significance tied to legends of resilience and heritage. These beads also feature in broader cultural artifacts, including Catholic rosaries in regions like Louisiana's Cajun communities and musical instruments such as West African , where they add rhythmic elements when encased in gourds. Beyond crafting, Job's tears serves as an in landscapes, valued for its tall, arching foliage and pendulous seed heads that provide visual interest in borders or containers, especially in warm climates.

Culinary applications

Job's tears grains, particularly the soft-hulled varieties of Coix lacryma-jobi var. ma-yuen, are commonly prepared by dehulling the outer shell, which is straightforward for these types due to their softer pericarp compared to hard-hulled wild varieties. Once processed, the grains require soaking for 20 minutes to several hours before boiling in water for 30 to 60 minutes until tender and chewy, yielding a texture similar to or with a mild, nutty flavor. In culinary contexts, the grains are boiled to make porridge or used as a gluten-free substitute, such as adlai in the , where it serves as a nutritious alternative in meals like pilafs or mixed with . Ground into flour, Job's tears is incorporated into noodles and , providing a high-protein base for gluten-free products. In , roasted and powdered grains form the basis of yulmu-cha, a creamy, caffeine-free often blended with nuts like walnuts for a mildly sweet, soothing beverage. The grains feature prominently in Asian soups and beverages; in , they are simmered into sweet or savory soups with ingredients like , winter melon, or bean curd skin, contributing a chewy texture and subtle sweetness. Non-alcoholic fermented drinks, such as Japanese postbiotic teas combining Job's tears with azuki beans, leverage mild for enhanced flavor and gut-friendly properties. Recent research in 2025 demonstrated that incorporating Job's tears seeds into steamed buns significantly enhances starch digestibility while preserving bun quality and boosting , making it a promising functional additive in baked goods. Beyond human consumption, Job's tears serves as ; a 2025 study found that varying dietary levels of the seeds improved growth performance in rabbits, positioning it as a viable alternative ingredient in .

Medicinal applications

In , Job's tears seeds, known as yìyǐ rén, are used to support function, promote digestion, and alleviate dampness-related conditions such as bi , which manifests as joint stiffness and arthritis-like pain. The seeds' cooling properties also aid in resolving damp-heat accumulations, often in formulas like Shen Ling Baizhu San for gastrointestinal issues. In Southeast Asian traditional remedies, the plant is employed for treating through topical application or oral consumption of 60 grams of seeds daily, and are used to manage fever accompanied by and . Modern pharmacological research has explored Job's tears for its potential anti-cancer effects, with seed extracts demonstrating enhanced in colorectal (HCT116) and liver (HepG2) cancer cells when combined with , primarily through increased (ROS) levels, reduced mitochondrial , and downregulation of the PI3K/AKT/ pathway. Studies from 2022 to 2025 further indicate prophylactic benefits against metabolic disorders, including type II diabetes, where coix seed hydrolysates improved glucose tolerance, reduced , and regulated metabolism via the IRS-1/PI3K/AKT pathway in high-fructose diet-induced mouse models. These hypoglycemic activities position the seeds as a potential preventive agent for diabetes-related complications. Key active compounds contributing to these effects include coixol, which exhibits and properties, and coixenolide, noted for its antineoplastic activity at concentrations up to 0.25% in seed extracts (detailed further in the bioactive compounds section). Typical dosages in medicinal preparations range from 15–30 grams of seeds per day, decocted as tea or in formulas, though higher amounts up to 60 grams may be used for severe conditions under professional guidance. Precautions include potential allergic reactions, such as skin rashes, and its blood sugar-lowering effects, which may require monitoring in diabetics or before ; it is possibly unsafe during due to risks of .

Nutritional profile

Composition

The seeds of Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) exhibit a macronutrient profile dominated by carbohydrates, with approximately 65% carbohydrates, 14% protein, 6% , and 5–6% per 100 g dry weight. This composition positions the as a nutrient-dense staple comparable to other cereals, where carbohydrates primarily consist of serving as the main source. Nutritional values can vary by variety and growing conditions. The protein component features unique prolamins called coixins, which are a major fraction of the total protein in certain varieties. These storage proteins contribute to the seed's overall nutritional quality, though their proportion can vary across accessions. Micronutrients include notable levels of calcium (20–200 mg/100 g), (0.4–3 mg/100 g), alongside such as (B1, ~0.3 mg/100 g) and niacin (B3, ~4 mg/100 g). Mature seeds typically contain 10-12% water, facilitating storage stability while maintaining dry matter integrity. Varietal differences may influence these values slightly, but the core composition remains consistent across cultivated forms.

Bioactive compounds

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi L.) seeds are rich in bioactive phytochemicals, including phenolics, , and triterpenoids, which contribute to their and therapeutic potential. , such as phenolic acids and polyphenols, are predominant, with total phenolic content varying across varieties and extraction methods, often ranging from 59.3 to 76.0 mg GAE/100 g in seed extracts. , including specific types like those in the hull, support antioxidative effects by scavenging free radicals. Triterpenoids, such as coixanolides and total triterpenes (averaging 59.03 mg/g in kernels), exhibit anti-tumor and protective activities against . Recent studies on wild accessions from 2024 and 2025 highlight elevated capacities, attributed to higher concentrations of these phytochemicals compared to cultivated varieties. For instance, wild adlay accessions analyzed via GC-FID and FTIR revealed diverse and unsaturated fatty acids contributing to functional profiles, with black genotypes showing promise for development. A 2025 investigation into Philippine adlay varieties reported total phenolic contents supporting antibacterial and properties, underscoring the in wild populations. These compounds confer functional properties, including and hypocholesterolemic effects. Phenolics and inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines like TNF-α and IL-6, reducing in cellular models. Triterpenoids and seed extracts lower serum levels, modulating in hyperlipidemic models by enhancing . A 2025 study demonstrated that fertilizer application (up to 500 kg/ha KCl) enhances seed quality, including nutrient extraction that supports bioavailability, thereby improving overall hypocholesterolemic potential. Extraction methods for nutraceutical applications typically involve solvents like or to isolate bioactive fractions from . reflux extraction yields high levels of coixol (29.97–34.81 mg/g) and phenolics for supplements targeting benefits, while methanolic extracts inhibit production in macrophages. These extracts are incorporated into functional foods and capsules for support. Emerging 2025 research indicates prophylactic effects against nonalcoholic (NAFLD) in mouse models. Coix seed oil reduced hepatic fat accumulation by inhibiting the p-AMPK/SePP1 pathway, alleviating metabolic dysfunction in high-fat diet-induced NAFLD. Similarly, formulations containing Coix extracts improved and lipid profiles in HFD-fed mice, highlighting their potential in preventing NAFLD progression.

Pests and diseases

Common pests

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) is susceptible to several insect pests that can impact yield, particularly in its primary cultivation regions of Asia. Among the major threats are armyworms (Spodoptera spp., including the fall armyworm S. frugiperda), stem borers (Chilo spp., such as C. suppressalis), and aphids (e.g., Ceratovacuna lanigera). These pests primarily target foliage, stems, and reproductive structures, leading to reduced plant vigor and grain production. Armyworms, particularly the invasive (Spodoptera frugiperda), feed voraciously on leaves, causing defoliation and skeletonization of foliage in severe infestations. This leaf feeding weakens plants and can lead to significant loss, with damage incidence reported between 7.23% and 10.86% in affected fields. Stem borers (Chilo suppressalis) larvae tunnel into stems, disrupting and transport, which results in "deadheart" symptoms where central shoots wilt and die during vegetative stages, and "whitehead" formation with empty panicles at maturity, ultimately causing stem tunneling and reduced fill. Aphids like Ceratovacuna lanigera suck sap from leaves and stems, leading to curled or distorted foliage, , and indirect seed loss through honeydew production that promotes and potential viral transmission. These pests exhibit higher prevalence in , especially during seasons when humid conditions favor larval development and population outbreaks in tropical and subtropical growing areas like , , and . For instance, fall armyworm infestations on Job's tears have been documented in Province, , following its spread from fields. Monitoring for early detection involves regular field scouting, such as weekly visual inspections of from seedling to maturity stages to identify eggs, larvae, or damage signs like or , which is essential for timely intervention.

Diseases and management

Job's tears (Coix lacryma-jobi) is affected by several major fungal diseases that can significantly impact yield and quality. The most serious is smut, caused by Ustilago coicis, which infects the ovaries and inflorescences, leading to the replacement of grains with black teliospores and causing up to complete crop failure in severe cases. Another significant disease is tar leaf spot, caused by Phyllachora coicis, which produces black, tar-like spots on leaves, reducing photosynthetic area. Rust, caused by Puccinia operta, produces orange to brown pustules on leaves and stems, reducing photosynthesis and plant vigor. Leaf blight, incited by Bipolaris coicis, manifests as dark brown lesions on leaves that expand and coalesce, leading to premature defoliation and yield losses of 20-50% in affected fields. Effective management of these diseases relies on integrated approaches combining cultural, chemical, and genetic strategies. For smut, seed treatment with fungicides such as or hot water immersion at 60-70°C for 10 minutes before is recommended to eliminate inoculum and prevent systemic infection. with non-host crops like for at least two years helps reduce soil-borne inoculum for all major diseases, while field sanitation practices, including burning infected residues, limit the spread of B. coicis spores. Resistant varieties, such as those developed through breeding programs targeting tolerance to smut and leaf blight, provide durable protection. applications, including systemic products like triazoles for control, are applied preventatively during high-humidity periods, but their use is integrated with monitoring to minimize resistance development. Overall, (IPM) emphasizes scouting, weather-based forecasting, and combining these tactics to achieve sustainable control with reduced chemical inputs. Post-harvest management focuses on preventing storage molds, which can produce mycotoxins like deoxynivalenol and in improperly stored grains. Thorough of to below 13% content immediately after is essential to inhibit fungal growth, particularly from and species, and should be followed by storage in airtight, cool conditions. Ongoing climate warming trends as of 2025 are exacerbating risks in Job's tears by extending favorable conditions for fungal pathogens, such as higher and temperatures that promote and cycles in small millets.

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