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Erbil (Arabic: أربيل, ʾarbīl;[3] Syriac: ܐܲܪܒܹܝܠ, Arbel[4][5]), also called Hawler (Kurdish: هەولێر, Hewlêr),[6] is the capital and most populated city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The city is the capital of the Erbil Governorate.[7]

Erbil is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the 5th millennium BC.[8] At the heart of the city is the ancient Citadel of Erbil and Mudhafaria Minaret. The earliest historical reference to the region dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur of Sumer, when King Shulgi mentioned the city of Urbilum. The city was later conquered by the Assyrians.[9][10]

In the 3rd millennium BC, Erbil was an independent power in its area. It was conquered for a time by the Gutians. Beginning in the late 2nd millennium BC, it came under Assyrian control. Subsequent to this, it was part of the geopolitical province of Assyria under several empires in turn, including the Median Empire, the Achaemenid Empire (Achaemenid Assyria), Macedonian Empire, Seleucid Empire, Armenian Empire, Parthian Empire, Roman Assyria and Sasanian Empire, as well as being the capital of the tributary state of Adiabene between the mid-second century BC and early 2nd century AD. In ancient times the patron deity of the city was Ishtar of Arbela.[11]

Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, the region no longer remained united, and during the Middle Ages, the city came to be ruled by the Seljuk and Ottoman empires.[12]

Erbil's archaeological museum houses a large collection of pre-Islamic artifacts, particularly the art of Mesopotamia, and is a centre for archaeological projects in the area.[13] The city was designated as the Arab Tourism Capital 2014 by the Arab Council of Tourism.[14][15] In July 2014, the Citadel of Erbil was inscribed as a World Heritage Site.[16]

Names

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Erbil is the romanization of the city's Ottoman Turkish name اربيل,[17] still used as the city's name in official English translation.[18] The Modern Standard Arabic form of the name is Arbīl (أربيل).[19] In classical antiquity, it was known as Arbela in Latin and Arbēla (Ἄρβηλα) in Greek, derived from Old Persian Arbairā (𐎠𐎼𐎲𐎡𐎼𐎠𐏓), from Assyrian Arbaʾilu,[20][21] from Sumerian Urbilum (𒌨𒉈𒈝𒆠, ur-bi₂-lumki).[22]

Archaeology

[edit]

In 2006 a small excavation was conducted by Karel Novacek of the University of West Bohemia. While the citadel remains were of the Ottoman Period a field survey of the western slope of the tell found a few pottery shards from the Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age with more numerous finds from the Late Bronze to Iron Ages and from the Hellenistic, Arsacid, Sassanid Periods.[23] Being so heavily occupied, the site has never been properly excavated. In 2013 a team from the Sapienza University of Rome conducted some ground penetrating radar work on the center of the citadel. Starting in 2014 an Iraqi-led excavation began on a citadel location where the collapse of a modern building provided an opportunity for excavation. Historical aerial photographs and ground survey have also begun on the lower city.[24][25][26]

The wider plain around Erbil has a number of promising archaeological sites, most notably Tell Baqrta. The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey began in 2012. The survey combines satellite imagery and field work to determine the development and archaeology of the plain around Erbil.[27] Tell Baqrta is a very large, 80 hectare, site which dates back to the Early Bronze Age.[28][29]

History

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Further information: Timeline of Erbil

Bronze Age

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Early Bronze

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The region in which Erbil lies was largely under Sumerian domination from c. 3000 BC.

With the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) all of the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia were united under one rule.[30] Erridupizir, king of the kingdom of Gutium, captured the city in 2150 BC.[31]

The first mention of Erbil in literary sources comes from the archives of the kingdom of Ebla. They record two journeys to Erbil (Irbilum) by a messenger from Ebla around 2300 BFC.

The Neo-Sumerian ruler of Ur, Amar-Sin, sacked Urbilum in his second year, c. 1975 BC.[10]

Middle Bronze

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In the centuries after the fall of the Ur III empire Erbil became a power in its area. It was conquered by Shamsi-Adad I during his short lived Upper Mesopotamian Kingdom, becoming independent after its fall.

Late Bronze

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By the time of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) Erbil was within the Assyrian zone of control.

Iron Age

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The region fell under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). The city then changed hands a number of times including the Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid rule.

Under the Medes, Cyaxares might have settled a number of people from the ancient Iranian tribe of Sagartians in the Assyrian cities of Arbela and Arrapha (modern Kirkuk), probably as a reward for their help in the capture of Nineveh. According to Classical authors, the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great occupied Assyria in 547 BC and established it as an Achaemenid military protectorate state (or satrapy) called in Old Persian Aθurā (Athura), with Babylon as the capital.[32]

The Medes, and with them the Sagarthians, were to revolt against Darius I of Persia in 522 BC, but this revolt was firmly put down by the army which Darius sent out under the leadership of General Takhmaspada the following year. The events are depicted in the Behistun Inscription which stands today in the mountains of Iran's Kermanshah province.[citation needed]

The Battle of Gaugamela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia, took place in 331 BC approximately 100 kilometres (62 mi) west of Erbil according to Urbano Monti's world map.[33] After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. (Somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela".) Subsequently, Arbela was part of Alexander's Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Arbela became part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.

Erbil became part of the region disputed between Rome and Persia under the Sasanids. During the Parthian era to early Sassanian era, Erbil became the capital of the state of Adiabene (Assyrian Ḥadyab). The town and kingdom are known in Jewish history for the conversion of the royal family, notably Queen Helena of Adiabene, to Judaism.[34]

Its populace then gradually converted from the ancient Mesopotamian religion between the first and fourth centuries to Christianity, with Pkidha traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD.[35][36] There also existed a Christian community thought to be converts from Judaism.[37] The Adiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province) in Arbela (Syriac: ܐܪܒܝܠ Arbel) became a centre of eastern Syriac Christianity until late in the Middle Ages.[37]

Medieval history

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As many of the Assyrians who had converted to Christianity adopted Biblical (including Jewish) names, most of the early bishops had Eastern Aramaic or Jewish/Biblical names, which does not suggest that many of the early Christians in this city were converts from Judaism.[38] It served as the seat of a Metropolitan of the Assyrian Church of the East. From the city's Christian period come many church fathers and well-known authors in Aramaic.

Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Sassanian province of Naxwardašīragān and later Garamig ud Nodardashiragan,[39] of which Erbil made part of, was dissolved, and from the mid-seventh century AD the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim peoples, predominantly Arabs and Turkic peoples.

The most notable Kurdish tribe in the region was the Hadhabani, of which several individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late tenth century until the 12th century when it was conquered by the Zengids and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, of whom the most notable was Gökböri, who retained the city during the Ayyubid era.[40][41] Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes Erbil as being mostly Kurdish-populated in the 13th century.[42]

Siege of Erbil by the Ilkhanid Mongols in 1258–59 depicted in the Jami' al-tawarikh by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Division Orientale

When the Mongols invaded the Near East in the 13th century, they attacked Arbil for the first time in 1237. They plundered the lower town but had to retreat before an approaching Caliphate army and had to put off the capture of the citadel.[43][broken footnote] After the fall of Baghdad to Hülegü and the Mongols in 1258, the last Begtegenid ruler surrendered to the Mongols, claiming the Kurdish garrison of the city would follow suit; they refused this however, therefore the Mongols returned to Arbil and were able to capture the citadel after a siege lasting six months.[44][45] Hülegü then appointed a Christian Assyrian governor to the town, and the Syriac Orthodox Church was allowed to build a church.

As time passed, sustained persecutions of Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout the Ilkhanate began in earnest in 1295 under the rule of Oïrat amir Nauruz, which affected the indigenous Christian Assyrians greatly.[46] This manifested early on in the reign of the Ilkhan Ghazan. In 1297, after Ghazan had felt strong enough to overcome Nauruz's influence, he put a stop to the persecutions.

During the reign of the Ilkhan Öljeitü, the Assyrian inhabitants retreated to the citadel to escape persecution. In the Spring of 1310, the Malek (governor) of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds. Despite the Turkic bishop Mar Yahballaha's best efforts to avert the impending doom, the citadel was at last taken after a siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen on 1 July 1310, and all the defenders were massacred, including many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town.[47][48]

However, the city's Assyrian population remained numerically significant until the destruction of the city by the forces of Timur in 1397.[49]

In the Middle Ages, Erbil was ruled successively by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, the Buwayhids, the Seljuks and then the Turkmen Begtegīnid Emirs of Erbil (1131–1232), most notably Gökböri, one of Saladin's leading generals; they were in turn followed by the Ilkhanids, the Jalayirids, the Kara Koyunlu, the Timurids and the Ak Koyunlu. Erbil was the birthplace of the famous 12th and 13th century Kurdish historians and writers Ibn Khallikan and Ibn al-Mustawfi. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Erbil came under the Soran emirate. In the 18th century Baban Emirate took the city but it was retaken by Soran ruler Mir Muhammed Kor in 1822. The Soran emirate continued ruling over Erbil until it was taken by the Ottomans in 1851. Erbil became a part of the Mosul vilayet in Ottoman Empire until World War I, when the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Turkmen allies were defeated by the British Empire.

Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres for an independent Kurdistan (in 1920)

Modern history

[edit]

Erbil lies on the plain beneath the mountains, but for the most part, the inhabitants of Iraqi Kurdistan dwell up above in the rugged and rocky terrain that is the traditional habitat of the Kurds since time immemorial.[50]

A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900
A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900

The modern town of Erbil stands on a tell topped by an Ottoman fort. During the Middle Ages, Erbil became a major trading centre on the route between Baghdad and Mosul, a role which it still plays today with important road links to the outside world.

Erbil Main Square
The patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East in Erbil

Erbil is also home to a large population of refugees due to ongoing conflicts in Syria. In 2020, it was estimated that 450,000 refugees had settled in the Erbil metropolitan area since 2003, with many of them expected to remain.[51]

The parliament of the Iraqi Kurdistan was established in Erbil in 1970 after negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani, but was effectively controlled by Saddam Hussein until the Kurdish uprising at the end of the 1991 Gulf War. The legislature ceased to function effectively in the mid-1990s when fighting broke out between the two main Kurdish factions, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). The city was captured by the KDP in 1996 with the assistance of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The PUK then established an alternative Kurdish government in Sulaimaniyah. KDP claimed that in March 1996, PUK asked for Iran's help to fight KDP. Considering this as a foreign attack on Iraq's soil, the KDP asked Saddam Hussein for help.

The Kurdish Parliament in Erbil reconvened after a peace agreement was signed between the Kurdish parties in 1997, but had no real power. The Kurdish government in Erbil had control only in the western and northern parts of the autonomous region. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a United States special forces task force was headquartered just outside Erbil. The city was the scene of celebrations on 10 April 2003 after the fall of the Ba'ath regime.

Erbil Clock Tower

During the U.S. occupation of Iraq, sporadic attacks hit Erbil. Parallel bomb attacks against Eid celebrations killed 117 people in February 2004.[52] Responsibility was claimed by Ansar al-Sunnah.[52] A suicide bombing in May 2005 killed 60 civilians and injured 150 more outside a police recruiting centre.[53]

The Erbil International Airport opened in the city in 2005.[54]

In September 2013, a quintuple car bombing killed six people.

In 2015, the Assyrian Church of the East moved its seat from Chicago to Erbil.

In February 2021, a series of missiles hit the city killing two and injuring eight people. Further missile attacks took place in March 2022.

Transportation

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Erbil International Airport is one of Iraq's busiest airports. Services include direct flights to many domestic destinations such as Baghdad international airport. There are international flights from Erbil to many countries; such as the Netherlands, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Austria, Turkey, Jordan and elsewhere around the world. There are occasionally seasonal flights from Erbil international airport. Erbil International Airport was briefly closed to international commercial flights in September 2017 by the Iraqi government in retaliation for the Kurdish independence vote but reopened in March 2018.[55][56]

Another important form of transportation between Erbil and the surrounding areas is by bus. Among others, bus services offer connections to Turkey and Iran. A new bus terminal was opened in 2014.[57] Erbil has a system of six ring roads encircling the city.[58]

Climate

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Erbil has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa), closely bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSh) with long, extremely hot summers and mild winters. Summers are arid, with little to no precipitation occurring between June and September. Winters are usually wet with occasional flooding, with January being the wettest month.[59]

A downpour on 17 December 2021 caused flash floods in the area, killing 14 people.[60]

Climate data for Erbil (2012–2023 normals)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 13.2
(55.8) 		15.4
(59.7) 		18.9
(66.0) 		25.5
(77.9) 		32.6
(90.7) 		38.9
(102.0) 		42.4
(108.3) 		42.5
(108.5) 		37.6
(99.7) 		30.1
(86.2) 		21.4
(70.5) 		15.4
(59.7) 		27.8
(82.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 8.1
(46.6) 		9.9
(49.8) 		13.3
(55.9) 		18.4
(65.1) 		24.9
(76.8) 		30.9
(87.6) 		34.5
(94.1) 		34.2
(93.6) 		29.5
(85.1) 		23.1
(73.6) 		15.5
(59.9) 		10.2
(50.4) 		21.0
(69.9)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 2.9
(37.2) 		4.4
(39.9) 		7.7
(45.9) 		11.4
(52.5) 		17.3
(63.1) 		22.9
(73.2) 		26.5
(79.7) 		25.9
(78.6) 		21.3
(70.3) 		16.0
(60.8) 		9.5
(49.1) 		5.1
(41.2) 		14.2
(57.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 73.0
(2.87) 		50.5
(1.99) 		80.4
(3.17) 		43.1
(1.70) 		18.3
(0.72) 		0.6
(0.02) 		0.0
(0.0) 		0.1
(0.00) 		0.5
(0.02) 		19.5
(0.77) 		48.5
(1.91) 		85.4
(3.36) 		419.9
(16.53)
Average precipitation days 12.1 9.1 11.8 9.1 7.9 1.1 0.1 0.8 1.1 7.6 8.9 11.3 80.9
Average relative humidity (%) 72.0 65.6 63.2 53.1 33.9 18.0 14.7 15.5 18.9 32.8 56.8 73.7 43.2
Source 1: IEM[61] KRSO (precipitation 2012–2021)[62]
Source 2: What's the Weather Like.org,[63] Erbilia[64]

Culture

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Demographics

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The city is predominantly Kurdish and has minorities of local Turkmen and Assyrians, as well as Arabs.[65][66][67]

Turkmens

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The Turkmen population in Erbil is estimated to be around 300,000. They mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods. Turkmens participate in the political institutions of the KRG, including the Parliament.[68]

Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on 17 November 1993, one in Erbil and the other in Kifri.[69]

Erbil's citadel also contains the Turkmen Culture House.

Assyrians

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Erbil's Ankawa district is mainly populated by Christian Assyrians. The district houses approximately 40 churches.[70][71]

Citadel of Erbil

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Citadel of Erbil
Erbil Civilization Museum contains artifacts from the Assyrian, Urartian, Hurrian, and Hatra periods.

The Citadel of Erbil is a tell or occupied mound in the historical heart of Erbil, rising between 25 and 32 metres (82 and 105 ft) from the surrounding plain. The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of 430 by 340 metres (1,410 ft × 1,120 ft) occupying 102,000 square metres (1,100,000 sq ft). It has been claimed that the site is the oldest continuously inhabited town in the world.[72] The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the fifth millennium BC and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources during the Ur III period and gained particular importance during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (tenth to seventh centuries BC) period. West of the citadel at Ary Kon quarter, a chamber tomb dating to the Neo-Assyrian Empire period has been excavated.[13] During the Sassanian period and the Abbasid Caliphate, Erbil was an important centre for Syriac Christianity and the Assyrians in general. After the Mongols captured the citadel in 1258, Erbil's importance began to decline. The main gate is guarded by an immense statue of a Kurd reading: "the house of the citadel behind him are built into stony ground of the mound and look down on the streets and tarmacked roads that circle them".

Statue of Ibn al-Mustawfi

During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee the restoration of the citadel. In the same year, all inhabitants, except one family, were evicted from the citadel as part of a large restoration project. Since then, archaeological research and restoration works have been carried out at and around the tell by various international teams and in co-operation with local specialists, and many areas remain off-limits to visitors due to the danger of unstable walls and infrastructure. The government plans to have 50 families live in the citadel once it is renovated.

The only religious structure that currently survives in the citadel is the Mulla Effendi mosque. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts or mahallas: from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes of dervishes, which are called takyas; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. Other sights to visit in the citadel include the bathing rooms (hammam) built in 1775 located near the mosque and the Textile Museum.[73] Erbil citadel has been inscribed on the World Heritage List on 21 June 2014.

Other sights

[edit]
See also: List of archaeological sites in Erbil Governorate

Sports

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The local major football team is Erbil Soccer Club which plays its football matches at Franso Hariri Stadium (named after the assassinated Assyrian politician, former governor of Erbil city Franso Hariri) which is based in the south part of central Erbil. They won 3 Iraqi nation league titles and reached the AFC Final twice, but lost both times.

Sister cities

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See also

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arbil.

References

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Sources

[edit]
[edit]
Revisions and contributorsEdit on WikipediaRead on Wikipedia

Erbil

View on Grokipedia
from Grokipedia
Erbil (Kurdish: Hewlêr) is the capital of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and the seat of the Erbil Governorate. Situated about 350 kilometers north of Baghdad, the city functions as the political, cultural, and economic center of Iraqi Kurdistan, with a population exceeding 1.5 million residents including surrounding districts. The defining feature of Erbil is its ancient Citadel, constructed on a 32-meter-high tell that has supported continuous human settlement for over 6,000 years, rendering the site among the longest-inhabited urban areas globally. This mound, first referenced in records from the Middle Assyrian period as a provincial capital, was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2014 due to its outstanding universal value as a fortified settlement exemplifying layered Mesopotamian history. In modern times, Erbil has emerged as a relatively stable and prosperous hub amid Iraq's instability, benefiting from the Kurdistan Regional Government's autonomy established post-2003, which facilitated infrastructure development, foreign investment, and oil revenue sharing—though disputes with Baghdad over resource control persist, including export blockages that have cost billions. The city's economy relies heavily on the petroleum sector, with nearby fields contributing to regional exports surpassing 200,000 barrels per day in recent assessments, alongside growing tourism drawn to the Citadel and traditional bazaars. Erbil hosts diverse communities, including Kurds, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, and features institutions like universities and international consulates, underscoring its role in fostering regional self-governance aspirations while navigating federal tensions.

Geography

Location and topography

Erbil is positioned at geographic coordinates 36°11′N 44°00′E within the of northern . The city occupies the Erbil Plain, a relatively flat expanse at an average elevation of 410 meters (1,346 feet) above . Nestled in the foothills of the , Erbil marks a transition zone from the fertile alluvial plains of the Tigris-Euphrates basin to the rising rugged terrain of the mountain range extending northward and eastward. Approximately 81 kilometers northwest of and 147 kilometers northwest of , its location facilitates access to surrounding lowlands while bordering higher elevations that reach over 1,000 meters in nearby districts. Geologically, the region underlies the Zagros fold-thrust belt, featuring layers and intergranular aquifers composed of sand and gravel that sustain and across the plain. However, this tectonic setting exposes Erbil to seismic hazards, with potential earthquakes up to magnitude 7.5 originating from shallow crustal depths of 0–35 kilometers along the Zagros-Taurus system.

Climate

Erbil experiences a with Mediterranean characteristics, marked by prolonged hot and dry summers followed by shorter cool and wetter winters. Average annual totals approximately 386 mm, concentrated between and May, while mean temperatures range from about 21.85°C yearly. Summers, from to , feature extreme heat with average highs reaching 39–42°C in , minimal rainfall under 5 mm monthly, and low humidity levels. Winters, peaking in , bring cooler conditions with average highs of 12–15°C and lows dipping to 1–5°C, accompanied by the bulk of annual rainfall averaging 50–100 mm per month in peak periods. The region's climate is shaped by interactions between continental air masses from the interior and moist influences from Mediterranean and mountainous systems in the nearby Zagros range, leading to variable seasonal shifts. Polar air intrusions during winter introduce cold fronts that enhance , while summer dominance of subtropical high-pressure systems suppresses and amplifies . These dynamics result in a rainy lasting roughly seven months, with dry spells intensifying rates and contributing to steppe-like conditions. Empirical data from 2000 onward indicate rising risks, with severe episodes in 2000 and 2008 correlating to substantial reductions in regional yields due to prolonged dry periods and diminished water availability. Satellite-based assessments confirm meteorological and agricultural , exacerbated by increases and declines projected at up to 25% by 2050 relative to pre-2000 baselines. Conversely, intense rainfall events, such as the torrential downpours on October 30 and December 17, 2021, have triggered flash floods, overwhelming local drainage and highlighting vulnerability to extreme variability amid broader trends.

Names and etymology

Historical names

The city's name first appears in Akkadian texts as Arba-ilu, attested from the 14th century BCE during the Middle Assyrian period, deriving from arba ("four") and ilu ("gods"), denoting a " of the four gods" in reference to its ancient cult centers dedicated to deities including Ištar, Šamaš, Adad, and Bel. This form persisted into the , where the city served as a provincial capital and religious hub, with inscriptions linking it to Assyrian royal annals and temple dedications. In Achaemenid Persian records from the 6th–4th centuries BCE, the name evolved to variants like Arbaïra or Arbaira, reflecting phonetic adaptations while retaining the core structure amid the empire's administration of the region. Greek historians and geographers of the classical period, such as those referencing events near the city like Alexander the Great's victory at Gaugamela in 331 BCE, transcribed it as Arbēla (Ἄρβηλα), emphasizing its strategic location in northern . Following the Arab Muslim conquest of in the CE, the name standardized in as Irbīl (أربيل) or Arbīl, appearing in medieval Islamic geographical and historical texts such as those by al-Yaʿqūbī () and Yāqūt al-Ḥamawī (), which describe it as a fortified in the of Jīlān or Adharbayjān. This Arabic rendering maintained phonetic continuity from prior Semitic and Indo-Iranian forms, used consistently in sources through the Abbasid era without alteration tied to new etymological inventions.

Modern designations

In the Sorani Kurdish dialect, predominant in Iraqi Kurdistan, the city is officially designated as Hewlêr, a name emphasizing its Kurdish linguistic and cultural identity as the capital of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG). This designation gained formal prominence in regional administration following the establishment of Kurdish autonomy in northern Iraq after the 1991 uprising and the imposition of a by coalition forces post-Gulf War, allowing for the revival of indigenous nomenclature in governance and signage. The KRG, while using "Erbil" in English communications for international alignment, incorporates Hewlêr in Kurdish-language official documents and promotes its usage to reinforce regional . In Arabic, the standard modern form is أربيل (Arbīl), retained in federal Iraqi contexts and publications. Internationally, "Erbil" serves as the primary English transliteration, recognized by entities such as the in operational references, including UNAMI's Erbil regional office established to coordinate assistance in the . This nomenclature supports Erbil's administrative function as the KRG's seat without engendering disputes, as federal and regional authorities maintain parallel usage reflecting Iraq's decentralized structure.

Archaeology and prehistory

Early settlements

Archaeological surveys in the Erbil Plain, such as the Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey (EPAS), have documented evidence of Neolithic human activity through surface scatters of lithic tools and early ceramics, indicating the presence of pre-pottery and pottery Neolithic communities engaged in incipient farming and herding practices dating to approximately 7000–6000 BCE. These findings align with broader Zagros regional patterns of early agriculture, though site-specific excavations in Erbil remain limited, relying primarily on regional surveys linking the plain to Mesopotamian transitional zones. Transitioning into the Chalcolithic period (ca. 5500–3000 BCE), excavations at sites like Helawa and Surezha in the Erbil Plain have uncovered Northern Ubaid and Late layers featuring distinctive pottery assemblages, including coarse wares with incised decorations and evidence of obsidian processing workshops. Archaeobotanical remains from these contexts, such as charred grains and weed seeds, suggest intensified crop cultivation and , with radiocarbon dates confirming occupation expansions around 4500–3700 BCE. These materials demonstrate continuity toward proto-urban forms, with tools and ceramics showing affinities to southern Mesopotamian Ubaid traditions while incorporating local Zagros adaptations, as evidenced by chemical analyses of fabrics. Limited soundings at the Erbil mound yield comparable Chalcolithic sherds overlying potential substrates, hinting at persistent settlement nucleation in the area before the advent of polities. Recent discoveries of multi-phase settlements preserved by seismic events further corroborate abrupt abandonments and reoccupations in the 5000–4000 BCE range, underscoring the plain's role in early subsistence transitions.

Key excavations and findings

Archaeological investigations at the Erbil Citadel have revealed a multi-layered with evidence of human occupation extending to the 6th millennium BCE, including fortifications and settlement remains stratified over approximately 36 meters of depth down to natural soil. Excavations in designated areas, such as Area E, have exposed fortification walls with multiple construction phases, encompassing structures predating the Ottoman period and indicating successive defensive adaptations. In 2024, archaeologists identified a second wall beneath the citadel's surface, providing new data on the site's defensive architecture and historical depth. The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey (EPAS), spanning 2012 to 2020, mapped to modern settlements in the surrounding governorate, uncovering surface scatters and subsurface features that demonstrate long-term land use patterns linked to early agricultural and pastoral activities. Key finds from citadel digs include Ubaid-period (c. 5300–4300 BCE) artifacts such as pottery sherds, which suggest initial sedentary communities engaged in rudimentary farming and trade networks. These discoveries align with the mound's role as a tell, preserving sequential occupational layers that assessments confirm as indicative of prehistoric urban precursors emerging from the landscape. Preservation of these layers has faced empirical challenges since the , including erosion from natural weathering and structural instability exacerbated by prior depopulation and conflict-related neglect, as noted in site evaluations emphasizing the need for stabilized access to deeper strata. Initial large-scale digs on the citadel's north edge, starting around , prioritized medieval overlays but yielded stratigraphic data confirming the site's claim to among the longest continuous habitation sequences globally, with minimal interruptions evident in the artifact record.

History

Bronze Age

The Erbil plain developed early urban centers during the Early (c. 3000–2000 BCE), with archaeological surveys documenting settlements from approximately 2500–2000 BCE that indicate organized agriculture and trade networks in northern Mesopotamia's fertile lowlands. These sites reflect a transition to complex societies supported by irrigation-dependent farming and proximity to resource-rich highlands, though direct evidence of Hurrian cultural elements remains limited and debated among early settlers in the region. In the Middle Bronze Age (c. 2000–1600 BCE), the area emerged as the core of the kingdom of Qabrā, attested in archives from Mari that describe its political and economic role amid Assyrian territorial expansions. This period involved interactions with rising powers like the Assyrian kingdom to the south and the Hurrian-influenced state, fostering trade in metals and textiles while city walls and fortifications appeared at key sites to counter regional rivalries. The Late Bronze Age (c. 1600–1200 BCE) saw the region's integration into the expanding Assyrian sphere, with Erbil's strategic position enhancing its role in imperial administration and military logistics during the Middle Assyrian period's campaigns against Mitanni remnants. Nearby excavations, such as at Qasr Shemamok, reveal lingering Hurrian architectural and material influences before Assyrian dominance, underscoring causal factors like control over highland passes for tribute and defense. Artifacts from these phases, including Hurrian-period items, are preserved in local museums, attesting to the area's layered cultural exchanges.

Iron Age and ancient periods

During the (c. 911–609 BC), Arbela (Arba'ilu in ) was a significant city in the Assyrian heartland, attested in royal inscriptions as a cult center for Ishtar, known as the "Lady of Arbela." Assyrian kings, including and , patronized her temple, consulting priestesses for oracles on military campaigns, as recorded in prophetic texts from the period. The city's strategic location between the and rivers facilitated its role in Assyrian administration and defense. Archaeological evidence includes settlements documented in the Erbil Plain survey and a recently discovered stone inscription invoking the "Great Lady," referring to Ishtar, confirming religious continuity. After the Assyrian collapse, Arbela fell under and then Achaemenid control following the Great's conquest in 539 BC. It served as the capital of the satrapy Athura (), as noted in Darius I's listing the district and in administrative references. Achaemenid presence is evidenced by artifacts and architectural features from layers at regional sites, indicating sustained urban function and Persian imperial integration without major disruption. The in 331 BC, waged on plains near Arbela, saw defeat , ushering in Seleucid Hellenistic rule over the city. Seleucid governance preserved administrative continuity, with textual sources and settlement patterns showing minimal interruption. From the late , Parthian expansion incorporated Arbela as a key Arsacid stronghold, featuring reinforced fortifications that built upon Assyrian walls, as inferred from the citadel's defensive topography and Parthian-era grave finds. Under the (224–651 AD), Arbela remained a contested amid Roman-Persian wars, with archaeological strata reflecting persistent occupation and strategic enhancements to its enclosures.

Medieval era

Following the Arab conquest in 640 AD, led by Uqba bin Farqad, Erbil integrated into the as an administrative center in the province of , maintaining its role as a hub for amid growing Islamic governance. Under the from the , Erbil served as a provincial outpost, benefiting from routes linking to northern highlands, which facilitated commerce in textiles, , and religious artifacts despite recurrent contests with neighboring . Local Kurdish dynasties, such as the Hadhabani in the , exerted influence until Seljuk Turkic incursions in 1063 shifted control to rulers. In the , Kurdish emir Zain al-Din Ali Kuchuk Begtegin governed from 1167, fostering stability before Muzaffar al-Din Kokbari, a Seljuk , ruled from 1190 to 1232 and expanded the lower city into al-Muzaffariya—a 120-hectare with suqs, khans, mosques, madrassas, and hospitals—driving economic prosperity through enhanced trade networks. Kokbari's death in 1232 returned nominal Abbasid oversight under Caliph al-Mustansir via appointed governors, though regional autonomy persisted amid Hamdanid and Marwanid legacies in adjacent Jazira territories. The Mongol invasions disrupted this equilibrium: lower Erbil was sacked in 1235, and following the fall of , Hulagu Khan's forces captured in 1258 after a , integrating the city into Ilkhanid domains. Badr al-Din Lu'lu', ruler of , collaborated with the and was appointed overseer of Erbil until 1259, enabling partial rebuilding but sparking a failed revolt by Kokbari's sons in 1261. Subsequent governance under Christian appointee Taj al-Din Mukhtas promoted Jacobite settlement and church construction, reflecting Ilkhanid tolerance, yet repeated invasions contributed to demographic decline by the , exacerbated by events like the , as chronicled in regional accounts of population losses in Mesopotamian urban centers.

Ottoman rule and early modern period

Following the Ottoman conquest of the region in 1514, Erbil was integrated into the empire as the of Erbil (also known as Arbela) within the of , an administrative structure that persisted through the 16th to 19th centuries. This status reflected the Ottomans' strategy of in frontier areas, where local governance relied on tax collection via tahrir defterleri registers that detailed revenues from , , and , ensuring fiscal oversight without full central penetration. Erbil's position near the Ottoman-Persian border, stabilized after the 1639 which delineated territories west of the Zagros as Ottoman, positioned it amid intermittent conflicts but generally shielded it from direct territorial disputes post-17th century. Kurdish emirates, notably the , exercised semi-autonomy over Erbil and surrounding territories as vassals, collecting taxes and maintaining order in exchange for tribute and military support to the Porte, a rooted in pre-Ottoman tribal confederations that provided stability amid the empire's expansive borders. The Soran rulers, based initially in but extending influence to Erbil, navigated Ottoman while resisting Persian incursions, leveraging tribal alliances for local defense and administration until centralizing pressures mounted. The reforms, initiated in 1839, accelerated the erosion of this autonomy by emphasizing direct provincial control, land registration, and bureaucratic standardization, culminating in the Ottoman suppression of the after Muhammad Pasha's rebellion in the 1830s, with Erbil fully incorporated into the by the mid-. These changes, driven by fiscal needs and European diplomatic pressures—including those from Russo-Persian conflicts that indirectly strained Ottoman frontiers—shifted reliance from tribal emirs to appointed kaymakams, though local confederations continued influencing security and revenue extraction. By the late , Erbil's governance aligned with vilayet-wide reforms, prioritizing tax efficiency over emirate privileges.

20th century under Ba'athist Iraq

Under rule following the coup, Erbil and surrounding Kurdish areas faced intensified centralization efforts, building on the collapse of the autonomy agreement, which had promised Kurdish self-governance but was abrogated in 1974 amid disputes over territory, including oil-rich . This led to renewed insurgency and Iraqi counteroffensives, with the regime destroying over 4,000 Kurdish villages between 1976 and 1978 alone as part of broader policies aimed at demographic engineering in northern governorates like Erbil. Forced relocations displaced tens of thousands of Kurds from rural Erbil districts to urban complexes or southern , replacing them with Arab settlers to dilute ethnic Kurdish majorities and secure strategic border zones. The of 1986–1989, orchestrated by , escalated repression into systematic extermination, targeting rural strongholds in during phases like the April 1988 offensives in the Qara Dagh and Germian areas. Declassified Iraqi documents analyzed by reveal that Anfal operations in these zones involved village sieges, mass executions, and chemical bombings, contributing to an estimated 50,000–100,000 civilian deaths across affected governorates, with survivors trucked to collective towns under surveillance. Kurdish resistance persisted through by the (KDP) and (PUK), but Iraqi scorched-earth tactics, including the razing of 2,000 villages in Badinan (encompassing parts of Erbil), left the region depopulated and economically crippled by the late 1980s. The 1991 Kurdish uprising, ignited on March 5 in Ranya and reaching Erbil by March 11, saw locals overrun Ba'athist installations, briefly establishing control over the city amid widespread revolts exploiting Iraqi military exhaustion post-Gulf War. Republican Guard units counterattacked, recapturing Erbil around March 29 after heavy fighting that killed hundreds and triggered a panicked flight of 1.5 million Kurds, including from Erbil, toward Turkish and Iranian borders to evade reprisals documented in mass graves. This exodus prompted UN Security Council Resolution 688 on April 5, authorizing a safe haven north of the 36th parallel, enforced by coalition air patrols that shielded Erbil and enabled refugee returns by summer. De facto autonomy emerged, though UN sanctions from August 1990 inflicted severe hardship on Erbil's economy, slashing real wages by 90% through import bans and hyperinflation, exacerbating food shortages until mitigated by the 1996 Oil-for-Food program.

Post-2003 autonomy and conflicts

Following the U.S.-led invasion of in 2003, Erbil emerged as the de facto capital of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), building on prior no-fly-zone protections that had enabled Kurdish self-rule since 1991. The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 enshrined the as a federal entity with broad autonomy, including authority over internal security, education, health, and natural resources, while designating Erbil as the seat of regional institutions. This framework allowed Erbil to oversee rapid infrastructure development, with the city's population and built-up area more than doubling by the mid-2010s amid oil revenue inflows. In summer 2014, ISIS militants captured and advanced on Erbil, overrunning positions in Makhmour and Gwer districts and prompting the evacuation of thousands from the city's outskirts. forces, bolstered by U.S.-led airstrikes starting August 8, repelled the assault, securing Erbil and initiating a multi-year campaign that recaptured territories like by 2016, though at the cost of over 10,000 casualties by 2017. The defense underscored Erbil's strategic vulnerability but also its role as a hub, with American advisors embedded in the city. The KRG conducted an on September 25, 2017, in which 92.73% of participants across the region, including Erbil governorate's 72% turnout, voted in favor of . Iraqi Prime Minister declared the ballot unconstitutional, triggering a federal response that included flight bans on from September 29, border closures, and a military operation on October 16 that retook from control without major combat, shrinking KRG-held territory by 40%. Tensions persisted into the 2020s over revenue sharing, culminating in Iraq's Federal Supreme Court invalidating KRG unilateral oil contracts in 2022 and halting exports through Turkey's Ceyhan pipeline from March 25, 2023, after a Baghdad lawsuit. The shutdown deprived the KRG of approximately $500 million monthly in royalties, delaying civil servant salaries in Erbil—where public sector employment dominates—and contributing to a regional budget deficit exceeding $4 billion by mid-2025. Partial resumption agreements in July and September 2025, channeling sales via Iraq's State Oil Marketing Organization, eased some pressures but left unresolved disputes over Kirkuk fields and federal budget allocations at 12.6% of Iraq's total for the region.

Government and politics

Local administration

The Erbil Governorate operates under a decentralized structure within the , featuring an elected provincial council that advises on local policies and development initiatives. The governor, currently Omid Khoshnaw, heads the executive administration, overseeing directorates for services such as , , and , while coordinating with mayors for sub-provincial implementation. The Erbil municipality maintains separate authority for urban management, led by a responsible for daily operations like and , ensuring localized distinct from broader KRG ministries. Budget allocation for the derives from KRG revenues, including oil shares and local taxes, with funds disbursed annually to prioritize and services; for instance, in , approximately 63 billion Iraqi dinars supported 200 projects covering all districts, enhancing metrics like road paving and coverage. Service delivery emphasizes measurable outcomes, such as expanded project execution rates, with the board reviewing quarterly progress to align expenditures with resident needs. This process grants operational , allowing Erbil to adapt allocations without direct federal interference, though integrated with KRG parliamentary approvals for major investments. Administrative reforms in 2024-2025 have focused on streamlining governance for greater efficiency, including a February 2025 between the KRG and the to modernize administrative capabilities through knowledge exchange on digital systems and . These efforts aim to reduce bureaucratic delays in service delivery, with initial implementations targeting digitized permitting and processes in Erbil's directorates. Such updates build on prior decentralizations, like the 2019 boundary mappings, to bolster local responsiveness amid growing urban demands.

Autonomy within Kurdistan Region

Erbil functions as the administrative center of the (KRG), having become the de facto capital following the 2006 unification of regional institutions previously divided between Erbil and , which centralized executive operations there. The 2005 Iraqi Constitution establishes the as an autonomous federal entity with authority over its internal affairs, including the right to maintain its own , , and regional seated in Erbil, thereby enabling localized distinct from federal oversight in non-disputed areas. This framework has positioned Erbil as the hub for policy formulation in sectors such as education and internal security, fostering self-rule through institutions like the KRG Ministry of Education and the Ministry. Regional security in Erbil and surrounding areas falls under KRG control via the , the official Kurdish armed forces, whose unification into a cohesive structure has advanced through reforms initiated in the Ministry of Peshmerga Affairs since the , with accelerated progress post-2017 including the formation of seven unified divisions by 2025 under a U.S.-backed plan targeting completion by 2026. Following the October 2019 parliamentary elections, which resulted in a KDP-led , efforts to streamline Peshmerga command and reduce factionalism have continued, integrating disparate units to enhance operational efficiency and loyalty to regional authority. Autonomy has yielded measurable improvements in Erbil's and , with the KRG reporting a decline in the Kurdistan Region's illiteracy rate from 24% in 2018 to 16% by 2024, attributed to investments exceeding billions in school , initiatives, and teacher training programs administered from Erbil. Concurrently, post-2003 autonomy spurred a boom in Erbil, more than doubling the city's physical footprint through KRG-funded projects in roads, utilities, and , transforming it into a modern regional hub with enhanced public services. Post-2019 reforms have included drives, with the KRG advancing judicial handling of high-profile cases, as detailed in a 2024 UNDP analysis of grand prosecutions, aiming to bolster transparency in autonomous .

Relations with Baghdad

Relations between Erbil, as the capital of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), and have been marked by persistent disputes over resource control and territorial administration, rooted in differing interpretations of Iraq's federal structure. The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 envisions a federal system granting regions significant autonomy, yet has frequently pursued centralizing measures through judicial and legislative actions, challenging the KRG's independent management of oil revenues and disputed areas. Oil export and revenue-sharing frictions intensified after the KRG began independent crude sales in 2014 via the Turkey-Iraq pipeline, bypassing federal oversight. In February 2022, Iraq's Federal Supreme Court ruled the KRG's 2007 oil and gas law unconstitutional, declaring its export contracts and revenues illegal and mandating their transfer to Baghdad. This was compounded by a March 2023 International Chamber of Commerce arbitration award against Turkey for facilitating unauthorized flows from 2014-2018, leading to the pipeline's shutdown and halting KRG exports of approximately 450,000 barrels per day. Under Iraq's 2023-2025 federal budget law, the KRG is required to remit 50% of its non-oil revenues—typically 90-120 billion Iraqi dinars monthly—to the central government, a condition the KRG has met through transfers such as 120 billion dinars in August and October 2025, amid ongoing negotiations for resuming oil shipments. In February 2024, the Federal Supreme Court further ordered the handover of all KRG oil and non-oil revenues to federal control, exacerbating fiscal strains. Territorial disputes, particularly over Kirkuk governorate and other areas outlined in Article 140 of the Iraqi Constitution, fuel additional tensions, with the KRG asserting claims based on pre-Ba'athist demographics and post-2003 Peshmerga administration until 2017. Baghdad's unilateral exploitation of Kirkuk's oil fields since 2021, ignoring normalization processes, has prompted KRG protests, including clashes in 2025 over land reclamation in districts like Sargaran. These issues intersect with budget delays; Iraq's 2025 budget submission has been postponed due to unresolved KRG financial disputes, oil price volatility, and political maneuvering ahead of federal elections, risking stalled provincial funding and heightened central-regional acrimony. Such dynamics underscore Baghdad's centralization efforts versus the KRG's push for federal devolution, with court rulings often tilting toward federal primacy despite constitutional ambiguities.

Electoral and partisan dynamics

The (KDP) maintains a commanding position in Erbil's electoral politics, rooted in its longstanding influence over local governance and security apparatuses. In the Kurdistan Region parliamentary election held on October 20, 2024, the KDP secured the predominant share of votes within , bolstering its regional total of 809,197 votes and 39 seats out of 100. This outcome underscores the party's entrenched support base in Erbil and Dohuk provinces, where it typically captures over 50% of the vote, contrasting with the (PUK)'s stronger foothold in . Opposition parties, including the PUK and the diminished , have historically underperformed in Erbil, often garnering less than 20% combined in provincial contests due to fragmented appeals and the KDP's mobilization advantages. in the 2024 election exceeded 72% region-wide, with similar high participation in Erbil indicating robust civic involvement despite economic grievances and prior electoral delays. Tribal affiliations further shape these patterns, as KDP-aligned sheikhs and clans deliver bloc voting through patronage ties, prioritizing kinship and resource access over ideological platforms. Electoral controversies have periodically tested Erbil's partisan dynamics, notably in the 2018 Kurdistan parliamentary vote, where Gorran alleged widespread including ballot stuffing favoring the KDP; a subsequent manual recount by Iraq's Independent High Electoral Commission adjusted some results—reducing KDP seats from 38 to 31 overall—but affirmed the party's regional strongholds without overturning Erbil's outcomes. Such disputes highlight tensions between opposition demands for transparency and the entrenched bipartisanship of KDP-PUK spheres, yet biometric systems introduced in later cycles, including 2024, mitigated repeat claims of manipulation.

Demographics

Population statistics

The population of Erbil city is estimated at 918,000 in the as of 2024, with projections reaching 941,000 by 2025. , encompassing the city and surrounding districts, had an estimated of 1.76 million in 2023, reflecting a dense urban concentration where the majority reside in the capital. These figures derive from projections based on prior surveys and density data from the Statistics Office, as final breakdowns from Iraq's 2024 national for individual governorates remain pending release. Since the fall of the Ba'athist regime, Erbil has experienced rapid expansion driven primarily by of displaced fleeing persecution and conflict in other parts of . This influx has contributed to annual growth rates averaging around 2.3-2.5% in recent years, outpacing national averages and transforming Erbil into a major urban hub within the . Estimates indicate that up to 450,000 individuals, many internally displaced, have settled in the Erbil since , sustaining this trend through economic opportunities and relative stability. Iraq's first comprehensive since 1987, conducted in November 2024, excluded questions on and sectarian affiliation to mitigate potential disputes over demographic representation and . Preliminary results confirmed the Region's total population at 6.37 million, accounting for about 14% of Iraq's 46 million, but did not yet disaggregate Erbil-specific data, focusing instead on broad metrics like urban-rural distribution (84% urban in the region). This approach prioritized enumeration accuracy over identity-based counts, amid concerns from Kurdish officials that omission could underrepresent migration-driven changes.

Ethnic composition

Erbil's population is predominantly composed of , who form an estimated 80-90% majority and overwhelmingly speak the Sorani dialect as their primary language. This ethnic dominance aligns with regional estimates for the of , where constitute approximately 86% of inhabitants based on independent assessments predating disputed national censuses. Pre-1997 data and consistent demographic patterns underscore this composition, reflecting long-standing settlement patterns in the area without reliance on potentially manipulated recent enumerations. Arabs represent a smaller minority, estimated at around 5% of the , primarily through internal migrations tied to economic opportunities or administrative roles. Turkmen communities, concentrated in certain urban neighborhoods, number between 100,000 and 400,000 across according to local leaders, though verifiable city-level figures suggest a proportionally lesser share amid claims of undercounting in official records. Assyrians, often residing in districts like , account for roughly 2-3%, with post-2017 displacements increasing their presence as a refuge from insecure areas in and elsewhere. These minority proportions have seen minor shifts from returns after territorial losses in 2017, particularly influencing adjacent zones near disputed with reported influxes of non-Kurdish groups, yet Erbil's core urban demographics remain stably Kurdish-centric per available empirical indicators. Kurdish cultural and linguistic prevalence in public life empirically predominates, consistent with the majority's demographic weight.

Religious demographics

The religious demographics of Erbil Governorate are overwhelmingly dominated by Sunni Islam, adhered to by the majority of residents through the Kurdistan Regional Government's recognition of the faith alongside seven minority religions, including Christianity and Yezidism. This predominance is reflected in the region's infrastructure, with over 5,800 mosques across the Kurdistan Region compared to 145 churches, underscoring Islam's central role. Shia Islam maintains a limited presence, primarily among Arab and Turkmen communities. Christian communities, consisting mainly of Chaldean Catholics and Assyrian Orthodox adherents, represent a small but visible minority, with estimates placing them at approximately 3.7% of the governorate's population. Concentrated in the Ankawa suburb, these groups operate key sites such as the Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph and the Patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East. Following the 2014 ISIS offensive, Erbil integrated over 10,000 additional Christian internally displaced families, bolstering the community's numbers through refugee support programs. Yezidis form an even smaller contingent, benefiting from regional protections despite their primary settlements elsewhere in Kurdistan. Remnants of Iraq's Jewish population, once present, have become negligible since mass exoduses in the 1940s and 1950s. Interfaith relations in Erbil emphasize tolerance, with the KRG Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs funding minority religious institutions and facilitating post-ISIS integrations to preserve diversity. Prominent Sunni mosques, including the Jalil Khayat Mosque, coexist with Christian and other sites, exemplifying practical coexistence amid historical challenges. This framework has enabled Erbil to serve as a relative haven for displaced minorities, though ongoing security concerns persist.

Economy

Oil and energy sector

The Taq Taq oil field, located in , represents a key asset in the region's sector, operated under a production-sharing by Genel Energy and partners since 2007. The field achieved initial production in 2008, with cumulative output reaching 207.9 million barrels by 2017 and annual production of 6.93 million barrels that year, though rates have declined due to maturation and lack of major new investments amid regional disputes. 's fields contribute to the Regional Government's (KRG) broader target capacity of approximately 400,000 to 450,000 barrels per day across the region prior to export interruptions. KRG contracts with international operators for fields like Taq Taq have been contested by Iraq's federal authorities in Baghdad, leading to legal rulings that invalidated independent export mechanisms and enforced centralized control over revenues. Oil exports from KRG fields, including those feeding into the Kirkuk-Ceyhan pipeline to Turkey, were suspended in March 2023 following an International Chamber of Commerce arbitration ordering Turkey to pay Iraq $1.5 billion in penalties for unauthorized flows, halting roughly 450,000 barrels per day and causing cumulative losses estimated at $28 billion to $35 billion for the KRG by late 2025. Exports resumed in September 2025 after negotiations involving Baghdad, Erbil, and eight international oil companies, establishing interim revenue-sharing where the KRG hands over most production for federal marketing while retaining limited volumes for domestic use. Natural gas production supports regional power generation, with fields like Khor Mor—KRG's largest non-associated gas asset—providing feedstock for electricity plants serving Erbil and surrounding areas. A $1.1 billion expansion at Khor Mor, completed in October 2025 eight months ahead of schedule by Dana Gas and , increased daily capacity by 50% to 750 million standard cubic feet, enabling higher output for domestic energy needs and potential future exports. In 2022, Khor Mor produced 4,643.92 million cubic meters of gas annually, underpinning much of the KRG's 910 million cubic feet per day total gas output as of October 2025, primarily directed toward power plants to address chronic electricity shortages. Hydrocarbons remain the dominant revenue source for the KRG, generating $4.06 billion in 2023 from pre-halt exports and domestic sales despite the disruptions, highlighting the sector's centrality to Erbil's economic framework as the regional capital.

Diversification efforts

The non-oil sectors in Erbil and the broader contribute approximately 20% to regional GDP, with oil dominating at around 80%. Efforts to bolster include significant cultivation in , which serves as a area, alongside daily exports of over 3,000 tons of fruits and vegetables from the region. Livestock sectors, such as , support local feed industries utilizing domestic grains like and . Industrial diversification features cement production, exemplified by the Dabin Cement Plant near Erbil, inaugurated in May 2025 with an annual capacity of 2.1 million tons. In textiles, the opening of Erbil's first factory for traditional Kurdish Jamana garments in June 2025 produces about 120 items daily, employing local workers. Tourism initiatives leverage sites like the Erbil Citadel to attract visitors, contributing to the Kurdistan Region's record of over 8 million tourists in 2024, a sharp increase from 700,000 in 2015. Events such as the Pirmam Festival in Erbil promote local produce and rural tourism. Service sector growth is evident in capacity-building efforts, including a July 2025 FAO-led workshop in Erbil to enhance monitoring of Goal indicators, signaling commitments to diversified economic tracking. However, these efforts face headwinds from federal budget restrictions resembling sanctions, which squeeze non-oil revenue shares and public investment.

Fiscal challenges and disputes

The Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), headquartered in Erbil, has encountered acute fiscal strains due to protracted disputes with Iraq's central government over allocations, primarily tied to oil revenue sharing. The Iraqi Constitution stipulates a 17% share of national revenues for the KRG, yet has repeatedly withheld these funds, citing non-compliance with federal oversight on independent oil exports. This has resulted in chronic shortfalls, with the KRG covering public salaries and services through alternative financing amid a budget heavily reliant on oil, which accounts for roughly 80% of its revenues. In 2025, these rifts intensified, as the Iraqi withheld salary payments for KRG public sector employees for the remaining eight months of the year, compounding existing delays that left some civil servants, including teachers, unpaid for up to 16 months due to suspended oil-related transfers. Non-oil revenue handovers from the KRG to , required under recent agreements at levels exceeding 120 billion Iraqi dinars monthly, have failed to resolve the impasse, leading to accusations of punitive measures and further budget gaps estimated in the hundreds of billions of dinars. Following the 2014 ISIS offensive and subsequent oil price collapse, the KRG accumulated significant foreign debt—reaching over $20 billion by —to sustain operations after losing access to fields and facing slashed federal shares, with borrowing from international banks and bond issuances becoming necessary amid deep expenditure cuts. disputes have exacerbated vulnerabilities; a 2023 International Chamber of Commerce ruling favoring prompted to halt the Iraq-Turkey pipeline, severing KRG exports for over two years and inflicting losses until a tentative resumption in late 2025, during which daily flows of up to 450,000 barrels were disrupted. Empirically, the KRG's fiscal predicament contrasts with Baghdad's, where dependency exceeds 90% of revenues but benefits from centralized control over southern exports, affording greater stability despite similar vulnerabilities to price fluctuations; the KRG's inconsistent 17% entitlements, versus Baghdad's direct capture of the remainder, amplify regional shortfalls and servicing burdens, with per-barrel revenues often yielding lower net shares after federal deductions.

Infrastructure and transportation

Airports and airbases

Erbil International Airport (EIA), located approximately 15 kilometers northwest of the city center, serves as the primary civilian aviation hub for the , handling the majority of international passenger and cargo traffic. In 2023, EIA recorded 2.084 million passengers, marking a 23% increase from the previous year and reflecting its growing role as a regional gateway. Preliminary 2024 figures indicate over 2.1 million passengers, with daily peaks exceeding 4,800 on busy days in early 2025. The airport operates direct flights to 29 destinations, primarily in the (such as , , and ) and (including resumed routes to in June 2025), positioning it as Iraq's only facility with consistent non-stop European connectivity independent of federal aviation constraints. Cargo operations at EIA support regional commerce through dedicated facilities managed by handlers like and Sky Link Aviation, with three agents facilitating shipments. Monthly trade volumes reached about 2,500 tons in 2024, up from prior years, aiding exports and imports amid ongoing economic diversification. Expansion efforts, including a new warehouse completed post-2023 and ongoing capacity upgrades initiated in 2025, aim to accommodate rising demand without reliance on ground-based oil pipelines, which handle bulk hydrocarbon exports separately. Erbil Air Base, adjacent to the civilian , functions as a key installation for forces, particularly in counter-terrorism operations. In 2025, the U.S. announced plans to construct additional helipads to expand capacity, marking the first major base upgrade in years and enhancing operational flexibility for rotary-wing assets. A North Ramp Expansion was awarded in September 2025 to support these enhancements. Amid U.S. troop repositioning from other Iraqi sites by late 2025, Erbil has emerged as a central hub for advising local forces and conducting missions into , sustaining a presence of several hundred personnel focused on support. Post-2017 ISIS territorial defeat, both facilities have prioritized protocols, including reinforced perimeter defenses and -integrated , to mitigate residual threats without broader ground engagements.

Roads and urban connectivity

Erbil's road network integrates regional highways with expansive urban ring roads to support connectivity within and beyond. Highway 2 serves as the primary arterial link to , spanning approximately 350 kilometers southward through and requiring about 4 to 5 hours by car under normal conditions. This route extends northward toward the border via Dohuk, facilitating trade and passenger movement despite occasional security disruptions. Complementary highways, such as the Erbil-Koya corridor, handle substantial volumes, recording up to 49,175 vehicles per 24 hours with 14% heavy vehicle traffic, reflecting rapid and economic activity. Urban connectivity relies on a tiered system, including the 120-meter and 150-meter rings, engineered as wide, multi-lane freeways to manage circumferential flow around the city's core and suburbs. The 150-meter ring, spanning about 70 kilometers with eight lanes, prioritizes high-capacity design for safety and efficiency in handling growing commuter demands. Expansions in the have accelerated under the Regional Government's ninth cabinet, which completed over 2,500 kilometers of new roads region-wide, including interconnections between Erbil's ring roads; a $25 million project initiated in October 2025 specifically bridges the 120-meter and 150-meter rings to streamline access amid rising and suburban development. These feats incorporate grid-pattern planning in outer zones, enveloping residential expansions while mitigating bottlenecks from vehicle proliferation. Public transit remains underdeveloped, with residents predominantly dependent on private automobiles, , shared minivans, and informal ride-hailing due to the absence of a formalized bus or rail network. While over 90 bus routes operate sporadically across Erbil and surrounding areas, they lack integration and reliability, exacerbating congestion on ring and radial roads where densities signal sustained growth tied to influx. Proposed initiatives, such as a 25-kilometer circle line, aim to address this but have not advanced to operational status. Post-2017 earthquake assessments, following the magnitude 7.3 event that damaged regional roads and bridges, have elevated seismic considerations in Erbil's planning, given the city's medium hazard classification. Subsequent projects emphasize durable materials and elevated standards to enhance resilience against Zagros-Taurus seismic activity, though empirical data on retrofitted roads remains limited to general compliance with identified risk parameters.

Utilities and public services

Erbil's electricity infrastructure is primarily managed by the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) through initiatives like the Runaki project, which extended 24-hour power supply to over 1.4 million residents in the city by July 2025, marking the first such uninterrupted service in Iraq. The KRG supplements domestic generation—currently around 4,300 megawatts against a capacity of over 6,700 megawatts—with imports from Turkey, secured via bilateral agreements to stabilize supply amid regional demand pressures. Urban electrification coverage in Erbil exceeds 95%, reflecting near-universal access in populated areas, though rural extensions lag. Water services have encountered persistent challenges from droughts spanning 2022 to , which depleted by up to 500 meters in some Erbil areas and reduced levels to historic lows, exacerbating shortages during peak summer demand. The KRG responded with targeted investments, including an additional two billion Iraqi dinars allocated in June for emergency supplies and the completion of the Qushtapa project in October to deliver clean water to half of Erbil's . Complementary efforts, such as urban drainage upgrades along key roads initiated in October , aim to mitigate flooding and improve distribution resilience. Privatization of utilities, particularly electricity, has seen exploratory steps since 2020, with KRG proposals to transition from state monopolies to competitive models, though full implementation remains stalled amid fiscal constraints and reliance on public projects like Runaki. A July 2025 workshop in Erbil enhanced SDG monitoring capacities for indicators potentially encompassing utilities, supporting data-driven reforms in service provision.

Culture and society

Citadel of Erbil

The Citadel of Erbil occupies a 32-meter-high artificial tell in the heart of Erbil, Iraqi Kurdistan, marking one of the world's oldest continuously inhabited settlements with occupation traces from the late 6th millennium BCE. Archaeological evidence reveals layers of successive civilizations, including Assyrian, Babylonian, and later Islamic periods, built upon early Mesopotamian urbanization foundations spanning over 30 meters of deposits. The site's ovoid shape and fortified structure have endured as a central urban feature, reflecting adaptive settlement patterns amid regional conquests and reconstructions. Designated a on June 21, 2014, exemplifies preserved earthen architecture vulnerable to and urban pressures, prompting international conservation efforts. Preservation initiatives encompass structural assessments to mitigate seismic risks in the tectonically active Zagros zone, incorporating measures such as foundation stabilization and to enhance load-bearing capacity without altering historical fabric. These interventions address documented vulnerabilities, including and degradation observed in geotechnical surveys. The connects seamlessly with the underlying Qaysari Bazaar, a 13th-century covered market at its southern base serving as the primary access point and commercial extension, where vaulted passages link the mound's entrance to traditional trade arcs housing goods like textiles and spices. In October 2025, launched a renewed EU-backed revitalization project, building on prior efforts since 2019 to clear debris, restore roofs, and promote sustainable heritage management. A reopening on August 23, 2025, drew over 3,000 visitors in three hours, underscoring the site's draw amid ongoing restorations.

Other historical sites

The Mudhafaria Minaret, also known as the Choli Minaret, stands as a prominent 12th-century Islamic architectural remnant in , approximately 1 kilometer southwest of central Erbil. Constructed between 1190 and 1232 CE by the Turkoman prince during the Ayyubid era under Saladin's influence, the 36-meter-tall structure features a distinctive seven-faceted octagonal base and spiral design, serving as the sole surviving element of the original Gökböri Mosque complex. Restoration efforts, including a major announced in 2025, aim to preserve its structural integrity amid urban encroachment. The site attracts visitors for its panoramic views and , with accessibility enhanced by surrounding park facilities. In the suburb of , approximately 8 kilometers northwest of downtown Erbil, several ancient Christian sites reflect the region's longstanding Assyrian and Chaldean heritage dating back over a . St. George's Church, the oldest Chaldean Catholic parish in Ankawa, traces its origins to around 816 CE, with surviving elements incorporating later medieval reinforcements, underscoring continuous worship amid successive empires from Byzantine to Ottoman rule. The area also hosts the Patriarchate of the , relocated to Erbil in recent decades but rooted in ancient Nestorian traditions prevalent in the region since the 5th century CE. These sites, embedded in a predominantly Christian enclave that swelled with refugees post-2014 ISIS displacements, offer insights into minority resilience, though physical remnants of pre-modern structures remain limited due to conflicts and . Accessibility is straightforward via local roads, with modest annual visitors drawn to ecclesiastical architecture and cultural museums nearby. Further afield in Erbil Province, Eej Castle exemplifies 19th-century fortifications, erected in the early 1800s by Muhammad Pasha of Rawanduz on a hill overlooking the Rawanduz valley to control trade routes and defend against Persian incursions. Perched at elevation for strategic vantage, the ruins include dilapidated towers and walls, evoking the Soran Emirate's era of semi-autonomy before Ottoman reconquest in 1836. Though remote from urban Erbil, it draws adventure seekers via nearby roads, highlighting Kurdish principality architecture distinct from Mesopotamian urban cores.

Kurdish traditions and festivals

Newroz, the Kurdish New Year observed on March 21 coinciding with the spring equinox, serves as Erbil's foremost annual , marked by communal bonfire lightings, folk dances, and picnics symbolizing renewal and resistance to historical oppression. In Erbil, festivities typically gather thousands around the for fire-jumping rituals and torch-lit processions, though scaled-back in years overlapping , such as 2025 when limited to a modest ceremony. Preparations include regional enhancements for fire celebrations across cities like Erbil. Traditional dances like govend feature prominently in Erbil's Newroz and other cultural events, with participants forming hand-linked circles to beats of drums and flutes, each locality adapting steps to reflect regional identities. ensembles, including those from Erbil's national teams, perform rhythmic pieces accompanying these dances during festivals. Cuisine integral to Erbil's celebrations emphasizes —stuffed , , or filled with , , and spices—served alongside sumac-seasoned lamb or kebabs grilled over open flames. These dishes, prepared communally, underscore family and clan bonds, where extended tribal networks organize festival meals and dances, preserving social cohesion amid post-1991 autonomy. Attire during Erbil festivals revives şal û şepik ensembles, with men donning baggy shalwar trousers, shirts, and vests, while women wear vibrant, embroidered gowns; older residents and event participants maintain this in daily and ceremonial contexts. Annual Traditional Clothing Day on reinforces these practices, promoting jili Kurdi as emblems of heritage. Since regional , such customs have flourished openly, integrating into public life without dilution from external impositions.

Sports and recreation

Erbil Sports Club (), the city's leading professional football team, competes in the Iraqi Premier League and has secured four national titles, including appearances in the AFC Champions League as early as 2008. The club plays home games at Franso Hariri Stadium, a multi-purpose venue with a capacity of 25,000 seats that hosts league matches and draws significant local attendance. Football in Erbil functions as a mechanism for , promoting regional identity and international engagement through hosted matches following FIFA's 2023 relaxation of venue bans on Iraqi stadiums. Notable examples include the 2023 friendly between Iraqi club and Saudi Arabia's Al-Ittihad, played before a large crowd at Franso Hariri Stadium, which underscored Kurdistan's efforts to build diplomatic ties via sports. Youth participation in sports has grown in the 2020s, supported by initiatives like the Real Madrid Foundation's football academy launched in Erbil in August 2025, which trains children aged 6 to 14 using the club's European methodologies to foster skill development and among approximately 200 initial participants. Local facilities, including after-school programs at schools like Cedars International School, emphasize team sports such as soccer and , engaging hundreds of students annually in structured athletic activities.

Security and recent developments

Counter-ISIS operations

In August 2014, forces advanced rapidly toward Erbil after capturing and several northern Iraqi towns, prompting Kurdish units to mount a defense that halted the militants approximately 30 miles from the city. fighters, numbering around 195,000 at the time, recaptured key positions like Makhmour and Gwer, preventing a direct assault on Erbil while suffering initial setbacks due to inadequate heavy weaponry against 's superior equipment seized from Iraqi forces. This stand enabled the U.S.-led coalition to establish an advisory presence in Erbil, launching airstrikes from Erbil International Airport's vicinity starting August 7, 2014, which targeted convoys and positions threatening the city. Peshmerga units integrated into coalition operations liberated surrounding areas, including Sinjar in November 2015 and contributing to the 2016-2017 Mosul offensive, where they secured northern flanks and disrupted ISIS supply lines. Erbil served as a central hub for U.S. Forces, hosting joint intelligence fusion cells that coordinated drone strikes and ground raids against ISIS leadership; from 2014 to 2019, coalition airstrikes from Erbil-based assets accounted for significant degradation of ISIS command structures, with over munitions expended in the campaign. Peshmerga casualties in these efforts totaled approximately 12,000 killed or wounded by 2017, primarily from small-arms fire, IEDs, and artillery, though specific Erbil-proximate losses remain undocumented in aggregate; equipment losses included dozens of U.S.-supplied armored vehicles destroyed by ISIS anti-tank weapons. Post-territorial defeat of in 2017, Erbil's airbase evolved into a key node for countering ISIS remnants through persistent drone and precision strikes, with U.S. forces conducting joint operations that neutralized over 150 ISIS operatives in annually by 2022. ISIS attack frequency on Erbil declined sharply, shifting from ground assaults in 2014 to sporadic drone incursions by 2021-2024, all of which were intercepted; for instance, three ISIS-linked UAVs targeting the base near Erbil were downed in 2024. This reduction correlates with intelligence disruptions, though ISIS claimed 153 attacks across and in early 2024, none succeeding in Erbil. In 2025, amid U.S. drawdowns from central bases like Ain al-Asad, approximately 500-1,000 coalition troops relocated to Erbil and nearby Harir Airbase by September, consolidating advisory roles to sustain training and intelligence-sharing against resurgent cells. These relocations emphasize Erbil's strategic value for over-the-horizon operations, including drone-enabled targeting, as U.S. forces transition from combat to capacity-building amid 's estimated 10,000 fighters in underground networks.

Political tensions and protests

Disputes between the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), headquartered in Erbil, and the Iraqi federal government in Baghdad over budget allocations and oil revenue sharing have persisted from 2022 to 2025, contributing to fiscal delays that strained public finances in the region. In late May 2025, Baghdad's halt of budget transfers to the KRG, including salaries for public employees, escalated these tensions, leading to liquidity shortages and delayed payments that paralyzed local markets and deepened economic hardship. These delays, linked directly to unresolved revenue-sharing disagreements, prompted calls for mass demonstrations across Iraqi Kurdistan, including Erbil, as residents faced monthly salary shortfalls amid rising living costs. In July 2025, Iraq's Federal Supreme Court dismissed lawsuits challenging KRG energy contracts, including those with U.S. firms for oil and gas development valued at around $110 billion, rejecting Baghdad's attempts to centralize control and effectively upholding the deals' validity. This ruling provided partial relief amid the fiscal impasse but did not immediately resolve broader withholding of funds, sustaining public discontent over and economic dependency on federal transfers. Participation in related rallies remained limited compared to earlier waves, with organizers reporting hundreds mobilizing in Erbil for , though widespread unrest was averted through interim KRG financing measures. The November 2024 Iraqi national further intensified political friction, as the omission of an question—despite Kurdish advocacy for its inclusion to capture demographic realities in disputed areas—sparked debates over potential undercounting of the in Erbil and beyond. Kurdish leaders argued that excluding such data could diminish the region's influence in Iraq's sectarian power-sharing , where figures inform resource distribution and parliamentary seats, leading to heightened vigilance and localized protests in Erbil against perceived marginalization. These concerns, rooted in historical exclusions like the 1997 's omission of , underscored causal ties between federal policies and regional instability without alleviating underlying fiscal dependencies.

Urban revitalization projects

initiated a revitalization program for the on October 14, 2025, emphasizing conservation of historical buildings, urban enhancement, and community involvement to sustain . The four-year effort includes restoring key structures within to bolster and local livelihoods. Private investment supports this through KAR Group's $10 million commitment announced on October 15, 2025, targeting reactivation of the site amid post-conflict stabilization needs. EU-funded heritage initiatives complemented these, with a inspecting progress at on September 10, 2025. Healthcare infrastructure advanced with the January 13, 2025, announcement of a new facility at Rizgari Hospital in Erbil, incorporating robotic surgery systems and a specialized heart center for adults and children. Separately, the Erbil National Mental Health Hospital project, privately funded by a local businessman, progressed as of June 28, 2025, featuring over 200 patient rooms built to international standards to address mental health gaps exposed by regional instability. These developments form part of incremental recovery from ISIS-era disruptions, prioritizing essential services over rapid large-scale overhaul, with implementation reliant on sustained funding amid economic constraints.

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