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114th United States Congress
114th United States Congress
114th United States Congress
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114th United States Congress
113th ←
→ 115th
United States Capitol (2016)
January 3, 2015 – January 3, 2017
Members100 senators
435 representatives
6 non-voting delegates
Senate majorityRepublican
Senate PresidentJoe Biden (D)
House majorityRepublican
House SpeakerJohn Boehner (R)
(until October 29, 2015)
Paul Ryan (R)
(from October 29, 2015)
Sessions
1st: January 6, 2015 – December 18, 2015
2nd: January 4, 2016 – January 3, 2017
House of Representatives member pin for the 114th U.S. Congress

The 114th United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States of America federal government, composed of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C., from January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2017, during the final two years of Barack Obama's presidency. The seats in the House were apportioned based on the 2010 United States census.[1][2][3]

The 2014 elections gave the Republicans control of the Senate and the House for the first time since the 109th Congress. With 248 seats in the House of Representatives and 54 seats in the Senate, this Congress began with the largest Republican majority since the 71st Congress of 1929–1931. As of 2025, this was the most recent Congress in which the Senate was controlled by the opposing party of the president for its entire session.

Major events

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President Barack Obama gave the State of the Union Address on January 20, 2015
Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu addressed Congress on March 3, 2015
Secretary of State John Kerry, Secretary of Energy Ernest Moniz, and Secretary of the Treasury Jack Lew defended the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action at a hearing of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on July 23, 2015
Pope Francis addressed Congress September 24, 2015.
Main articles: 2015 in the United States, 2016 in the United States, and 2017 in the United States

Major legislation

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Enacted

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Main article: List of acts of the 114th United States Congress

Proposed

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Main article: List of bills in the 114th United States Congress

Vetoed

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Party summary

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Resignations and new members are discussed in the "Changes in membership" section, below.

Senate

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Final Senate Membership
     44 Democrats
     54 Republicans

     2 Independents, caucusing with Democrats
Affiliation Party
(Shading indicates majority caucus)
 Total Vacant
Democratic Independent
(caucusing with
Democrats) 		Republican
End of previous Congress 53 2 45 100 0
Begin (January 3, 2015) 44 2 54 100 0
Final voting share 46.0% 54.0%  
Beginning of the next Congress 46 2 52 100 0

House of Representatives

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Final House Membership
     187 Democrats
     246 Republicans

     2 Vacant
Party
(Shading indicates majority caucus)
 Total Vacant
Democratic Independent Republican
End of previous Congress 201 0 234 435 0
Begin (January 3, 2015) 188 0 247 435 0
January 5, 2015[a] 246 434 1
February 6, 2015[b] 245 433 2
March 31, 2015[c] 244 432 3
May 5, 2015[a] 245 433 2
June 2, 2015[b] 246 434 1
September 10, 2015[c] 247 435 0
October 31, 2015[d] 246 434 1
June 7, 2016[d] 247 435 0
June 23, 2016[e] 187 434 1
July 20, 2016[f] 186 433 2
September 6, 2016[g] 246 432 3
November 8, 2016[e][f][g] 188 247 435 0
December 4, 2016[h] 187 434 1
December 31, 2016[i] 246 433 2
Final voting share 43.2% 0.0% 56.8%
Non-voting members 4 1 1 6 0
Beginning of the next Congress 194 0 241 435 0
114th U.S. Congress House of Representatives Member Pin

Leadership

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Section contents: Senate: Majority (R), Minority (D) • House: Majority (R), Minority (D)

Senate

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Senate President
Joe Biden
Joe Biden (D)
Senate President pro tempore
Orrin Hatch
Orrin Hatch (R)

Majority (Republican) leadership

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Minority (Democratic) leadership

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House of Representatives

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See also: January 2015 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election and October 2015 Speaker of the United States House of Representatives election
House Speaker
John Boehner
John Boehner (R), until October 29, 2015
Paul Ryan
Paul Ryan (R), from October 29, 2015

Majority (Republican) leadership

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Minority (Democratic) leadership

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Members

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Senate

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Senators are listed by state and then by Senate classes, In this Congress, Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, requiring re-election in 2016; Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, requiring re-election in 2018; and Class 2 meant their term began in this Congress, requiring re-election in 2020.

House of Representatives

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For maps of congressional districts, see List of United States congressional districts.

Changes in membership

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Senate

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There were no changes in Senate membership during this Congress.

House of Representatives

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See also: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives
House changes
District Vacated by Reason for change Successor Date of successor's
formal installation[n]
New York 11th Michael Grimm
(R) 		Incumbent resigned January 5, 2015, following a guilty plea on one count of felony tax evasion.[27]
A special election was held May 5, 2015.[28] 		Dan Donovan
(R) 		May 12, 2015
Mississippi 1st Alan Nunnelee
(R) 		Incumbent died February 6, 2015.[29]
A special election runoff was held June 2, 2015.[30][31] 		Trent Kelly
(R) 		June 9, 2015
Illinois 18th Aaron Schock
(R) 		Incumbent resigned March 31, 2015, following a spending scandal.[32][33]
A special election was held September 10, 2015. 		Darin LaHood
(R) 		September 17, 2015
Ohio 8th John Boehner
(R) 		Incumbent resigned October 31, 2015.[34]
A special election was held June 7, 2016. 		Warren Davidson
(R) 		June 9, 2016[35]
Pennsylvania 2nd Chaka Fattah
(D) 		Incumbent resigned June 23, 2016, following a conviction of corruption charges.[36]
A special election was held November 8, 2016.[37] 		Dwight Evans
(D) 		November 14, 2016
Hawaii 1st Mark Takai
(D) 		Incumbent died July 20, 2016.[38]
A special election was held November 8, 2016.[39] 		Colleen Hanabusa
(D) 		November 14, 2016
Kentucky 1st Ed Whitfield
(R) 		Incumbent resigned September 6, 2016, following an ethics investigation.[40]
A special election was held November 8, 2016.[41] 		James Comer
(R) 		November 14, 2016
California 44th Janice Hahn
(D) 		Incumbent resigned December 4, 2016, to become a member of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors.[42]
No special election was held and the seat remained vacant until the next Congress. Hahn did not run for re-election in 2016. 		Vacant until the next Congress
Michigan's 10th Candice Miller
(R) 		Incumbent resigned December 31, 2016, to become Macomb County Public Works Commissioner.[43]
No special election was held and the seat remained vacant until the next Congress. Miller did not run for re-election in 2016.

Committees

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[Section contents: Senate, House, Joint ]

Senate

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Main article: List of current United States Senate committees
Committee Chairman Ranking Member
Agriculture, Nutrition and Forestry Pat Roberts (R-KS) Debbie Stabenow (D-MI)
Appropriations Thad Cochran (R-MS) Barbara Mikulski (D-MD)
Armed Services John McCain (R-AZ) Jack Reed (D-RI)
Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs Richard Shelby (R-AL) Sherrod Brown (D-OH)
Budget Mike Enzi (R-WY) Bernie Sanders (I-VT)
Commerce, Science and Transportation John Thune (R-SD) Bill Nelson (D-FL)
Energy and Natural Resources Lisa Murkowski (R-AK) Maria Cantwell (D-WA)
Environment and Public Works Jim Inhofe (R-OK) Barbara Boxer (D-CA)
Finance Orrin Hatch (R-UT) Ron Wyden (D-OR)
Foreign Relations Bob Corker (R-TN) Ben Cardin (D-MD)
Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Lamar Alexander (R-TN) Patty Murray (D-WA)
Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Ron Johnson (R-WI) Thomas Carper (D-DE)
Indian Affairs John Barrasso (R-WY) Jon Tester (D-MT)
Judiciary Chuck Grassley (R-IA) Patrick Leahy (D-VT)
Rules and Administration Roy Blunt (R-MO) Chuck Schumer (D-NY)
Small Business and Entrepreneurship David Vitter (R-LA) Jeanne Shaheen (D-NH)
Veterans' Affairs Johnny Isakson (R-GA) Richard Blumenthal (D-CT)

House of Representatives

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Main article: List of current United States House of Representatives committees
Committee Chairman Ranking Member
Agriculture Michael Conaway (R-TX) Collin Peterson (D-MN)
Appropriations Harold Rogers (R-KY) Nita Lowey (D-NY)
Armed Services Mac Thornberry (R-TX) Adam Smith (D-WA)
Budget Tom Price (R-GA) Chris Van Hollen (D-MD)
Education and the Workforce John Kline (R-MN) Bobby Scott (D-VA)
Energy and Commerce Fred Upton (R-MI) Frank Pallone (D-NJ)
Ethics Charlie Dent (R-PA) Linda Sánchez (D-CA)
Financial Services Jeb Hensarling (R-TX) Maxine Waters (D-CA)
Foreign Affairs Edward Royce (R-CA) Eliot Engel (D-NY)
Homeland Security Michael McCaul (R-TX) Bennie Thompson (D-MS)
House Administration Candice Miller (R-MI) Robert Brady (D-PA)
Judiciary Bob Goodlatte (R-VA) John Conyers (D-MI)
Natural Resources Rob Bishop (R-UT) Raul Grijalva (D-AZ)
Oversight and Government Reform Jason Chaffetz (R-UT) Elijah Cummings (D-MD)
Rules Pete Sessions (R-TX) Louise Slaughter (D-NY)
Science, Space & Technology Lamar Smith (R-TX) Eddie Bernice Johnson (D-TX)
Small Business Steve Chabot (R-OH) Nydia Velázquez (D-NY)
Transportation and Infrastructure Bill Shuster (R-PA) Peter DeFazio (D-OR)
Veterans' Affairs Jeff Miller (R-FL) Corrine Brown (D-FL)
Ways and Means Kevin Brady (R-TX) Sander Levin (D-MI)
Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence Devin Nunes (R-CA) Adam Schiff (D-CA)

Joint committees

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Main article: List of current United States congressional joint committees
Committee Chairman Vice Chairman
Joint Economic Committee Sen. Dan Coats (R-IN) Rep. Pat Tiberi (R-OH)
Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies (Special) Sen. Roy Blunt (R-MO) Rep. Paul Ryan (R-WI)
Joint Committee on the Library Sen. Roy Blunt (R-MO) Rep. Gregg Harper (R-MS)
Joint Committee on Printing Rep. Gregg Harper (R-MS) Sen. Roy Blunt (R-MO)
Joint Committee on Taxation Rep. Kevin Brady (R-TX) Sen. Orrin Hatch (R-UT)

Caucuses

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Main article: Caucuses of the United States Congress

Employees

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Senate

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Source: "Senate Organization Chart for the 114th Congress". Senate.gov. US Senate. Archived from the original on March 28, 2015. Retrieved January 26, 2015.

House of Representatives

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Source: "Officers and Organizations of the House". House.gov. US House. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved January 26, 2015.

Legislative branch agency directors

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See also

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Elections

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Membership lists

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Notes

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References

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[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

114th United States Congress

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from Grokipedia
The 114th Congress was the meeting of the bicameral federal legislature, comprising the and the , which convened on January 6, 2015, and adjourned on January 3, 2017. Republicans held majorities in both chambers—the House with 247 seats to Democrats' 188 and the Senate with 54 seats to Democrats' 44 plus two independents caucusing with Democrats—representing the party's first control of Congress since the 109th session a earlier. Operating under opposite Democratic President , the Congress prioritized fiscal restraint, regulatory rollbacks, and opposition to executive actions on healthcare, , and , though many initiatives faced vetoes requiring two-thirds overrides that were rarely achieved. Among its defining legislative outputs were bipartisan measures advancing through the Every Student Succeeds Act, which supplanted the No Child Left Behind framework with greater state flexibility; biomedical innovation via the , allocating funds for precision medicine and neurological research; and national security enhancements in the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act, which overrode Obama's veto to enable suits against foreign states supporting attacks on Americans. Annual appropriations bills sustained government operations amid debt ceiling and shutdown brinkmanship, while trade facilitation legislation granted Obama fast-track authority for the , reflecting pragmatic cross-aisle cooperation on select economic issues. The session also encompassed extensive oversight, including probes into the IRS's handling of nonprofit applications and the , underscoring Republican emphasis on executive accountability. Internal dynamics highlighted tensions within the Republican majority, exemplified by Speaker John Boehner's October 2015 resignation amid conservative frustration over compromises and , paving the way for Paul Ryan's ascension as Speaker with commitments to procedural reforms. High-profile foreign addresses, such as Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu's critique of the nuclear framework and Pope Francis's appeals on poverty and environment, amplified debates over U.S. diplomacy and moral priorities. Overall, the enacted 329 public laws but grappled with polarization, yielding incremental policy shifts rather than transformative overhauls in a veto-constrained environment.

Overview and Context

Dates and Sessions

The 114th United States Congress was established by the Twentieth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, with its term commencing at noon on January 3 following the election, though a of the prior Congress (H.J.Res. 129, enacted as Public Law 113-201) designated January 6, 2015, as the convening date. It operated during the final two years of President Barack Obama's presidency and adjourned sine die on January 3, 2017, marking the start of the 115th Congress. The first session began on January 6, 2015, following the constitutional assembly and organizational proceedings in both chambers, including the election of leaders and adoption of rules. It concluded with sine die adjournment on December 18, 2015, as authorized by H.Con.Res. 104, which permitted adjournment without further legislative day upon the House's recess starting that date through January 2, 2016. The second session convened on January 4, 2016, resuming legislative business after the intersession recess. It ended with sine die adjournment on January 3, 2017, completing the Congress's term without extension. No special or extraordinary sessions were called during either session.

Political and Electoral Background

The 114th Congress resulted from the , , midterm elections, in which the Republican Party achieved unified control of for the first time since the 109th Congress (2005–2007). Entering the elections, Democrats held a majority of 53 seats (including two independents caucusing with them) against 45 Republican seats, while Republicans maintained a House majority of 234 seats to Democrats' 201. Republicans capitalized on voter discontent with President Barack Obama's administration, including stalled economic growth post-recession, implementation challenges with the , and foreign policy setbacks such as the rise of and the handling of the outbreak, to secure significant gains. In the Senate, Republicans flipped nine seats—primarily in Southern and Western states vulnerable due to Democratic incumbents' retirements or defeats—including (Jay Rockefeller's open seat to ), ( to ), and ( to )—yielding a 54–46 (counting one independent caucusing with Republicans). This marked the largest Republican Senate gain in a midterm since and shifted control amid a historically unfavorable map for Democrats defending 21 seats. House Republicans netted 13 seats, expanding their to 247–188, with key pickups in Democratic strongholds reflecting broader anti-incumbent sentiment and emphasizing opposition to Obama-era policies on and energy regulation. Voter turnout stood at 36.7% of the voting-eligible population, below levels but sufficient to propel Republican gains, driven by higher engagement among conservative voters motivated by rhetoric and Tea Party-influenced activism. The results underscored midterm penalties for the president's party, with Obama's approval rating hovering around 42% in late 2014, correlating with Democratic losses exceeding 60 House seats and seven governorships nationwide. This electoral mandate positioned the incoming Congress to pursue agenda items like , repeal efforts against Obamacare, and Keystone XL approval, though veto threats loomed over dynamics.

Composition

Senate Partisan Breakdown

The 114th United States Senate comprised 54 Republicans, 44 Democrats, and 2 Independents, with the Independents—Angus King of and of —formally caucusing with the Democrats, resulting in a 54–46 Republican majority. This configuration granted Republicans organizational control, including committee chairmanships and agenda-setting authority. Republicans achieved this majority through net gains of nine seats in the November 2014 elections, flipping Democratic-held seats in states including , , , , and , among others. Prior to these elections, the 113th Congress had ended with a 53–45 Democratic majority (including the two Independents caucusing with Democrats) and 45 Republicans. The shift represented the first Republican Senate control since the 109th Congress (2005–2007). No partisan shifts occurred during the 114th Congress that altered the overall breakdown, though temporary vacancies arose due to deaths or appointments; for instance, the Senate operated with 99 members following the death of Democrat Harry Reid's planned retirement but served full term without vacancy impact on parties. The stable composition enabled consistent Republican leadership under Mitch .
PartyLeaderSeatsCaucus Affiliation
Republican (KY)54Republican
Democratic (NV)44Democratic
IndependentN/A2Democratic

House of Representatives Partisan Breakdown

The of the 114th United States Congress, which convened on January 3, 2015, comprised 247 Republicans and 188 Democrats among its 435 voting members, granting the Republican Party a of 59 seats. This composition resulted from the 2014 midterm elections, in which Republicans gained 13 seats from Democrats, expanding their control established in the 2010 elections. Throughout the Congress, the partisan balance shifted due to vacancies, resignations, and special elections. Notable changes included the resignation of Republican Mark Thompson in June 2015, filled by a Republican in a special election, and Democratic vacancies that maintained the Republican majority. By the end of the session on January 3, 2017, the House had recorded two vacancies at times, but Republicans retained their without interruption.
PartyInitial Seats (Jan. 2015)Voting Members
Republican247435 total
Democratic188
This table reflects election-day results; non-voting delegates (e.g., from territories) caucused separately and are excluded from the partisan voting majority calculation.

Non-Voting Members

The House of Representatives of the 114th United States Congress (2015–2017) comprised six non-voting members: five delegates representing the District of Columbia and four U.S. territories (, , the , and the U.S. ), and one resident commissioner from . These officials possessed full voting rights in committees and could introduce bills and amendments, but they were barred from voting on final passage of legislation in the full House. Among them, one delegate affiliated with the Republican Party, while the four other delegates and the resident commissioner affiliated with the Democratic Party, reflecting the broader partisan distribution in the House where non-voting members followed similar patterns to voting representatives. The following table lists the non-voting members, their represented jurisdictions, and party affiliations:
JurisdictionMemberParty Affiliation
Aumua Amata Coleman RadewagenRepublican
Madeleine Z. BordalloDemocrat
District of ColumbiaDemocrat
Gregorio Kilili Camacho SablanDemocrat
U.S. Virgin IslandsStacey E. PlaskettDemocrat
(Resident Commissioner)Pedro R. PierluisiDemocrat (New Progressive Party)
All six served throughout the two-year term without vacancies or replacements. Radewagen's marked the first Republican representation for since the delegate position's creation in 1970, defeating incumbent in the November 2014 general . Pierluisi, from Puerto Rico's pro-statehood New Progressive Party, maintained an affiliation with the Democratic Party in despite the NPP's ideological alignment with Republican positions on issues like statehood and . Sablan, while occasionally running as an independent locally, caucused consistently with Democrats federally.

Leadership

Senate Leadership

The 114th Congress marked a shift to Republican control of the following the elections, with the party holding 54 seats including two independents who caucused with Democrats. of served as Majority Leader throughout the session, assuming the role on , 2015, after previously leading the minority. of acted as Minority Leader for Democrats, retaining the position he held in the prior Congress despite a serious sustained in 2015 that limited his active participation later in the term. John Cornyn of functioned as Senate Majority Whip, assisting McConnell in managing Republican floor operations and enforcing party discipline. Dick Durbin of held the position of Senate Minority Whip, coordinating Democratic responses and strategy under Reid's leadership. Vice President Joe Biden presided over the as its constitutional president, casting tie-breaking votes when necessary, though no such instances occurred in the 114th Congress due to the Republican majority. Orrin Hatch of served as President pro tempore, the senior Republican senator in the majority party, empowered to preside in the vice president's absence and third in the presidential line of succession.
PositionIncumbentPartyState
Majority LeaderRepublican
Minority LeaderDemocratic
Majority WhipRepublican
Minority WhipDemocratic
President of the SenateDemocratic(VP)
President pro temporeRepublican

House of Representatives Leadership

The Republican-controlled House of Representatives in the 114th Congress elected John Boehner of Ohio as Speaker on January 6, 2015, for his fourth consecutive term. Boehner, who had served as Speaker since the 112th Congress, faced ongoing challenges from conservative factions within his party over fiscal policy and leadership decisions. On September 25, 2015, Boehner announced his resignation as Speaker and from , effective October 30, 2015, stating that he lacked the mandate to continue amid internal divisions. This followed pressure from the House Freedom Caucus and threats of a . Paul Ryan of Wisconsin, previously Chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, was nominated by House Republicans and elected Speaker on October 29, 2015, by a vote of 236-184, assuming the role immediately for the remainder of the Congress. Ryan conditioned his candidacy on party unity pledges to stabilize leadership. Kevin McCarthy of served as House Majority Leader throughout the 114th , managing the legislative agenda for the Republican majority. of held the position of Majority Whip, responsible for enforcing party discipline and vote counting. On the Democratic side, of continued as , leading opposition efforts and caucus strategy. of acted as Minority Whip, coordinating Democratic messaging and procedural tactics.

Membership Changes

Senate Vacancies and Replacements

No vacancies occurred in the United States Senate during the 114th Congress (January 3, 2015, to January 3, 2017), as no senators died in office, resigned, or were otherwise removed from their seats. The chamber maintained its full complement of 100 members, with Republicans holding 54 seats, Democrats 44 seats, and two independents ( of and of ) caucusing with Democrats, throughout the entire session. This stability contrasted with the House of Representatives, where multiple vacancies arose due to resignations and deaths, necessitating special elections. In the Senate, the absence of mid-term changes preserved the Republican majority secured in the 2014 elections without interim appointments by governors or special elections, as provided under Article I, Section 3 of the Constitution and state laws.

House Vacancies and Special Elections

During the 114th Congress, seven vacancies arose in the due to two deaths and five resignations, all of which were filled via special elections that retained the partisan affiliation of the vacated seat. These events did not alter the overall Republican majority in the chamber. The following table summarizes the vacancies and outcomes:
DistrictVacated by (Party)Reason and DateSpecial Election DateWinner (Party)
New York 11Michael Grimm (R)Resignation after guilty plea to felony tax charges; January 5, 2015May 5, 2015Dan Donovan (R)
Mississippi 1Alan Nunnelee (R)Death from brain tumor complications; February 6, 2015)May 12, 2015 (after primary and runoff)Trent Kelly (R)
Illinois 18Aaron Schock (R)Resignation amid ethics investigations into misuse of funds; March 31, 2015September 10, 2015Darin LaHood (R)
Ohio 8John Boehner (R)Resignation citing exhaustion from leadership pressures; October 31, 2015June 7, 2016Warren Davidson (R)
Pennsylvania 2Chaka Fattah (D)Resignation after conviction on 23 counts of racketeering and fraud; June 23, 2016November 8, 2016Dwight Evans (D)
Hawaii 1Mark Takai (D)Death from pancreatic cancer; July 20, 2016November 8, 2016Colleen Hanabusa (D)
Kentucky 1Ed Whitfield (R)Resignation amid ethics probe into favors for his wife; September 6, 2016November 8, 2016James Comer (R)
In each case, the special elections followed state-specific timelines for primaries and general votes, with winners serving the remainder of the term ending , 2017. Turnout varied, often low, and contests were typically non-competitive within the dominant of the district.

Committees and Caucuses

Key Senate Committees

The 114th Congress marked a shift in Senate committee , with Republicans securing a 54–46 (including two Independents caucusing with Democrats), enabling them to chair all 16 standing committees for the first time since the 108th Congress. This control facilitated Republican priorities in areas such as , , and judicial oversight, though partisan divides often limited bipartisan output. Committee chairs wielded agenda-setting power, including the ability to schedule hearings, mark up bills, and conduct investigations, subject to Senate rules allowing minority input via ranking members. Among the most influential were the Committees on Appropriations, Finance, Judiciary, Armed Services, and Foreign Relations, which handled core legislative and oversight functions involving federal spending, taxation, confirmation of judges and executives, defense policy, and international affairs. These panels processed thousands of nominations and bills, with chairs leveraging majority votes to advance GOP-backed measures amid frequent Democratic filibusters.
CommitteeChairRanking Member
AppropriationsThad Cochran (R-MS)Barbara Mikulski (D-MD)
FinanceOrrin Hatch (R-UT)Ron Wyden (D-OR)
JudiciaryChuck Grassley (R-IA)Patrick Leahy (D-VT)
Armed ServicesJohn McCain (R-AZ)Jack Reed (D-RI)
Foreign RelationsBob Corker (R-TN)Ben Cardin (D-MD)
The Appropriations Committee, under Cochran, managed the annual federal budget process, allocating over $1 trillion in through 12 subcommittees and navigating sequestration constraints from prior law. The Finance Committee, led by Hatch, oversaw proposals and trade agreements like the Trans-Pacific Partnership, holding hearings on revenue measures that influenced the 2015–2016 budget debates. Judiciary, chaired by Grassley, confirmed over 50 Article III judges but stalled President Obama's nominee Merrick Garland following Justice Scalia's death in February 2016, citing election-year precedent. Armed Services, with McCain at the helm, scrutinized defense authorizations exceeding $600 billion annually and investigated military readiness amid global threats. Foreign Relations, directed by Corker, advanced sanctions on and while critiquing the Iran nuclear deal through oversight hearings.

Key House Committees

The House of Representatives in the 114th Congress (2015–2017) relied on its 20 standing committees to conduct legislative work, including bill consideration, oversight, and policy development, with Republicans holding all chair positions due to their 247–188 majority. Committee chairs set agendas, controlled hearings, and influenced floor action, often advancing Republican priorities such as tax reform proposals and regulatory rollbacks amid conflicts with the Democratic Senate and Obama administration. Notable shifts included Paul Ryan's transition from Ways and Means chair to Speaker in October 2015, succeeded by Kevin Brady. Key committees and their leadership included:
CommitteeJurisdiction HighlightsChair (Republican)Ranking Member (Democrat)
Ways and MeansTaxation, trade, Social SecurityPaul Ryan (WI, until Oct. 2015); Kevin Brady (TX, thereafter)Sander Levin (MI)
AppropriationsFederal spending and budget billsHarold Rogers (KY)Nita Lowey (NY)
RulesBill amendment rules and floor proceduresPete Sessions (TX)Louise Slaughter (NY)
Energy and CommerceHealth, energy, telecom policyFred Upton (MI)Frank Pallone (NJ)
JudiciaryCourts, civil rights, immigrationBob Goodlatte (VA)John Conyers (MI)
Armed ServicesMilitary authorization and defenseMac Thornberry (TX)Adam Smith (WA)
Oversight and Government ReformExecutive branch investigationsJason Chaffetz (UT)Elijah Cummings (MD)
Homeland SecurityDomestic security and disastersMichael McCaul (TX)Bennie Thompson (MS)
Foreign AffairsDiplomacy and international relationsEdward Royce (CA)Eliot Engel (NY)
These panels advanced measures like the National Defense Authorization Act through Armed Services and probed IRS targeting via Oversight, though many initiatives stalled in the Senate or faced vetoes. Subcommittees under these committees handled specialized topics, amplifying chairs' roles in shaping Republican legislative strategy.

Joint Committees

The 114th United States Congress operated four permanent statutory joint committees, comprising members from both the House and Senate to address shared legislative oversight: the Joint Economic Committee, Joint Committee on Taxation, Joint Committee on Printing, and Joint Committee on the Library. These committees conducted non-legislative functions such as economic analysis, tax policy review, government printing management, and library operations, respectively, without authority to report legislation directly to the floor. A special Joint Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies was also established for the 2017 presidential inauguration preparations. Joint Economic Committee
Established under the Employment Act of 1946, the Joint Economic Committee monitored economic trends and evaluated federal programs, producing annual Joint Economic Reports. In the 114th Congress, Senator (R-IN) served as chairman, with Senator (D-MN) as ranking member on the Senate side, while Representative Pat Tiberi (R-OH) acted as vice chairman from the House. The committee released its 2016 Joint Economic Report on March 2, 2016, analyzing U.S. economic performance amid post-recession recovery, including GDP growth of 2.2% in 2015 and unemployment at 5.0%. Joint Committee on Taxation
The Joint Committee on Taxation, created by the Revenue Act of 1926, provided revenue estimates for tax legislation and investigated operations. Representative (R-TX) chaired the committee, reflecting Republican majorities in both chambers. The committee staff prepared the "General Explanation of Tax Legislation Enacted in the 114th Congress" in March 2016, detailing provisions from 19 enacted laws, including extensions of expired tax credits and modifications to international tax rules under the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes Act of 2015. Joint Committee on Printing
Responsible for overseeing federal government printing and distribution under 44 U.S.C. § 101, the Joint Committee on Printing managed contracts and ensured compliance with printing standards. Senator (R-MO) was appointed to leadership roles involving printing oversight. The committee handled procurement for congressional documents during a period of digital transition, with federal printing expenditures totaling approximately $400 million annually across government agencies. Joint Committee on the Library
Tasked with administering the and related facilities under 2 U.S.C. § 132a, the Joint Committee on the Library supervised acquisitions, maintenance, and special collections. Membership drew from the House Administration and Senate Rules committees, focusing on budgetary allocations amid the Library's $700 million-plus annual funding in fiscal year 2016. No major controversies or reforms were reported specific to this committee's operations in the 114th Congress.

Partisan Caucuses and Informal Groups

The formal partisan caucuses in the 114th Congress served as the primary organizational structures for each party's members to coordinate legislative strategy, messaging, and internal discipline. In the , the Republican Conference, as the majority party body with 54 members, was directed by of , with Conference Chair of overseeing policy development and communications. The Democratic Caucus, comprising 44 Democrats and 2 independents who caucused with them for a total of 46, operated under of , focusing on opposition tactics and enforcement. In the , the Republican Conference held the majority with 247 members and was initially led by Speaker of , transitioning to of in 2015 amid internal pressures; of handled floor operations. The Democratic Caucus, with 188 members, was guided by of , emphasizing unity on blocking Republican initiatives and advancing Democratic priorities like healthcare protections. Informal ideological groups within these partisan caucuses exerted influence on policy and leadership dynamics, particularly in the House where factionalism was more pronounced. Among House Republicans, the House Freedom Caucus, formed in January 2015 by nine founding members including Representatives of , of , of , Raúl Labrador of , of , and of , advocated for stricter , , and accountability from party leadership; it expanded to approximately 40 members by late 2015 and contributed to Boehner's resignation through opposition to a in September 2015. The Republican Study Committee, a longstanding conservative faction with broader membership, was chaired by of Texas and promoted similar principles through alternative legislative proposals and budget blueprints. The Tea Party Caucus, led by of Kansas, focused on deficit reduction and opposed compromise spending bills, aligning with priorities but with limited membership. Within House Democrats, the , a group of fiscally moderate members emphasizing deficit control and centrist policies, selected co-chairs of , of , and of in January 2015, with around 20 participants influencing appropriations and trade votes. The , representing the party's left wing with nearly 70 members, re-elected co-chairs of and Raúl Grijalva of in November 2014, prioritizing income inequality, environmental protections, and opposition to trade deals like the . The , a pro-growth moderate faction, elected new leadership in November 2014 including representatives focused on innovation and economic competitiveness, inducting five new members and advocating for bipartisan infrastructure and education reforms. In the Senate, informal groups were less formalized and influential compared to the House, with party conferences dominating internal coordination; ideological factions operated through coalitions rather than registered caucuses, reflecting stronger leadership control under McConnell and . These groups collectively shaped debates on budget resolutions, debt ceiling negotiations, and confirmations, often amplifying intraparty tensions that delayed omnibus spending bills in late and early 2016.

Legislative Activity

Enacted Major Legislation

The 114th Congress, operating under with Republican majorities in both chambers and Democratic President , enacted 148 public laws, focusing on bipartisan priorities such as , defense, , and amid partisan impasses on issues like and healthcare overhaul. Major legislation often emerged from compromise, including multi-year reauthorizations and appropriations measures that avoided government shutdowns, though many spending bills were bundled into omnibus packages to secure passage. USA Freedom Act (P.L. 114-23), signed into law on June 2, 2015, ended the National Security Agency's bulk collection of Americans' telephone metadata under Section 215 of the , replacing it with a system requiring court-approved queries of data held by telecom providers, while extending other provisions for two years and enhancing transparency in Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court operations. The bipartisan measure addressed post-Snowden surveillance concerns, passing the 303-121 and 67-32. Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015 (P.L. 114-74), enacted November 2, 2015, raised statutory spending caps by $80 billion over two years ($30 billion for defense, $50 billion for non-defense), averting sequestration cuts and providing disaster relief funding, including $1 billion for ; it also reformed projections and extended some tax provisions. This deal, negotiated by congressional leaders and the , passed the 266-167 and 64-35, enabling subsequent appropriations. Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act (P.L. 114-94), signed December 4, 2015, authorized $305 billion over five years for and transit programs, streamlining project approvals, boosting funding for , and enhancing safety measures like anti-drunk technology mandates; it represented the first long-term surface transportation bill since 2005. The measure cleared the 363-64 and 83-16, reflecting broad consensus on needs. Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, P.L. 114-95), enacted December 10, 2015, reauthorized the , devolving more authority to states over K-12 accountability and testing from federal mandates under No Child Left Behind, while maintaining core requirements for standards, assessments, and targeted aid to disadvantaged students. It passed the 85-12 and 359-64, marking a rare education overhaul with input from both parties. National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2016 (P.L. 114-92), signed December 23, 2015, allocated $607 billion for military operations, including $38.3 billion above prior-year levels for readiness, counter-ISIS efforts, and modernization, while authorizing detainee policies and restricting transfers from Guantanamo Bay; annual NDAAs have passed every year since 1961. The bill advanced through conference after House (370-58) and Senate (91-3) approvals. 21st Century Cures Act (P.L. 114-255), signed December 13, 2016, accelerated FDA drug and device approvals via streamlined pathways, allocated $6.3 billion over a decade for biomedical research including the BRAIN Initiative and Precision Medicine, and reformed mental health services under the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Incorporating provisions from multiple bills, it garnered House support 392-6 and Senate 94-5, driven by advocacy for faster innovation amid opioid and neurological disease challenges. Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA, P.L. 114-222), enacted September 28, 2016, removed barriers for U.S. victims of terrorism to sue foreign states in federal court, primarily targeting Saudi Arabia's alleged role in 9/11 attacks, despite veto concerns over diplomatic repercussions; overrode the veto with (348-77) and (97-1) votes, the first such override of Obama's presidency. The law amended the to enable civil litigation. Other notable enactments included the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (P.L. 114-113), funding government operations through September 2016 with $1.8 trillion in , and the Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation Act (P.L. 114-322), authorizing $170 million annually for and mitigation projects. These measures sustained federal functions but drew criticism for deficit increases without offsetting cuts.

Proposed and Failed Legislation

In the realm of , Republicans introduced multiple bills aimed at repealing the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA). The passed H.R. 132, the ObamaCare Repeal Act, on February 3, 2015, by a 239-171 vote, which sought to nullify the ACA and related reconciliation provisions effective upon enactment; the measure was referred to the but received no further action. Similarly, H.R. 596, introduced to fully repeal the ACA and direct committees to report replacement legislation, advanced through the on , 2015, via a 239-171 vote but stalled without consideration. These efforts reflected ongoing Republican opposition to the law's mandates and subsidies but failed to secure bipartisan support or advancement beyond vehicles, which faced presidential . On foreign policy, congressional Republicans sought to block the (JCPOA), the Iran nuclear agreement announced in July 2015. Under the Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015, Congress reviewed the deal, leading to disapproval resolutions. The House passed H.J.Res. 64, disapproving the JCPOA, on September 11, 2015, by 244-181, with 25 Democrats joining Republicans; however, the Senate's companion S.J.Res. 23 failed cloture on September 10, 2015, with a 58-42 vote falling short of the 60 needed, allowing implementation to proceed. Critics argued the deal inadequately constrained Iran's nuclear capabilities and programs, but Democratic support prevented override. Domestic policy proposals also faltered amid partisan divides. After the December 2015 San Bernardino shooting, Democrats advanced measures, including expanded background checks on purchases; Senate Amendment 1450 to H.R. 3762 failed on December 10, 2015, 50-48. Following the June 2016 Orlando attack, four Senate amendments—covering no-fly list restrictions, background checks, and assault weapon limits—were proposed but defeated, with votes ranging from 52-48 to 53-47, lacking the 60 votes for passage. efforts, such as comprehensive overhauls or DACA expansions, saw no major bills advance past committee in either chamber, stalling due to Republican insistence on border security priorities. increases, like S. 1832 to raise it to $12 by 2020, were introduced but garnered insufficient support for floor votes. These outcomes underscored , with over 10,000 bills introduced but fewer than 2% enacted overall.

Vetoed Bills and Overrides

During the 114th Congress, President vetoed five bills, reflecting partisan divisions over policy priorities such as energy infrastructure, national defense funding, healthcare reform, executive pensions, and liability for foreign sponsors of terrorism. These vetoes were sustained in four cases, with lacking the two-thirds majorities required in both chambers to override under Article I, Section 7 of the U.S. Constitution. Only one veto was successfully overridden, marking the first such instance during Obama's . The first veto occurred on February 24, 2015, when Obama rejected S. 1, the Keystone XL Pipeline Approval Act, which would have authorized the construction of the cross-border oil pipeline from to U.S. refineries. Obama cited environmental risks and the need for a broader strategy, arguing the project did not serve the national interest beyond short-term jobs. did not attempt an override, as the bill fell short of veto-proof margins during passage. On October 22, 2015, Obama vetoed H.R. 1735, the (NDAA) for 2016, a $612 billion measure funding military operations and personnel. The veto stemmed from provisions restricting Guantanamo Bay detainee transfers and budget gimmicks that Obama contended undermined sequestration limits and fiscal responsibility. Although the had passed the bill by a 70-27 margin sufficient for override, the House's 270-156 approval fell 20 votes short of the required two-thirds (290 of 435), sustaining the . Congress later negotiated a NDAA without the disputed elements. Obama vetoed H.R. 3762, the Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation Act of 2015, on January 8, 2016. This Republican-led bill sought to repeal major components of the , including expansion and subsidies, using budget reconciliation procedures. Obama argued it would dismantle healthcare gains, increase uninsured rates by 18 million, and raise premiums, rejecting it as an assault on progress without viable alternatives. The was sustained without an override vote, given insufficient bipartisan support. A minor veto came on July 22, 2016, of H.R. 1777, the Presidential Allowance Modernization Act, which aimed to adjust post-presidency benefits and office allowances under the of 1958. Obama objected to provisions imposing new restrictions and administrative burdens without adequate consultation, viewing them as unnecessary complications. The veto held, with no override pursued. The sole override involved S. 2040, the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act (JASTA), vetoed on September 23, 2016. The bill enabled 9/11 victims' families to sue foreign governments, including , for alleged support of in U.S. courts, amending laws. Obama warned it could expose U.S. assets abroad to reciprocal litigation, strain alliances, and complicate efforts. overrode on September 28, 2016, with the House voting 348-77 and the 97-1, achieving supermajorities despite Obama's opposition and initial bipartisan reservations. This made JASTA as P.L. 114-222.
BillTitleVeto DateReason SummaryOutcome
S. 1Keystone XL Pipeline Approval ActFeb. 24, 2015Environmental and strategic concerns sustained
H.R. 1735 for FY2016Oct. 22, 2015Guantanamo restrictions, budget issues sustained
H.R. 3762Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Reconciliation ActJan. 8, 2016Undermined healthcare reforms sustained
H.R. 1777Presidential Allowance Modernization ActJuly 22, 2016Unnecessary restrictions on benefits sustained
S. 2040Justice Against Sponsors of ActSept. 23, 2016Risks to U.S. and reciprocityOverridden (House 348-77, Senate 97-1)

Budget and Appropriations Processes

The 114th adopted separate budget resolutions in the and to guide (FY) 2016 appropriations and set multi-year targets. The passed H.Con.Res. 27 on March 25, 2015, by a vote of 219-206, projecting $967 billion in defense spending and $462 billion in non-defense discretionary outlays for FY2016 while aiming for $5.2 trillion in deficit reduction over 10 years through measures like Obamacare repeals and tax reforms. The approved S.Con.Res. 11 on April 5, 2015, by 52-46, with similar spending levels but without instructions for changes due to Byrd Rule constraints. Lacking a unified resolution, proceeded without formal caps enforcement beyond prior law, leading to reliance on bipartisan negotiations amid Republican majorities facing Democratic presidential threats. To avert a funding lapse set for October 1, 2015, and address statutory spending caps from the 2011 Budget Control Act, Congress enacted the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015 (H.R. 1314, P.L. 114-74) on October 29, 2015, after House passage 266-167 and Senate 64-35. This raised FY2016 defense discretionary limits by $32 billion and non-defense by $53 billion above prior caps, totaling about $85 billion in additional authority, while suspending the debt ceiling until March 15, 2017, to eliminate immediate borrowing constraints. The act facilitated appropriations without triggering sequestration cuts but drew criticism from fiscal conservatives for expanding spending without offsetting cuts. FY2016 appropriations proceeded via continuing resolutions (CRs) and a year-end omnibus after failing regular order for all 12 bills. A March 6, 2015, CR (H.R. 1334, P.L. 114-5) funded most agencies through September 30 at FY2015 levels, excluding the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), which received targeted funding via H.R. 240, signed March 6, decoupling it from immigration policy riders. Facing shutdown risks over Planned Parenthood defunding in September 2015, Congress passed a CR (H.J.Res. 61) extending funding to December 11. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (H.R. 2029, P.L. 114-113), enacted December 18, 2015, after House 316-113 and Senate 65-33 votes, allocated $1.007 trillion in discretionary spending—$37 billion over the adjusted cap—covering all agencies through September 30, 2016, while including provisions like lifting the 40-year crude oil export ban. For FY2017, the process mirrored FY2016 with CRs bridging gaps to a December 2016 omnibus (Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2017, P.L. 115-31), providing $1.024 trillion in discretionary funds, adhering to Bipartisan Budget Act levels without shutdowns. Overall, the 114th avoided full-year shutdowns—unlike the prior —through 10 CRs and two omnibus packages, but critics noted the pattern bypassed subcommittee markups and enabled last-minute policy add-ons, contributing to $1.7 trillion in total enacted appropriations across both fiscal years. No separate appropriations bills passed both chambers independently, reflecting partisan divides over spending priorities like defense boosts versus domestic programs.

Major Events and Actions

Domestic Policy Initiatives

The 114th Congress advanced several bipartisan measures amid partisan divides, focusing on , investment, chemical regulation, and innovation. Republican majorities in both chambers prioritized long-term authorizations to address decay and regulatory stagnation, while collaborating with the Democratic administration on targeted updates to outdated frameworks. These efforts resulted in landmark that allocated substantial federal resources and shifted emphases toward state flexibility and risk-based standards, though broader Republican goals like comprehensive tax cuts and overhaul faced vetoes or procedural hurdles. In education, Congress enacted the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) on December 10, 2015, reauthorizing the of 1965 and supplanting the with provisions granting states greater control over accountability systems, teacher evaluations, and standards while preserving federal requirements for testing and subgroup performance reporting. The law allocated approximately $24.6 billion annually for K-12 programs, emphasizing evidence-based interventions and support for low-income schools, and was passed with overwhelming bipartisan support (House: 359-64; Senate: 85-12). Transportation infrastructure received a major boost through the Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, signed December 4, 2015, which authorized $305 billion over fiscal years 2016-2020 for highways, bridges, public transit, and motor vehicle safety programs—the longest-term surface transportation bill since 2005. The legislation increased obligations to $233 billion, funded rail safety enhancements, and streamlined project approvals to expedite construction, passing the 359-65 and 83-16 in a rare display of cross-party consensus on fiscal commitment despite ongoing debates over user fees and general revenue infusions. Regulatory updates included the Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, enacted June 22, 2016, which reformed the 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act by mandating EPA risk evaluations for existing chemicals, prioritizing high-risk substances, and requiring manufacturer fees to fund assessments without preempting stricter state laws on certain hazards. This bipartisan measure (: 98-1; : ) addressed criticisms of the prior framework's ineffectiveness in evaluating over 80,000 chemicals, imposing deadlines for EPA to review 20 high-priority substances within three and a half years. Complementing this, the Water Infrastructure Improvements for the Nation (WIIN) Act of December 16, 2016, authorized $170 million for lead remediation grants—directly aiding the —and funded dam safety, desalination, and watershed restoration projects totaling over $100 million annually, with provisions for tribal and rural systems. Public health initiatives culminated in the , signed December 13, 2016, which accelerated FDA drug and device approvals via breakthrough therapy designations, provided $1.8 billion for the and $500 million for cancer research under the Precision Medicine Initiative, and reformed requirements to include diverse populations and . Passed with strong support (House: 392-26; Senate: 94-5), the act aimed to counter regulatory delays blamed for stifling innovation, though critics noted potential risks to safety standards from expedited pathways.

Foreign Policy Developments

The 114th Congress engaged in significant foreign policy actions, particularly regarding the Iran nuclear negotiations, counter-ISIS efforts, and trade agreements. A focal point was opposition to the emerging (JCPOA) with , culminating in Israeli 's address to a on March 3, 2015, where he warned that the deal would not prevent from obtaining nuclear weapons and urged a tougher stance. The speech, arranged by House Speaker without prior coordination with the Obama administration, highlighted partisan divisions on the issue. In response to the negotiations, passed the Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act of 2015 (Public Law 114-17) on May 22, 2015, requiring the administration to submit the JCPOA for 60 days of congressional review and mandating disapproval resolutions if deemed insufficient. The approved the bill 98-1, and the passed it 400-25, reflecting broad bipartisan support for oversight despite ultimate failure to block the deal after its July 14, 2015, finalization, as President Obama vetoed a disapproval resolution and lacked a veto override. This allowed Congress to scrutinize sanctions relief and verification mechanisms but underscored limits on legislative influence over executive agreements. On , the 114th Congress debated but did not enact a new Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) specifically targeting , despite multiple hearings on the administration's strategy relying on the 2001 AUMF. Proposals aimed to authorize operations against and associated forces without geographic limits or ground troop restrictions, but partisan disagreements and concerns over prevented passage, leaving Obama to proceed under existing authorities. The House Foreign Affairs Committee held oversight sessions emphasizing the need for congressional input amid expanding U.S. airstrikes in and starting in 2014. In trade policy, Congress granted the president Trade Promotion Authority via the Bipartisan Congressional Trade Priorities and Accountability Act of 2015 (Public Law 114-26), enacted June 29, 2015, facilitating negotiations for the (TPP) by ensuring up-or-down votes without amendments. The Senate passed it 60-38 after procedural hurdles, and the House approved 218-208, enabling U.S. leverage in Pacific Rim economic integration amid competition with . Though TPP was signed in 2016, it awaited beyond the 114th Congress. Pope Francis addressed Congress on September 24, 2015, advocating for diplomatic solutions to global conflicts, climate action via the , and humane migration policies, influencing debates on U.S. international commitments. These developments reflected Republican-led efforts to assert congressional prerogatives against executive initiatives.

Judicial Nominations and Confirmations

The 114th Congress, controlled by Republicans in the Senate, confirmed 20 Article III judicial nominees submitted by President Barack Obama, consisting of 2 to the and 18 to the district courts. This marked one of the lowest confirmation rates in modern history for a president's nominees during a Congress with an opposing-party Senate majority, with only 22% of circuit court nominees approved overall. The limited confirmations reflected a strategic Republican effort to block or delay appointments, leaving 106 judicial vacancies at the end of the session. The most prominent judicial controversy involved the vacancy following the death of Associate Justice on February 13, 2016. President Obama nominated Judge Merrick B. Garland of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit on March 16, 2016, selecting him for his extensive judicial experience and moderate record. Majority Leader , however, immediately declared that the would not hold hearings or a vote, arguing that the American people should decide the 's ideological balance through the impending . Republicans, holding a 54-46 Senate majority, maintained this position throughout the nomination's pendency, citing historical precedents where election-year vacancies were sometimes left unfilled and emphasizing the Senate's constitutional role in advice and consent. No committee hearings were scheduled by the Senate Judiciary Committee, chaired by Orrin Hatch, and Garland met privately with several senators but received no formal consideration. The nomination expired with the end of the 114th Congress on January 3, 2017, allowing President-elect Donald Trump to nominate Neil Gorsuch, who was confirmed in April 2017. Democrats decried the refusal as unprecedented obstructionism that denied a qualified nominee due process, while Republicans defended it as a legitimate exercise of senatorial prerogative amid divided government. Lower court nominations faced similar hurdles, with many stalled in committee or returned unsigned at session's end; for instance, only a handful of district court picks, such as Paula Xinis for Maryland on May 16, 2016, advanced to floor votes amid partisan disputes. The overall slowdown contributed to a backlog of vacancies, influencing the judiciary's composition into subsequent administrations.

Controversies and Criticisms

Partisan Gridlock and Productivity Debates

The 114th Congress operated under , with Republicans holding majorities in both the (247-188) and (54-44, with two independents caucusing with Democrats) while Democrat occupied the presidency, fostering conditions ripe for partisan impasse on high-profile issues. This dynamic resulted in 12 presidential vetoes, more than in the prior Congress but fewer than historical peaks, with Congress overriding none. Tensions manifested in repeated fiscal standoffs, including debt ceiling negotiations and appropriations battles that risked government shutdowns, though bipartisan budget agreements in October 2015 and December 2016 averted prolonged disruptions. Legislative output included 329 public laws enacted, surpassing the 113th Congress's 296 but falling short of the post-World War II average of around 400 per Congress. Of 10,078 bills introduced, only 329 reached the president, reflecting high attrition rates amid procedural hurdles like the Senate's 122 votes on —the highest in decades—often tied up in threats and amendment wars. The proved more active, passing 773 bills, above the historical mean of 626, yet Senate bottlenecks amplified perceptions of stagnation. Debates over productivity polarized along partisan lines, with Republicans emphasizing qualitative gains such as judicial confirmations (18 Article III judges, including John Roberts's continued tenure) and trade deals like the Trade Promotion Authority, arguing these countered Obama's veto pen despite raw bill counts. Finance Committee Chair described the chamber as "remarkably productive" post-gridlock eras, citing tax extenders and regulatory relief measures. Democrats and independent analysts, however, lambasted the session for symbolic over substantive action, noting that over 70% of enacted laws were non-controversial or ceremonial, and highlighting vetoed priorities like and as evidence of obstructionism. The acknowledged procedural improvements, such as 763 amendments considered in the (up from prior sessions), but warned that entrenched partisanship overshadowed incremental advances, perpetuating public disillusionment with legislative efficacy.

Obamacare Repeal Efforts

The 114th Congress saw repeated Republican-led attempts to or significantly dismantle the Patient Protection and (ACA), commonly known as Obamacare, reflecting long-standing GOP opposition to its mandates, subsidies, and expansion of federal involvement in . Early in the session, on , 2015, the passed H.R. 596, a bill to fully the ACA and its reconciliation amendments, by a vote of 239-186, with all Republicans in favor and all Democrats opposed; the measure stalled in the Senate due to the 60-vote filibuster threshold. Similar full- efforts, such as S. 336 introduced by Senator on February 2, 2015, advanced little beyond committee. To bypass the Senate filibuster, Republican leaders pursued budget for targeted repeals. The House-passed budget resolution in 2015 included instructions for committees to repeal ACA provisions, culminating in H.R. 3762, the Restoring Americans' Healthcare Freedom Act, introduced on October 21, 2015. This bill repealed key elements including the individual and employer mandates, premium tax credits, cost-sharing reductions, expansion funding, and taxes on medical devices and high-income earners, while delaying implementation of certain provisions until after the 2016 elections. The House approved H.R. 3762 on October 26, 2015, by 240-189, followed by Senate passage on November 17, 2015, via reconciliation by 52-47, with Vice President breaking a 50-50 tie. President vetoed H.R. 3762 on January 8, , arguing it would eliminate health coverage for millions, increase uninsured rates, and destabilize insurance markets without a replacement plan, thereby reversing gains in coverage and affordability. An attempt to override the veto failed in the on February 2, , by 246-181, falling short of the required two-thirds majority (290 votes), with unified Democratic opposition and some GOP absences. The did not pursue an override vote. Subsequent repeal pushes in were limited by the election cycle and procedural hurdles, though Republicans continued criticizing the ACA for premium increases—averaging 25% for individual market plans in —and reduced insurer participation in exchanges. These efforts highlighted partisan divides, with no major ACA repeals enacted during the session.

Iran Nuclear Deal Opposition

The 114th Congress, controlled by Republicans in both chambers, mounted significant opposition to the (JCPOA), the multilateral agreement with announced on July 14, 2015, which aimed to limit 's nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. Critics, primarily Republicans, contended that the deal failed to dismantle 's nuclear infrastructure, featured temporary restrictions that expired after 10-15 years, and lacked robust verification mechanisms, potentially paving the way for to develop nuclear weapons while freeing up funds for and regional aggression. A pivotal early action was the invitation extended by House Speaker to Israeli Prime Minister to address a of on March 3, 2015, bypassing White House consultation. In his speech, Netanyahu warned that the emerging framework would not prevent from acquiring nuclear capabilities, describing it as a "very bad deal" that shortened Iran's breakout time to build a bomb and legitimized its uranium enrichment program. He advocated for a stronger agreement that would require Iran to abandon its nuclear weapons ambitions entirely, highlighting concerns over Iran's history of deception and its threats against . The address, attended by most Republicans but boycotted by over 50 Democrats, underscored partisan divides and amplified congressional skepticism toward the negotiations led by Secretary of State . In response to the advancing talks, Senate Foreign Relations Committee Chairman (R-TN) and Ranking Member Ben Cardin (D-MD) negotiated the Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act (S. 615), passed unanimously by the on May 7, 2015 (98-1), and signed into law by President Obama on May 22, 2015. This legislation mandated a 60-day congressional review period for the JCPOA and related side agreements, allowing lawmakers to vote on resolutions of disapproval that, if passed over a presidential , would have blocked U.S. and sanctions relief. Proponents viewed it as essential oversight, though Obama administration officials argued it risked derailing without altering the deal's core terms. Following the JCPOA's unveiling, the passed a resolution of disapproval (H.J. Res. 64) on , 2015, by a vote of 244-162, with most Democrats opposing. The followed with its own disapproval resolution (S.J. Res. 25) on September 10, 2015, passing 58-42, including four Democrats joining Republicans. President Obama vetoed both on October 2 and October 9, 2015, respectively, citing the deal's role in advancing non-proliferation. Override attempts failed: the vote on October 7, 2015, fell short at 58-42, lacking the two-thirds majority (67 votes) required, while the did not pursue an override vote after its initial passage. These efforts highlighted Republican unity against the accord but were thwarted by insufficient bipartisan support to surmount the threshold.

Supreme Court Vacancy Handling

Justice died on February 13, 2016, at in , from natural causes later determined to be a heart attack, creating a vacancy on the during the 114th Congress. President nominated , Chief Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit, to fill the seat on March 16, 2016. Garland's was referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, but no hearings were scheduled. Senate Majority Leader (R-KY) announced on February 13, 2016, that the would not consider any nominee until after the November 2016 presidential election, arguing that the American people should have a voice in selecting the next justice through the electoral process. This stance was supported by a majority of Senate Republicans, who viewed the vacancy occurring 11 months before the election as warranting deference to the incoming administration. Democrats, including (D-NV), criticized the refusal as a dereliction of constitutional duty, but lacked the votes to force action given the Republican 54-46 majority. The Senate held no confirmation hearings or votes on Garland, marking the first instance in U.S. history where a president nominated a justice in an election year and the Senate outright declined to proceed with consideration. Garland's nomination remained pending for 293 days, the longest wait for any nominee on record at the time, until it expired automatically on January 3, 2017, with the adjournment of the 114th . The vacancy persisted, altering the Court's ideological balance during the session, with several 4-4 decisions issued on tied cases.

Assessments and Legacy

Policy Achievements and Failures

The 114th Congress achieved bipartisan passage of several significant domestic policy measures despite partisan divisions and presidential veto threats. Key successes included the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), signed into law on December 10, 2015, which replaced the by reducing federal mandates on K-12 education and granting states greater flexibility in accountability standards while maintaining core requirements for testing and intervention in underperforming schools. The Fixing America's Surface Transportation (FAST) Act, enacted on December 4, 2015, authorized $305 billion over five years for highway, bridge, and transit , marking the longest-term surface transportation reauthorization in a decade and incorporating provisions for innovation in autonomous vehicles and safety enhancements. Additionally, the , passed on June 2, 2015, ended the National Security Agency's bulk collection of domestic telephone metadata under Section 215 of the , replacing it with a targeted querying system accessible via court orders, as a compromise between surveillance reformers and advocates. In fiscal and defense policy, Congress approved the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015 on November 2, 2015, which raised caps by $80 billion over two years and suspended the debt ceiling until March 2017, averting immediate default risks and funding government operations without a shutdown. The for 2016, signed December 23, 2015, allocated $612 billion for military programs, including pay raises for troops and reforms to acquisition processes, while authorizing operations against ISIS. Trade legislation advanced with the Trade Promotion Authority (TPA) bill, enacted June 29, 2015, granting the president expedited consideration for agreements like the , though the TPP itself was not ratified before the Congress ended. However, the Congress failed to achieve Republican priorities on healthcare and judicial matters. Multiple attempts to repeal or dismantle the culminated in a vetoed reconciliation bill on January 8, 2016, with no substantive reforms enacted due to insufficient votes to override President Obama's vetoes. After Justice Antonin Scalia's death on February 13, 2016, the Senate refused to hold hearings on nominee , leaving the vacancy unfilled for 293 days until the next president's appointee, citing electoral timing over procedural norms. Efforts to block the Iran nuclear deal faltered, as Congress's September 2015 resolution of disapproval failed to garner veto-proof majorities, allowing the to proceed via executive action despite concerns over verification and sanctions relief. Comprehensive and overhaul also stalled amid partisan disagreements, with no major bills advancing beyond committee. These outcomes reflected dynamics, where bipartisan and reforms succeeded through compromise, but core ideological battles over entitlements, , and judicial power yielded , contributing to perceptions of limited productivity on high-stakes issues.

Economic and Fiscal Outcomes

The U.S. economy grew at a real GDP rate of 2.9 percent in 2015 and 1.7 percent in 2016, reflecting continued expansion from the post-recession recovery amid low energy prices, , and business investment, though tempered by global slowdowns and weakness. The unemployment rate declined from an average of 5.3 percent in 2015 to 4.9 percent in 2016, driven by job gains in services, construction, and sectors, with adding 2.7 million positions over the two years. Federal budget deficits widened during this period, totaling $442 billion (3.2 percent of GDP) in fiscal year 2015 and rising to $585 billion (3.2 percent of GDP) in fiscal year 2016, as revenues increased 4 percent to $3.3 trillion from and tax collections, but outlays grew faster at 5.2 percent due to on entitlements and higher discretionary allocations. The national debt held by the public increased from $13.1 trillion at the start of 2015 to $14.8 trillion by the end of 2016, with gross federal debt rising from $18.1 trillion to $19.6 trillion. Key fiscal legislation included the Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, which raised caps by $80 billion over fiscal years 2016 and 2017 ($30 billion for defense and $50 billion for non-defense), suspended the through March 2017, and provided disaster relief funding, averting sequestration cuts but contributing to higher outlays. A similar Bipartisan Budget Act of 2016 further adjusted caps upward by $32 billion for defense and $10 billion for non-defense in fiscal year 2018, while extending them level for 2017. Congress also passed the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2016, funding government operations through September 2016 at $1.1 trillion in , and the Protecting Americans from Tax Hikes Act, which made permanent certain extenders like the research and development credit, reducing projected revenues by $55 billion over a decade. These measures prioritized stability over restraint, as Republican majorities negotiated with the Democratic president to avoid shutdowns, though efforts for broader spending cuts or reforms stalled amid veto threats.

Electoral and Institutional Impacts

The 114th Congress introduced procedural adjustments through H.Res. 5, adopted by the on , 2015, which carried over rules from the prior while amending standing rules to enhance transparency, such as requiring witnesses testifying before committees to disclose foreign government payments exceeding $5,000 and strengthening enforcement mechanisms. These changes aimed to address perceived lapses in oversight amid Republican majorities in both chambers, though critics argued they did little to mitigate underlying partisan tensions. In the , Majority Leader Mitch McConnell's control facilitated shifts in committee leadership, enabling Republican chairs to prioritize investigations into executive actions, but filibuster thresholds persisted, contributing to 122 votes—the highest in modern history—reflecting entrenched obstruction. A pivotal institutional disruption occurred with House Speaker John Boehner's resignation announcement on September 25, 2015, effective October 31, prompted by rebellions from the House Freedom Caucus over fiscal concessions and avoidance of government shutdowns, such as those tied to defunding efforts. This event underscored the fragility of leadership in a unified Republican facing a Democratic president, as intra-party —exemplified by a failed earlier in July—forced Boehner's exit without a floor vote, marking a rare instance of speaker ouster short of election defeat. Paul Ryan's subsequent election as Speaker on October 29, 2015, required pledges from conservatives for unity and procedural concessions, stabilizing the chamber temporarily but institutionalizing factional veto points that complicated agenda advancement, as evidenced by ongoing resistance to omnibus spending bills. Electorally, the 114th Congress's gridlock and visible Republican infighting amplified public frustration with Washington dysfunction, with analyses attributing heightened anti-incumbent sentiment to stalled priorities like and budget agreements, indirectly bolstering outsider appeals in the cycle. Despite this, Republicans retained control (241–194 seats) and narrowed their majority to 52–48 after net losses of two seats, outcomes attributed to base mobilization against Democratic policies rather than wholesale repudiation of congressional performance. The Boehner-Ryan transition highlighted GOP vulnerabilities to primary challenges from the right, influencing candidate recruitment and messaging, as conservative activists leveraged congressional stumbles to demand stricter ideological purity in subsequent races. Overall, while not derailing Republican congressional dominance, the session's internal fractures foreshadowed party realignments under unified in the 115th Congress.

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